orchids and orchidology in central america. 500 ... - lankesteriana.org
orchids and orchidology in central america. 500 ... - lankesteriana.org
orchids and orchidology in central america. 500 ... - lankesteriana.org
You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles
YUMPU automatically turns print PDFs into web optimized ePapers that Google loves.
LANKESTERIANA 9(1-2): 1-268. 2009.<br />
ORCHIDS AND ORCHIDOLOGY IN CENTRAL AMERICA.<br />
<strong>500</strong> YEARS OF HISTORY *<br />
Carlos ossenbaCh<br />
Centro de Investigación en Orquídeas de los Andes “Ángel Andreetta”,<br />
InTroducTIon<br />
Geographical <strong>and</strong> historical scope of this study.<br />
The history of <strong>orchids</strong> started with the observation <strong>and</strong><br />
study of species as isolated <strong>in</strong>dividuals, sometimes<br />
grouped with<strong>in</strong> political boundaries that are always<br />
artificial. With rare exceptions, words such as<br />
“ecology” or “phytogeography” did not appear <strong>in</strong> the<br />
botanical prose until the early XX century.<br />
Although Humboldt <strong>and</strong> Bonpl<strong>and</strong> (1807), <strong>and</strong><br />
later Oersted, had already engaged <strong>in</strong> the study of<br />
Universidad Alfredo Pérez Guerrero, Ecuador<br />
Orquideario 25 de Mayo, San José, Costa Rica<br />
caossenb@racsa.co.cr<br />
“plant geography”, botanical exploration <strong>in</strong> our region<br />
seldom tried to relate plants with their life zones. The<br />
XIX century <strong>and</strong> the first decades of the XX century<br />
are best def<strong>in</strong>ed by an almost frenetic <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the<br />
identification <strong>and</strong> description of new species, without<br />
bother<strong>in</strong>g too much about their geographical orig<strong>in</strong>.<br />
No importance was given to the distribution of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
with<strong>in</strong> the natural regions <strong>in</strong>to which Central America<br />
is subdivided.<br />
Exceptions to this are found <strong>in</strong> the works by Bateman<br />
(1837-43), Reichenbach (1866) <strong>and</strong> Schlechter (1918),<br />
* The idea for this book was proposed by Dr. Joseph Arditti dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1st. International Conference on Neotropical<br />
Orchidology that was held <strong>in</strong> San José, Costa Rica, <strong>in</strong> May 2003. In its first chapters, this is without doubt a history of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>, relat<strong>in</strong>g the role they played <strong>in</strong> the life of our ancient <strong>in</strong>digenous people <strong>and</strong> later <strong>in</strong> that of the Spanish conquerors,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the ornamental, medic<strong>in</strong>al <strong>and</strong> economical uses they gave to these plants. It is not until the late XVIII century, but<br />
above all <strong>in</strong> the XIX century that we can talk about a history of <strong>orchidology</strong>, with the development of botanical science<br />
<strong>and</strong> the establishment of the bases of modern <strong>orchidology</strong> by L<strong>in</strong>dley. But the XIX century was also the time of legendary<br />
commercial collectors who, frequently with the complicity of men of science, collected with a frenzy often border<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
madness. Orchid knowledge became sometimes a synonym of orchid destruction. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the second half of the XX century<br />
the world developed a grow<strong>in</strong>g conscience of the negative impact of man on his natural habitat <strong>and</strong> I would like to believe<br />
that, <strong>in</strong> the future, <strong>orchidology</strong> will devote itself <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g manner to the study of <strong>orchids</strong> as a means to preserve them.<br />
Motivated by this belief, I decided to write this history, that will be more a story about <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> men than a story about<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> science, hop<strong>in</strong>g that mank<strong>in</strong>d will rediscover the harmonious relation with nature that characterized the life of<br />
the first <strong>in</strong>habitants of our region. The great naturalist Alex<strong>and</strong>er F. Skutch, who chose a life of study <strong>and</strong> contemplation<br />
amidst the forests of southern Costa Rica, expressed it <strong>in</strong> much better words: “Sometimes, before leav<strong>in</strong>g the hilltop, I visit<br />
the old Indian burial ground. Despite promises of golden ornaments, I have never permitted anyone to excavate these graves,<br />
for I believe that we should treat the burials of alien races with the same respect that we desire for our own. Sometimes, <strong>in</strong> a<br />
meditative mood, I ask myself whether, from the moral st<strong>and</strong>po<strong>in</strong>t, my title to this l<strong>and</strong> is as valid as that of the men whose<br />
dust lies beneath the red clay. Perhaps the only answer to this perplex<strong>in</strong>g question is that he most deserves to have the l<strong>and</strong><br />
who makes the best use of it. If my love of the mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> rivers <strong>and</strong> forests is greater than theirs, if these th<strong>in</strong>gs speak<br />
more mean<strong>in</strong>gfully to me <strong>and</strong> I am more keenly appreciative of their beauty; if I strive harder to preserve this natural sett<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> its prist<strong>in</strong>e splendor <strong>and</strong> to conserve the soil’s fertility — then perhaps I can justify my possession of this l<strong>and</strong> that once<br />
belonged to them. If I fall short of the aborig<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> these respects, then I — <strong>and</strong> the whole l<strong>in</strong>e of too-aggressive palefaces<br />
who transmitted to me what was once theirs — are but piratical <strong>in</strong>truders, whose right to this l<strong>and</strong> would be hard to defend.<br />
Enlarg<strong>in</strong>g on this theme, it seems to me that, unless evolution miscarries, the ultimate possessor of the earth will be the race<br />
that most appreciates its gr<strong>and</strong>eur <strong>and</strong> beauty <strong>and</strong> cherishes it most carefully, that rules it as a generous <strong>and</strong> compassionate<br />
lord <strong>in</strong>stead of rap<strong>in</strong>g it like a greedy tyrant, as men have all too commonly done” (Skutch, 1971: 223-224).
2<br />
but above all the monumental account by Godman<br />
<strong>and</strong> Salv<strong>in</strong> on the Central American biology, <strong>in</strong> which<br />
Hemsley wrote the botanical part (Hemsley, 1883).<br />
The enumeration of species <strong>in</strong> this work is followed<br />
by a detailed description of the known localities of<br />
collection from which the phytogeographical regions<br />
of Central America can already be <strong>in</strong>ferred.<br />
In the first chapters, our history centers on Mexico-<br />
Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec empire <strong>and</strong> later of<br />
the Viceroyalty of New Spa<strong>in</strong>. The first descriptions of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> for our area of study (with a medic<strong>in</strong>al rather than<br />
botanical purpose) orig<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> locations that, although<br />
outside of the geographical area with which we are<br />
concerned, were strongly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the ancestral<br />
culture of the Maya <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed a close <strong>in</strong>teraction,<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the centuries preced<strong>in</strong>g the Spanish conquest,<br />
with the rest of Central America. It is no co<strong>in</strong>cidence<br />
that the northern limit of the cultural expansion of the<br />
Mayas overlaps very approximately with what today<br />
is considered the northern limit of Meso<strong>america</strong>: the<br />
Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The southern region of Central<br />
America dur<strong>in</strong>g this period offers only a few references to<br />
the use of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> ritual ceremonies of the <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
cultures of northern Colombia, Panama <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the colonial period <strong>and</strong> especially s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
XVIII century, Guatemala became more <strong>and</strong> more the<br />
political <strong>and</strong> cultural center of the region. Important<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g this period are the works of Friar Francisco<br />
Ximénez <strong>and</strong>, above all, the arrival <strong>in</strong> Guatemala of the<br />
expedition of Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño. After <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />
from Spa<strong>in</strong>, Chiapas was separated from the Capta<strong>in</strong>cy<br />
General of Guatemala. Due to its annexation to<br />
Mexico, the northern border of Guatemala became the<br />
first artificial border <strong>in</strong> northern Central America. The<br />
botanical exploration of southeastern Mexico <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Yucatan pen<strong>in</strong>sula, isolated from Guatemala as well<br />
as from Mexico itself for geographical <strong>and</strong> political<br />
reasons, was delayed until the late XIX century.<br />
The separation of Belize, that had become a British<br />
possession <strong>in</strong> the last third of the XVIII century,<br />
contributed to this problem. Someth<strong>in</strong>g similar<br />
occurred to the south. Panama rema<strong>in</strong>ed as a part of<br />
Colombia <strong>and</strong> its <strong>in</strong>tegration with the rest of Central<br />
America did not beg<strong>in</strong> until the second half of the XIX<br />
century (Fig. 1A—B).<br />
Modern history of botanical exploration <strong>and</strong> of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America, <strong>in</strong>itiated by the botanists<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
of the expedition of Malasp<strong>in</strong>a, cont<strong>in</strong>ued dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
first decades of the XIX century with the exploration<br />
by Cum<strong>in</strong>g of the Pacific coast belt <strong>and</strong> the arrival of<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>in</strong> Guatemala. It ga<strong>in</strong>ed strength at the end of<br />
the first half of the century with the fortunate arrival of<br />
the illustrious trio formed by Oersted, von Warscewicz<br />
<strong>and</strong> Wendl<strong>and</strong>. In the second half of the century,<br />
knowledge about our <strong>orchids</strong> grew <strong>in</strong> an accelerated<br />
form <strong>and</strong> experienced an enormous boom dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
first decades of the XX century. The publications by<br />
Reichenbach (1866) <strong>and</strong> Hemsley (1883), <strong>and</strong> later<br />
Schlechter (1918), opened the eyes of the world to the<br />
richness of orchid diversity <strong>in</strong> Central America.<br />
Their place was taken by St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>and</strong> especially<br />
Ames after World War I. Ames, Hubbard <strong>and</strong><br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth published <strong>in</strong> 1936 a work of great<br />
importance at the generic level, The Genus Epidendrum<br />
<strong>in</strong> the United States <strong>and</strong> Middle America (Ames et<br />
al., 1936), but it was not until the first years of the<br />
second half of the XX century that a new attempt was<br />
made to see the <strong>orchids</strong> of Central America <strong>in</strong> a more<br />
phytogeographical than political context, with the<br />
publication by L. O. Williams of his Enumeration of<br />
the Orchidaceae of Central America, British Honduras<br />
<strong>and</strong> Panama (Williams, 1956), preceded some years<br />
before by The Orchidaceae of Mexico (Williams,<br />
1951). Dur<strong>in</strong>g the last decades of the XX century <strong>and</strong> at<br />
the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the third millennium, the <strong>in</strong>vestigation<br />
of our <strong>orchids</strong> showed an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g emphasis <strong>in</strong> the<br />
study of our natural regions. A higher awareness of the<br />
multiple threats to the conservation of our biodiversity<br />
contributed to generate a grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> study<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> from an ecological <strong>and</strong> phytogeographical<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t of view. An example of this is the publication<br />
of the monumental Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na (Missouri<br />
Botanical Garden, UNAM, Field Museum of Natural<br />
History, <strong>in</strong> press), preceded by works of smaller scale<br />
but no less importance, such as Field Guide to the<br />
Orchids of Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Panama by Dressler (1993)<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Synopsis of the Orchid Flora of the Mexican<br />
Yucatan Pen<strong>in</strong>sula by Carnevali et al. (2001).<br />
Our history has important gaps that cannot be<br />
avoided. Research on our species started <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
with Mociño <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ues there through the present<br />
days. After the travels by Oersted, von Warscewicz <strong>and</strong><br />
Wendl<strong>and</strong>, the orchid floras of Nicaragua, Costa Rica<br />
<strong>and</strong> Panama were brought <strong>in</strong>to the light of day.
In Belize, the Botanical Station was founded <strong>in</strong> 1892<br />
<strong>and</strong> by 1899 there were already reports of 23 orchid<br />
species. However, it is surpris<strong>in</strong>g that for the comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
territories of Honduras <strong>and</strong> El Salvador, Hemsley<br />
(1883) <strong>and</strong> Schlechter (1918) only mention a scarce<br />
dozen species. Knowledge of <strong>orchids</strong> of El Salvador<br />
began with the publication of the Lista prelim<strong>in</strong>ar de<br />
las plantas de El Salvador by St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>and</strong> Calderón<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley & Calderón, 1925) <strong>and</strong> another 50 years had<br />
to pass until the publication of Las Orquídeas de El<br />
Salvador by Hamer (Hamer, 1974—1981). Honduras<br />
is still mostly unknown territory. With the exception of<br />
the few species mentioned by Ames <strong>in</strong> St<strong>and</strong>ley’s Flora<br />
of the Lancetilla Valley (1931) <strong>and</strong> the work of L. O.<br />
Williams (1956), not one s<strong>in</strong>gle work has ever been<br />
published about the <strong>orchids</strong> of this country.<br />
To summarize, the historical scope of this study<br />
covers the years from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of formal botanical<br />
exploration (the arrival of the Malasp<strong>in</strong>a expedition <strong>in</strong><br />
Panama) to the present. It is preceded by two chapters<br />
about <strong>orchids</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g the prehispanic period <strong>and</strong> the<br />
first three centuries of Spanish rule.<br />
The geographical scope corresponds to the<br />
presently accepted concept of Meso<strong>america</strong>, an area<br />
that reaches from the isthmus of Darien, <strong>in</strong> Panama<br />
(<strong>and</strong> that should probably <strong>in</strong>clude the northern regions<br />
of the Colombian departments of Chocó, Córdoba<br />
<strong>and</strong> Antioquía 1 to southeastern Mexico (the states of<br />
Yucatan, Qu<strong>in</strong>tana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco, Chiapas<br />
<strong>and</strong> the eastern regions of the states of Veracruz <strong>and</strong><br />
Oaxaca). The area <strong>in</strong>cludes the Bay <strong>and</strong> Swan Isl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong> Honduras <strong>and</strong> Cocos Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica 2 .<br />
Political history of Central America<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
“Venient annis saecula seris quibus Oceanus, v<strong>in</strong>cula<br />
rerum, laxet et <strong>in</strong>gens pateat telus tethysque novos<br />
detegat Orbes nec sit terris ultima Thule.” (“Years<br />
will come with the pass<strong>in</strong>g of the centuries when the<br />
Ocean, open<strong>in</strong>g its barriers, will let us see a l<strong>and</strong> of<br />
immense extension, a new world that will appear <strong>in</strong><br />
the dom<strong>in</strong>ions of Thethis, <strong>and</strong> no longer shall Thule<br />
be the limit of the Universe”.<br />
Seneca, who was a Spaniard (54 B.C. – 39 A.C.)<br />
“I arrived at Cape Gracias a Dios 3 <strong>and</strong> from there our<br />
Lord gave me prosperous w<strong>in</strong>d <strong>and</strong> current. This was on<br />
September 12” (Masiá, 1971: 247) Columbus described<br />
with these words, <strong>in</strong> the navigation log of his fourth<br />
voyage to America, the discovery of the coast of Central<br />
America, <strong>in</strong> what we call today Honduras. It was the<br />
year of 1502. Columbus cont<strong>in</strong>ued south, touch<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica, <strong>and</strong> arriv<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>ally <strong>in</strong><br />
Veraguas (today Bay of Almirante, <strong>in</strong> Panama). From<br />
there he sailed to Jamaica. In 1504 he returned to Spa<strong>in</strong>,<br />
where he died <strong>in</strong> poverty <strong>in</strong> 1506. Columbus is credited<br />
with the first recorded comment on canopy-adapted<br />
vegetation; he wrote that tropical trees “have a great<br />
variety of branches <strong>and</strong> leaves, all of them grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from a s<strong>in</strong>gle root” (Benz<strong>in</strong>g, 1971: 1). The l<strong>and</strong> that<br />
Columbus had just discovered was <strong>in</strong>habited, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
northern two thirds of Meso<strong>america</strong>, by descendants of<br />
the ancient Mexican civilizations that had disappeared<br />
600 years earlier <strong>and</strong> were now under the <strong>in</strong>fluence of<br />
the Aztec Confederation, with its political center <strong>in</strong><br />
Tenochtitlan, <strong>in</strong> the Valley of Mexico. Liv<strong>in</strong>g together<br />
with dozens of other languages, nahuatl or dialects<br />
derived from it became a l<strong>in</strong>gua franca that facilitated<br />
the cultural <strong>and</strong> commercial exchange between the<br />
nations of the area.The southern third of Meso<strong>america</strong><br />
had been settled by tribes whose culture <strong>and</strong> language<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> the Chibcha civilization of northern South<br />
America (Fig. 1C).<br />
The conquest of Central America began <strong>in</strong> 1508, with<br />
the expedition of Alonso de Ojeda <strong>and</strong> Diego de Nicuesa<br />
to Panama. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the next decades, while Pedrarias<br />
Dávila was governor of the new l<strong>and</strong>, Panama was the<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t of orig<strong>in</strong> for numerous penetrations to the North,<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g which the present territories of Costa Rica <strong>and</strong><br />
Nicaragua were explored <strong>and</strong> conquered. In northern<br />
Meso<strong>america</strong>, Hernán Cortés began his conquest of<br />
Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1519 that culm<strong>in</strong>ated victoriously when<br />
the Aztec Empire surrendered <strong>in</strong> 1521. Emperor<br />
Charles I created, <strong>in</strong> 1535, the first Vicek<strong>in</strong>gdom on<br />
American soil with the name of New Spa<strong>in</strong>. Pedro de<br />
Alvarado, lieutenant of Cortés, attempted from Mexico<br />
the conquest of the present territories of Guatemala,<br />
Honduras <strong>and</strong> El Salvador <strong>in</strong> 1524. The conquest was<br />
1 Quesada, R. (1980, Costa Rica, la frontera sur de Mesoamérica) def<strong>in</strong>es the bas<strong>in</strong> of the Atrato river <strong>in</strong> the Colombian Chocó as<br />
the “southern limit of southern Central America”.<br />
2 The term Meso<strong>america</strong> is a subject of discussion. Attempt<strong>in</strong>g to def<strong>in</strong>e a region composed of countries that present a similar<br />
phytogeographical character <strong>and</strong> that have their orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> a common geological past, the term “Central America” was used until<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
3
4<br />
successfully concluded <strong>in</strong> 1568, with the establishment<br />
of the Capta<strong>in</strong>cy General of Guatemala that <strong>in</strong>cluded<br />
Chiapas, Soconusco, Guatemala, El Salvador, Verapaz,<br />
Honduras, Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the XVI Century, the history of Central<br />
America cannot be separated from that of Mexico.<br />
Beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g with the XVII Century however, although<br />
nom<strong>in</strong>ally dependant on the Vicek<strong>in</strong>gdom of New<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong>, the distance from the capital gave the Capta<strong>in</strong>cy<br />
General of Guatemala more autonomy to establish<br />
relations with the mother country.<br />
In the south, Panama took a different course. After<br />
Vasco Núñez de Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1513 <strong>and</strong> Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire <strong>in</strong> 1533,<br />
Panama became the cross<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t for all communications<br />
between Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> the future Vicek<strong>in</strong>gdom of Peru. The<br />
separation of Panama from the rest of Central America was<br />
consolidated <strong>in</strong> 1717, when Spa<strong>in</strong> established <strong>in</strong> Santa Fe<br />
de Bogotá the Vicek<strong>in</strong>gdom of New Granada, <strong>in</strong>to which<br />
Panama was <strong>in</strong>tegrated. After the defeat of the Inv<strong>in</strong>cible<br />
Armada <strong>in</strong> 1588, Spa<strong>in</strong> consumed herself <strong>in</strong> sterile wars<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st Great Brita<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> France. The grow<strong>in</strong>g British<br />
Empire ga<strong>in</strong>ed commercial advantages <strong>and</strong> set foot <strong>in</strong> the<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Caribbean, <strong>in</strong>vad<strong>in</strong>g Jamaica <strong>in</strong> 1655. In 1673, through<br />
the Treaty of Paris, the Spanish allowed the British to<br />
log <strong>in</strong> a prescribed area of Belize (Miller Carlstroem &<br />
Miller, 2002: 13). The famous buccaneer <strong>and</strong> cartographer<br />
William Dampier alternated his life between logg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
Belize <strong>and</strong> Honduras <strong>and</strong> plunder<strong>in</strong>g the Spanish fleets <strong>in</strong><br />
the Caribbean between 1675 <strong>and</strong> 1688.<br />
France <strong>and</strong> Holl<strong>and</strong> did not stay beh<strong>in</strong>d. From the<br />
Lesser Antilles to the Guyanas, Spa<strong>in</strong> lost slowly the<br />
absolute control it had exercised dur<strong>in</strong>g the XVI Century<br />
over the Caribbean <strong>and</strong> its coasts (Fig. 2A).<br />
The decadence of the Empire cont<strong>in</strong>ued throughout<br />
the XVII Century. Without precious metals to offer to the<br />
crown, the Central American colonies languished under<br />
the Hapsburg k<strong>in</strong>gs Philip III, Philip IV <strong>and</strong> Charles II.<br />
Unable to beget an heir, the last monarch of the Hapsburg<br />
dynasty made his will, <strong>in</strong> 1700, <strong>in</strong> favor of Philip of<br />
Anjou, gr<strong>and</strong>son of Louis XIV, K<strong>in</strong>g of France: with<br />
him, the house of Bourbon arrived at the throne of Spa<strong>in</strong><br />
(García de Cortázar & González Vesga, 1994: 337).<br />
Under Philip V (1700-1746) <strong>and</strong> Fern<strong>and</strong>o VI (1746-<br />
1759), Spa<strong>in</strong> attempted to re<strong>org</strong>anize the Empire. In<br />
the second half of the XVII Century the enlightened<br />
the first years of the XX century. This was the term used by Hemsley (1883) <strong>in</strong> his Biologia Centrali-Americana <strong>and</strong> Schlechter<br />
(1918) <strong>in</strong> his Kritische Aufzählung der bisher aus Zentral-Amerika bekanntgewordenen Orchidaceen. Both used the term <strong>in</strong> a very<br />
broad sense, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> their catalogues the species known from western Panama to the Río Gr<strong>and</strong>e, which marks the border<br />
between Mexico <strong>and</strong> the United States. Williams (1956) comes much closer to the geological <strong>and</strong> phytogeographical reality when<br />
he writes about the Orchidaceae of Central America, British Honduras <strong>and</strong> Panama, add<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> his <strong>in</strong>troduction that southeastern<br />
Mexico (to the isthmus of Tehuantepec) belongs biologically to Central America. Williams is the first to <strong>in</strong>s<strong>in</strong>uate <strong>in</strong> the title of<br />
his work the political <strong>and</strong> historical differences of Panama <strong>and</strong> Belize with respect to the five Central American nations sensu<br />
strictu. In the last decades of the XX century the term “Meso<strong>america</strong>” beg<strong>in</strong>s to ga<strong>in</strong> adepts <strong>in</strong> our region, ma<strong>in</strong>ly through the<br />
publication of the Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na by the Missouri Botanical Garden, as the region that comprises all of Panama through<br />
southeastern Mexico (states of Yucatan, Qu<strong>in</strong>tana Roo, Campeche, Tabasco, Chiapas <strong>and</strong> the eastern part of Veracruz <strong>and</strong> Oaxaca).<br />
The area <strong>in</strong>cludes the Swan <strong>and</strong> Bay Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Honduras <strong>and</strong> Cocos Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica. This def<strong>in</strong>ition is contradictory for various<br />
reasons. The northern limit is def<strong>in</strong>ed by a geological accident, the isthmus of Tehuantepec, an imag<strong>in</strong>ary l<strong>in</strong>e that crosses<br />
the southeastern part of the Mexican states of Veracruz <strong>and</strong> Oaxaca. The southern limit is formed by the border between Panama<br />
<strong>and</strong> Colombia. If we accept the theory that Central America was probably an archipelago without cont<strong>in</strong>ental connection with<br />
either North or South America (follow<strong>in</strong>g Dressler, 1993), then we would accept the northern limit (Tehuantepec) but would<br />
have to establish the southern limit <strong>in</strong> its geological counterpart, the isthmus of Panama. But even the most superficial study<br />
about the distribution of plants <strong>in</strong> the region will show that, <strong>in</strong> phytogeographical terms, many species escape their geological<br />
limits. Therefore, these limits should be extended to the Colombian Chocó <strong>and</strong> northern Ecuador <strong>in</strong> the south <strong>and</strong> to the Mexican<br />
states of Michoacán, Mexico <strong>and</strong> Puebla <strong>in</strong> the north. Quesada (1980) def<strong>in</strong>es the watershed of the Atrato River <strong>in</strong> the Colombian<br />
Chocó as the “southern limit of southern Central America”. To confuse th<strong>in</strong>gs even more, the database of the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden <strong>in</strong>cludes under “Meso<strong>america</strong>n specimens” all plants collected between northern Mexico <strong>and</strong> eastern Panama, return<strong>in</strong>g<br />
curiously to the old def<strong>in</strong>itions of Hemsley <strong>and</strong> Schlechter. To make matters worse, J<strong>org</strong>e León (pers. com., 2003) is right <strong>in</strong> stat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that Meso<strong>america</strong> is not a geographical but a cultural term, that comprises the areas that <strong>in</strong> pre-Columbian times were under<br />
the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the ancient Maya civilization <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>and</strong> Yucatan, as well as those that were dom<strong>in</strong>ated (centuries later)<br />
by those cultures that had their center of power <strong>in</strong> Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Those territories had their northern limit <strong>in</strong> the present<br />
Mexican states of S<strong>in</strong>aloa, Zacatecas, San Luis Potosi, Nuevo Leon <strong>and</strong> Tamaulipas <strong>and</strong> their southern limit <strong>in</strong> northwestern Costa<br />
Rica. Excluded from the term “Meso<strong>america</strong>” <strong>in</strong> a cultural sense are the totality of Panama, most of Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> the Atlantic<br />
coast of Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Honduras: territories that were under the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the Chibcha cultures of northern South America.<br />
3 Gracias a Dios, <strong>in</strong> English “Thanks to God”. Columbus gave this name to the cape after he had sailed over 70 days aga<strong>in</strong>st a terrible storm.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
Figure 1. A — Map of the Pacific Coast of Central America <strong>and</strong> South Western Mexico. From Malasp<strong>in</strong>a, 1990: 240.<br />
b — Map of the northern South American Pacific Coast <strong>and</strong> of Panama. From Malasp<strong>in</strong>a, 1990: 240. C — Map of Central<br />
America show<strong>in</strong>g the limits of the ancient Meso<strong>america</strong>ncultures. In Carmack et al., 1996: 30.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
5
6<br />
A<br />
B<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 2. A – Map of Central America <strong>and</strong> the Caribbean (1675). In Dampier, 1998: 23. b – Political map of Central<br />
America. Magellan Geographix, 1992, Santa Barbara, California.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
despotism penetrated the social sectors close to the<br />
crown. When Charles III became k<strong>in</strong>g (1759), the<br />
ideas of the Enlightenment ga<strong>in</strong>ed force, pretend<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
re<strong>org</strong>anize the Spanish society on the foundations of<br />
utility, prosperity <strong>and</strong> happ<strong>in</strong>ess (García de Cortázar &<br />
González Vesga, 1994: 370).<br />
These new ideas, <strong>and</strong> the crumbl<strong>in</strong>g of the Spanish<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istrative apparatus under French occupation at the<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the XIX century, opened the way to the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependence of the American colonies. On September<br />
15, 1821, the Capta<strong>in</strong>cy General of Guatemala declared<br />
its <strong>in</strong>dependence from Spa<strong>in</strong>, followed by Panama on<br />
November 28 of the same year. While Panama rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
united to Colombia, the rest of Central America became<br />
part of the short lived Mexican Empire of Agustín de<br />
Iturbide. In 1823, the United Prov<strong>in</strong>ces of the Center<br />
of America were born. The Federation dissolved <strong>in</strong><br />
1838, giv<strong>in</strong>g way to the present republics of Guatemala,<br />
Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica. Only<br />
Chiapas, historically part of the Capta<strong>in</strong>cy of Guatemala,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed its union with Mexico.<br />
The discovery of gold <strong>in</strong> California <strong>in</strong> 1848 brought<br />
thous<strong>and</strong>s of adventurers who used the routes of the<br />
Isthmus of Panama <strong>and</strong> the San Juan River <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua<br />
as the shortest way between Atlantic <strong>and</strong> Pacific. An<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the region woke up that led William Walker,<br />
with the support of pro-slavery North Americans, to<br />
take possession of Nicaragua, threaten<strong>in</strong>g to exp<strong>and</strong> his<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ions to the rest of Central America. Follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
several military campaigns, Walker was f<strong>in</strong>ally defeated<br />
<strong>and</strong> executed <strong>in</strong> Honduras, <strong>in</strong> 1860.<br />
In 1903, North American <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> the construction<br />
of an <strong>in</strong>teroceanic canal led, on November 3, to the<br />
separation of Panama from Colombia. While U.S. naval<br />
forces prevented the Colombian army from <strong>in</strong>terven<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
the United States recognized the new republic officially<br />
on the 13 of the same month. Five days later, the Hay-<br />
Bunau Varilla Treaty was signed, <strong>in</strong> which Panama<br />
ceded the strip of its territory through which the future<br />
canal was to be built, <strong>in</strong> perpetuity to the United States.<br />
In Belize, the battle of Sa<strong>in</strong>t Ge<strong>org</strong>e’s Caye, <strong>in</strong> 1798,<br />
marked the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of full British control, although the<br />
territory did not become a colony of the crown until 1871,<br />
under the name of British Honduras. In 1973 it changed<br />
its name to Belize, <strong>and</strong> despite the protests of Guatemala,<br />
who claimed it as part of its territory, on September 21,<br />
1981, Belize officially became an <strong>in</strong>dependent nation,<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
but it rema<strong>in</strong>s a member of the British Commonwealth<br />
(Miller Carlstroem & Miller, 2002: 14).<br />
After almost <strong>500</strong> years, Central America had f<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
reached its present political configuration (Fig. 2B).<br />
Central America: biodiversity <strong>and</strong> phytogeography<br />
“The world is so large <strong>and</strong> beautiful, <strong>and</strong> has<br />
such a diversity of th<strong>in</strong>gs so different one from<br />
the other, that it br<strong>in</strong>gs admiration to all who<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k <strong>and</strong> contemplate it well”.<br />
(Francisco López de Gómara, 1982)<br />
Few regions <strong>in</strong> the world can compete with Central<br />
America <strong>in</strong> floristic diversity. This diversity can only<br />
be understood through the study of its phytogeography.<br />
The great number of microclimates <strong>in</strong> a territory of<br />
barely 650.000 square kilometers (slightly more than<br />
the area of Spa<strong>in</strong>), has produced, <strong>in</strong> the case of the<br />
Orchidaceae, almost 3,000 different species <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Central American area, approximately one tenth of all<br />
species known worldwide. Ossenbach et al., (2007),<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicate a total of 2,670 species for the region.<br />
The Panama l<strong>and</strong> bridge -here considered to be the<br />
Isthmus of Panama <strong>and</strong> all the l<strong>and</strong> northward to the<br />
Isthmus of Tehuantepec <strong>in</strong> the Republic of Mexico- is<br />
one of the most <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> challeng<strong>in</strong>g parts of<br />
this planet to study with regard to questions of past <strong>and</strong><br />
present biogeography. This is the only extant l<strong>and</strong> bridge<br />
of biogeographical significance, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> past geological<br />
times its importance as a passageway for flora <strong>and</strong> fauna<br />
between cont<strong>in</strong>ents may have been equaled only by the<br />
Ber<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>and</strong> bridge (D’Arcy & Correa, 1985: 117).<br />
Friar Bartolomé de las Casas <strong>in</strong> his General History of<br />
the Indies (chapter XLII) makes reference to Columbus’s<br />
astonishment when first see<strong>in</strong>g the trees loaded with<br />
epiphytes: “He saw there many trees, very different from<br />
those <strong>in</strong> Castilla, <strong>and</strong> they had the branches <strong>in</strong> many<br />
different manners, <strong>and</strong> all from one trunk or one stem,<br />
<strong>and</strong> one branchlet <strong>in</strong> one form <strong>and</strong> the next <strong>in</strong> other, so<br />
that it was the greatest marvel of the world, such was<br />
the diversity from one to the other, <strong>and</strong> those were not<br />
grafted, because the Indians did not cure them ...” (cited<br />
<strong>in</strong> Masiá, 1971: 223).<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>er von Humboldt was a pioneer when he<br />
wrote, <strong>in</strong> 1807, about the relationship between climate <strong>and</strong><br />
vegetation. For this he has been called, with justice, the<br />
“Father of Plant Geography”. Richard B. H<strong>in</strong>ds, surgeon<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
7
8<br />
on board of H.M.S Sulphur, who explored the Pacific<br />
coast of Central America between 1836 <strong>and</strong> 1842, wrote<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1843 about The regions of vegetation (H<strong>in</strong>ds, 1843,<br />
cited <strong>in</strong> Jörgensen, 2003: 5). Schlechter cites Galeotti,<br />
who <strong>in</strong> 1844, divided the climatic zones <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>in</strong><br />
“warm regions”, “temperate regions”, “temperate regions<br />
rich <strong>in</strong> Cactaceae” <strong>and</strong> “cold regions” (Schlechter, 1918:<br />
332). Somewhat later, Anders S. Oersted, who visited<br />
Central America <strong>and</strong> the Caribbean about the middle of<br />
the XIX Century, illustrated the vegetational zones of a<br />
tropical isl<strong>and</strong> tak<strong>in</strong>g Jamaica as an example (Fig. 3A).<br />
The phytogeography of Central America <strong>in</strong> general<br />
has been considered by Grisebach, <strong>in</strong> 1884, based on<br />
a few personal <strong>and</strong> a lot of foreign observations, <strong>in</strong> his<br />
work Vegetation der Erde. Andreas Schimper published<br />
his classic Plant geography upon a physiological basis<br />
(Schimper, 1898). Richer <strong>in</strong> regional <strong>in</strong>formation than<br />
the phytogeography of Grisebach (1872), Schimper’s<br />
book divides the region from Mexico to Colombia <strong>in</strong>to<br />
monsoon ra<strong>in</strong> forests, th<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> monsoon forests, <strong>and</strong><br />
xerophilic vegetation (woodl<strong>and</strong> savannas) (Gómez,<br />
1986: 13). The progress <strong>in</strong> phytogeographical knowledge<br />
<strong>in</strong> the XX Century is described by G. S. Hartshorn who,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the case of Costa Rica 4 says: “The first essays for<br />
the description of the phytogeography of Costa Rica<br />
highlight a few floristic regions, based ma<strong>in</strong>ly on altitude.<br />
Pittier recognizes three altitud<strong>in</strong>al b<strong>and</strong>s: (1) a basal<br />
zone from sea level to 1,000 m, with a mean temperature<br />
between 28º <strong>and</strong> 21º C; (2) a montane or <strong>in</strong>termediate<br />
zone from 1,000 m to 2,600 m with a mean temperature<br />
between 21º <strong>and</strong> 14º C; <strong>and</strong> (3) a superior or And<strong>in</strong>e zone<br />
above 2,600 m with mean annual temperatures between<br />
15º <strong>and</strong> 5º C” (Hartshorn, cited <strong>in</strong> Janzen, 1991: 120).<br />
In a very comprehensive essay about the phytogeographical<br />
regions of Costa Rica, Wercklé described four<br />
regions: (1) the Atlantic or Caribbean region from sea<br />
level to 800 m; (2) The Pacific region, from sea level<br />
to 800 m; (3) the temperate region from 800 to 1,<strong>500</strong><br />
m; (4) the cold region above 1,<strong>500</strong> m. (Wercklé, 1909).<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley followed the phytogeographical divisions<br />
of Wercklé, but affirmed that the cold region had to<br />
be subdivided <strong>in</strong>to a low <strong>and</strong> a high b<strong>and</strong>. In addition,<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley was the first to po<strong>in</strong>t to the difficulty consist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> assign<strong>in</strong>g one s<strong>in</strong>gle altitud<strong>in</strong>al limit to a particular<br />
type of vegetation (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1937-38).<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Some decades later, L. R. Holdridge, who lived for<br />
long years <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, proposed <strong>in</strong> 1947 his system of<br />
“Life Zones” (Fig. 3B) <strong>in</strong> which he assigned a primary<br />
importance to temperature <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>fall <strong>and</strong> considered the<br />
fluctuation <strong>and</strong> distribution of these climatic parameters<br />
as the ma<strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong>ants of the vegetation of the world.<br />
The vegetation of each life zone has a physiognomy <strong>and</strong><br />
a particular structure that are present every time that<br />
similar bioclimatic conditions occur (Holdridge, 1947).<br />
To describe <strong>and</strong> illustrate <strong>in</strong> a simple manner the<br />
Central American phytogeographical regions, we follow<br />
Smith <strong>and</strong> Johnston (1945: 11) who, oversimplify<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
def<strong>in</strong>e for the region three basic zones: (1) the tropical or<br />
subtropical ra<strong>in</strong>forest; (2) the tropical deciduous forest;<br />
y (3) the montane zone (Fig. 3C).<br />
Tropical or subtropical ra<strong>in</strong>forest: this zone extends<br />
along the Atlantic coast, from Panama <strong>in</strong> the South<br />
to the Yucatán pen<strong>in</strong>sula <strong>in</strong> the North, although we<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d similar forests <strong>in</strong> some po<strong>in</strong>ts of the Pacific coast<br />
(Darién <strong>in</strong> Panama, Osa pen<strong>in</strong>sula <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica). It<br />
corresponds to the “tierra caliente Atlántica” (= Atlantic<br />
warm region) of St<strong>and</strong>ley. The vegetation is determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by high temperatures <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>fall <strong>and</strong> alluvial soils. On<br />
its western limits, the ra<strong>in</strong>forest ascends the mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
sides until it merges with the premontane forest. A<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> monotony <strong>in</strong> the climatic conditions along the<br />
year may be the cause for a relatively low biodiversity.<br />
In Central America we f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> this zone approximately<br />
25% of all orchid species that are known for the region.<br />
However, all generalizations are dangerous. As Smith<br />
<strong>and</strong> Johnston warn, it is not to be assumed that the<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>-forests thus outl<strong>in</strong>ed are uniform <strong>in</strong> constitution.<br />
On the contrary, they disclose a high degree of local<br />
differentiation, be<strong>in</strong>g grouped together only because of<br />
a superficial resemblance <strong>and</strong> because they are acted<br />
upon by more or less similar climatic forces (Smith &<br />
Johnston, 1945: 14). This is equally valid for all other<br />
phytogeographical zones.<br />
Tropical deciduous forest: for Central America,<br />
this zone extends along the Pacific coastl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> is<br />
characteristic because of its two well differentiated<br />
seasons. It corresponds to the “tierra caliente Pacífica”<br />
(= Pacific warm region) of St<strong>and</strong>ley. The appearance<br />
of the vegetation undergoes strik<strong>in</strong>g changes dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the year. It is the zone where the variety of <strong>orchids</strong> is<br />
4 Although each of the countries <strong>in</strong> the region shows phytogeographical differences, it is valid to generalize for Meso<strong>america</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Costa Rica as a model.
A<br />
B<br />
C<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 3. A — Illustration by Oersted (1857) of the vegetational zones <strong>in</strong> Jamaica. In Verdoorn, 1945, p. xiv. B — “Life<br />
Zones” of L. R Holdridge. In Hall & Pérez Brignoli, 2001: 23. C — Phytogeographical regions of Central America after<br />
Smith & Johnston, 1945: 12.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
9
10<br />
smallest, with only about 15% of all species, those that<br />
have evolved to support periods of drought that can last<br />
up to eight months.<br />
Montane zone: this zone is formed by the mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
ranges that cross Central America from Northwest to<br />
Southeast, form<strong>in</strong>g the backbone of the subcont<strong>in</strong>ent.<br />
It corresponds to St<strong>and</strong>ley’s “tierra templada” (=<br />
temperate region) <strong>and</strong> “tierra fría” (= cold region). Well<br />
developed temperate forests, characterized by oak <strong>and</strong><br />
p<strong>in</strong>e, are found <strong>in</strong> the <strong>central</strong> highl<strong>and</strong>s of Guatemala<br />
<strong>and</strong> Honduras <strong>and</strong> south to northern Nicaragua. Many<br />
elements <strong>in</strong> the temperate flora of southern Mexico<br />
<strong>and</strong> Central America appear to have migrated from<br />
northern centers. South of Nicaragua the temperate flora<br />
appears to have more aff<strong>in</strong>ity with that of the northern<br />
Andes <strong>in</strong> South America (Smith & Johnston, 1945:<br />
17). Schlechter places the limit between the And<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>and</strong> the North-American <strong>in</strong>fluence zones <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
(Schlechter, 1918: 332). Sapper, however, affirms that:<br />
“Although this forest <strong>in</strong> its general character, with its<br />
diverse gigantic <strong>and</strong> luxuriant trees, its rich variety of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> … rem<strong>in</strong>ded me completely of the similar <strong>and</strong><br />
humid forests of Guatemala, Honduras <strong>and</strong> Nicaragua,<br />
it produced however a strange impression, because these<br />
species of plants are generally different from those of<br />
my adoptive motherl<strong>and</strong>, Guatemala, s<strong>in</strong>ce the region of<br />
the South American flora beg<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica” (Sapper,<br />
1902: 83). The biodiversity <strong>in</strong> the temperate regions,<br />
especially <strong>in</strong> what is commonly known as “ra<strong>in</strong>forest”,<br />
is amaz<strong>in</strong>g. 60% or more of all orchid species known <strong>in</strong><br />
Meso<strong>america</strong> are found at elevations of over 900 m. In<br />
an example that is not exceptional, Pupul<strong>in</strong> et al. counted<br />
39 species <strong>and</strong> 504 <strong>in</strong>dividuals of Orchidaceae <strong>in</strong> one<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle tree at San Ramón Forest Reserve, Costa Rica, at<br />
1,350 m above sea level (Pupul<strong>in</strong> et al., 1995: 49).<br />
The “páramos” (= high, bare <strong>and</strong> cold regions of<br />
tropical South America) <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica deserve special<br />
mention. Although almost no <strong>orchids</strong> are found <strong>in</strong> this<br />
region, they represent the northern limit of the And<strong>in</strong>e<br />
‘páramo’, today restricted to the highest peaks of the<br />
Cordillera de Talamanca. Their peculiar vegetation can<br />
not be found elsewhere <strong>in</strong> Central America.<br />
The importance of phytogeographical differentiation<br />
<strong>and</strong> its relation to biodiversity is clear. If we compare<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
the totals of species of Orchidaceae <strong>in</strong> each of the<br />
Central American countries, <strong>and</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g St<strong>and</strong>ley’s<br />
term<strong>in</strong>ology, we will f<strong>in</strong>d that Costa Rica, Panama<br />
<strong>and</strong> Guatemala, where the “tierra templada” is larger<br />
<strong>in</strong> proportion to the total area of the national territory,<br />
have the highest numbers of species. Belize, Honduras<br />
<strong>and</strong> Nicaragua follow, with a larger proportion of<br />
“tierra caliente Atlántica” <strong>and</strong> total numbers of species<br />
that are significantly lower. El Salvador, f<strong>in</strong>ally, has the<br />
smallest number of species <strong>and</strong> this corresponds with<br />
the largest proportion of “tierra caliente Pacífica”.<br />
orchIds In The prehIspanIc perIod<br />
“Then they ordered the Creation <strong>and</strong> the growth<br />
of the trees <strong>and</strong> v<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> the birth of life <strong>and</strong> the<br />
creation of man”.<br />
Popol Vuh, XVI Century 5<br />
The area of <strong>in</strong>fluence of the Chibcha culture. The<br />
Chibcha culture extended its <strong>in</strong>fluence from Colombia<br />
to the North, reach<strong>in</strong>g Panama, Costa Rica (with the<br />
exception of the Nicoya pen<strong>in</strong>sula) <strong>and</strong> part of the<br />
eastern coast of Nicaragua (the Coast of the Miskitos)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Honduras. There are no written documents that<br />
could expla<strong>in</strong> the relations of the <strong>in</strong>digenous population<br />
of southern Central America with nature <strong>in</strong> prehispanic<br />
times. However, archaeology has discovered what could<br />
be the first representations of <strong>orchids</strong> before Columbus.<br />
Pieces of golden jewelry, dat<strong>in</strong>g probably from the VIII<br />
Century (A. C.), <strong>and</strong> found <strong>in</strong> the valley of El General,<br />
Costa Rica, that are popularly known as eagles or<br />
vultures, show a surpris<strong>in</strong>g resemblance to the labellum<br />
of Oncidium cebolleta (Jacq.) Sw. Costa Rican naturalist<br />
Anastasio Alfaro (1865-1951) was the first to observe<br />
this likeness. While describ<strong>in</strong>g Oncidium cebolleta,<br />
Alfaro says: “… the sepals <strong>and</strong> petals are spotted with<br />
brown <strong>and</strong> are so small that two of them hide beh<strong>in</strong>d the<br />
labellum; this resembles a small eagle cast <strong>in</strong> gold, of<br />
sixteen millimeters, pure yellow with the crown spotted<br />
red-brown.” (Alfaro, 1935: 19) ( Fig. 4A).<br />
Atwood <strong>and</strong> Mora de Retana confirm Alfaro’s<br />
observation: “In the Museo Nacional <strong>and</strong> Gold Museum<br />
at San José are exhibited numerous gold artifacts<br />
labeled as águilas (eagles) <strong>and</strong> zopilotes (vultures),<br />
5 The Popol Vuh, or ‘Book of the Community’ of the Mayans, was written <strong>in</strong> the language of the Quiché shortly after the Spanish<br />
conquest, with the help of the Lat<strong>in</strong> alphabet, <strong>and</strong> translated <strong>in</strong>to Spanish <strong>in</strong> the first years of the XVIII Century by friar Francisco<br />
Ximénez (1666-1729).
ut we believe that they resemble the animated lips of<br />
Oncidium cebolleta. The general shape is consistent<br />
with this orchid, <strong>and</strong> the use of gold seems appropriate.<br />
More conv<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>gly, some of the artifacts are life-size<br />
<strong>and</strong> others display what can be <strong>in</strong>terpreted as the typical<br />
callus of the orchid animated as the belly <strong>and</strong> claws<br />
of a bird.” And they cont<strong>in</strong>ue: “Oncidium cebolleta is<br />
known to have been used by pre-Columbian Americans<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mexico, perhaps as a halluc<strong>in</strong>ogenic drug. In view of<br />
these observations, we believe that the significance of<br />
the gold artifacts needs to be reconsidered” (Atwood &<br />
Mora de Retana, 1992: text to plate 1467) (Fig. 4B). And<br />
Lawler confirms: “Oncidium cebolleta (Jacq.) Sw.: The<br />
alkaloid-conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g orchid is an important replacement<br />
for peyote among the Taraumaras of México <strong>and</strong> may be<br />
halluc<strong>in</strong>ogenic”.<br />
The Bribrí Indians from Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Panama call<br />
this species sulër kili (“symbol of the spear”) <strong>and</strong> use it<br />
as a medic<strong>in</strong>e aga<strong>in</strong>st heartache. “They cut the plant <strong>in</strong><br />
little pieces, then crush it <strong>and</strong> seeth it; let it cool. Adults<br />
must dr<strong>in</strong>k half a glass <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>fants one spoonful,<br />
three times a day” (García Segura, 1994: 52). In the<br />
language of the Cabecar, it is called suLègLi <strong>and</strong> they<br />
say it cures colics. “You crush three stems, put them <strong>in</strong><br />
cold water <strong>and</strong> dr<strong>in</strong>k the juice, without heat<strong>in</strong>g it. You<br />
must dr<strong>in</strong>k it every now <strong>and</strong> then, until your stomach<br />
feels better” (Palmer, 1992: 104). From the fact that<br />
the pre-Columbian goldsmiths represented precisely<br />
this orchid can be <strong>in</strong>ferred that they gave it a special,<br />
possibly sacred value. Oncidium cebolleta, a species<br />
that is found from Mexico to northern South America,<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>s alkaloids with halluc<strong>in</strong>ogenic properties, <strong>and</strong><br />
my conclusion is that this orchid played an important<br />
part <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous rituals.<br />
Hern<strong>and</strong>o Colón, <strong>in</strong> the account of his father’s fourth<br />
voyage, written <strong>in</strong> 1521, describes the <strong>in</strong>terchange<br />
between the Indians of Cariay (today Port Limón,<br />
Costa Rica) <strong>and</strong> the Spaniards: “See<strong>in</strong>g that we were<br />
men of peace, they showed great desire to obta<strong>in</strong><br />
th<strong>in</strong>gs from us <strong>in</strong> exchange for their own, which were<br />
arms, cotton blankets <strong>and</strong> shirts, <strong>and</strong> small eagles of<br />
guan<strong>in</strong>es 6 which they carried hang<strong>in</strong>g from their necks,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the same way we carry the Agnus Dei or any other<br />
relic” (Incer, 1990: 46). From the account of Hern<strong>and</strong>o<br />
Colón we may deduct aga<strong>in</strong> the religious importance<br />
of the eagles <strong>in</strong> the culture of those Indians.<br />
6 Guan<strong>in</strong>es: gold of low f<strong>in</strong>eness alloyed with copper.<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
We have <strong>in</strong>formation from another culture, close<br />
to that of the Chibchas that utilized halluc<strong>in</strong>ogenic<br />
fungi that seems to confirm this theory: “The S<strong>in</strong>ú<br />
culture of Colombia (from 1200 to 1600) has yielded<br />
many enigmatic gold pectorals with mushroom-like<br />
representations. They may imply the existence of a cult<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g these <strong>in</strong>toxicat<strong>in</strong>g fungi… Many of the pectorals<br />
have w<strong>in</strong>glike structures, possibly signify<strong>in</strong>g magic<br />
flight, a frequent characteristic of halluc<strong>in</strong>ogenic<br />
<strong>in</strong>toxication” (Schultes et al., 1992: 65). In the Darién,<br />
the border region between Panama <strong>and</strong> Colombia,<br />
the Choco Indians still mix the flowers of Cycnoches<br />
tonduzii Schltr. with genipab (= Genipa <strong>america</strong>na<br />
L., from the Rubiaceae) <strong>and</strong> rub the mixture on their<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s to br<strong>in</strong>g luck to the fishermen (Duke, 1956:<br />
194). F<strong>in</strong>ally, Donald Beaton, gardener of Sir William<br />
Middleton, quotes Ge<strong>org</strong>e U. Sk<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>in</strong> a letter to<br />
John L<strong>in</strong>dley (April 24, 1841): “Laelia superbiens ... is<br />
one of the few plants whose magnificent flowers attract<br />
the notice of the Indians of Panama; they carry it about<br />
with them, <strong>and</strong> plant it before their doors...”.<br />
The northern region of Central America before the<br />
Spanish conquest<br />
“Zan tlaocolxochitl, tlaocolcuicatl on mani<br />
Mexico nican ha <strong>in</strong> Tlatilolco, <strong>in</strong> yece ye oncan on<br />
neiximachoyan, ohuaya.”<br />
(“Only sad flowers, sad songs, are here <strong>in</strong> Mexico, <strong>in</strong><br />
Tlatilolco, <strong>in</strong> this place these alone are known, alas”<br />
<strong>in</strong> Br<strong>in</strong>ton, 1890: 82-83)<br />
The zeal of the Catholic Church <strong>in</strong> its efforts to<br />
christianize the <strong>in</strong>digenous populations led to the<br />
destruction of hundreds of documents that could<br />
have thrown light on many unknown aspects of the<br />
prehispanic history <strong>and</strong> culture of these people. One<br />
of the saddest episodes occurred <strong>in</strong> the village of Mani<br />
(Yucatan) <strong>in</strong> 1562, when the <strong>in</strong>famous Franciscan<br />
Diego de L<strong>and</strong>a (1524-1579) presided over an Auto<br />
de Fe <strong>in</strong> which he caused to be burned some 5,000<br />
idols <strong>and</strong> 27 rolls of Maya codices, which he could<br />
not read <strong>and</strong> described as “work of the devil”. “We<br />
found a great number of books... <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce they<br />
only conta<strong>in</strong>ed superstitions <strong>and</strong> perfidies of the<br />
devil, we burned them all...” (L<strong>and</strong>a, 1978). Eduardo<br />
Galeano remembers the moment <strong>in</strong> a dramatic way:<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
11
12<br />
“Fray Diego de L<strong>and</strong>a throws <strong>in</strong>to the flame, one<br />
after the other, the books of the Mayans. The <strong>in</strong>quisitor<br />
curses Satan, <strong>and</strong> the fire crackles <strong>and</strong> devours. Around<br />
the <strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>erator, heretics howl with their heads down.<br />
Hung by their feet, flayed with whips, Indians are doused<br />
with boil<strong>in</strong>g wax as the fire flares <strong>and</strong> the books snap,<br />
as if compla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Tonight, eight centuries of Mayan<br />
literature turn to ashes. On these long sheets of bark<br />
paper, signs <strong>and</strong> images spoke: they told of work done<br />
<strong>and</strong> days spent, of the dreams <strong>and</strong> wars of a people born<br />
before Christ... In the center, the <strong>in</strong>quisitor burns the<br />
books. Around the huge bonfire, he chastises the readers.<br />
Meanwhile, the authors, artist-priests dead years or<br />
centuries ago, dr<strong>in</strong>k chocolate <strong>in</strong> the fresh shade of the<br />
first tree of the world. They are at peace, because they<br />
died know<strong>in</strong>g that memory cannot be burned. Will not<br />
what they pa<strong>in</strong>ted be sung <strong>and</strong> danced through the times<br />
of the times?” (Galeano, 1985: 137) (Fig. 4C).<br />
After most of the Mayan manuscripts were lost, our<br />
rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sources of <strong>in</strong>formation about the knowledge<br />
<strong>and</strong> use of <strong>orchids</strong> by the <strong>in</strong>habitants of prehispanic<br />
northern Central America come to us from the Aztec<br />
world, whose center of power, Tenochtitlan, lies outside<br />
of the geographic area of our present study. However,<br />
several arguments speak <strong>in</strong> favor of establish<strong>in</strong>g a valid<br />
relationship between the <strong>in</strong>formation that we have from<br />
the Aztec world <strong>and</strong> the knowledge that the peoples<br />
from other parts of Central America had about <strong>orchids</strong>:<br />
a) Aztec knowledge about <strong>orchids</strong> had been<br />
transmitted to them by the preced<strong>in</strong>g civilizations,<br />
especially the Maya. The fact that most species of<br />
Orchidaceae known <strong>and</strong> used by the Aztecs are<br />
found <strong>in</strong> areas that, until today, still show strong<br />
evidence of the ancient Maya culture gives strength<br />
to this argument. The follow<strong>in</strong>g is the geographical<br />
distribution <strong>in</strong> the ancient Maya regions of some of<br />
the species known by the Aztecs:<br />
• Arpophyllum spicatum La Llave & Lex.: Veracruz,<br />
Oaxaca, Chiapas, Guatemala<br />
• Artorima erubescens (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Dressler & Pollard:<br />
Oaxaca<br />
• Bletia campanulata La Llave & Lex.: Oaxaca,<br />
Guatemala<br />
• Catasetum <strong>in</strong>tegerrimum Hooker: Veracruz,<br />
Campeche, Chiapas, Guatemala<br />
• Euchile citr<strong>in</strong>a (La Llave & Lex.) Withner:<br />
Veracruz, Oaxaca<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
• Encyclia pastoris (La Llave & Lex.) Schltr.:<br />
Veracruz, Oaxaca<br />
• Govenia liliacea (La Llave & Lex.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.:<br />
Chiapas, Guatemala<br />
• Govenia superba (La Llave & Lex.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.:<br />
Veracruz, Guatemala<br />
• Laelia anceps L<strong>in</strong>dl.: Veracruz, Oaxaca,<br />
Guatemala<br />
• Laelia autumnalis L<strong>in</strong>dl.: Oaxaca<br />
• Laelia speciosa (Kunth) Schltr.: Veracruz, Oaxaca<br />
• Myrmecophila tibic<strong>in</strong>is (Batem.) Rolfe: Yucatán,<br />
Qu<strong>in</strong>tana Roo, Guatemala<br />
• Vanilla planifolia Andrews: Veracruz, Oaxaca,<br />
Yucatán, Qu<strong>in</strong>tana Roo, Guatemala<br />
b) The Mexican tribes extended their cultural <strong>and</strong><br />
economical <strong>in</strong>fluence to regions as distant from<br />
its political center as the Lake of Nicaragua or the<br />
Nicoya Pen<strong>in</strong>sula <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, long before the<br />
arrival of the Spanish conquerors. In his account of<br />
the archaeological explorations of Carl Bovallius on<br />
an isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Lake of Nicaragua <strong>in</strong> 1882, L<strong>in</strong>né<br />
comments: “The Mexican colony that has been<br />
found <strong>in</strong> the neighborhood left few traces, but the<br />
strangers who came from so far enriched the art of<br />
these regions with the Feathered Serpent <strong>and</strong> other<br />
demons” (L<strong>in</strong>né, S., 1960: 126). Dr. A. Chapman<br />
comments that the long distance trade of these<br />
merchants [the Aztecs] had the Mayans as ma<strong>in</strong><br />
partners, but that they traveled as far as the border<br />
between Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Panama (Chapman, 1959).<br />
Braswell gives numerous examples to demonstrate<br />
the <strong>in</strong>teraction between the Mayans of the classical<br />
period <strong>and</strong> the Mexican cultures before the Aztecs<br />
(Braswell, 2003). Coe affirms that elements of<br />
the Maya culture had penetrated to the center of<br />
Mexico dur<strong>in</strong>g the turbulent times at the end of the<br />
classical period (Coe & Coe, 1996: 71). The Aztec<br />
knowledge of the medic<strong>in</strong>al <strong>and</strong> economical uses<br />
of many orchid species, <strong>in</strong>herited <strong>in</strong> part from the<br />
Mayans, spread thus throughout Central America.<br />
The most important source for the underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g of<br />
Aztec knowledge about plants <strong>and</strong> nature is, without<br />
doubt, friar Bernard<strong>in</strong>o de Sahagún (1499?-1590),<br />
whose work is recognized as the ma<strong>in</strong> chronicle of the<br />
prehispanic period (Fig. 4D). He arrived <strong>in</strong> Mexico<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1529, as an <strong>in</strong>structor at the Imperial College of
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C D<br />
Figure 4. A — Oncidium cebolleta (Jacq.) Sw.: comparison between the labellum <strong>and</strong> a golden “eagle” of the Costa Rican<br />
Indians. Illustration by P. Casasa. B — Don Pedro, last Indian k<strong>in</strong>g from the Talamanca region <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, decorated with<br />
the ‘eagles’. From the book Costa Rica en Blanco y Negro: 1880-1950, published by the Banco Nacional de Costa Rica,<br />
1998. C — Guatemala: Mayan hieroglyphs on the famous ‘Leyden-plate’. In http://users.skynet.be/fa039055/f<strong>org</strong>tgtm.<br />
htm. The Leyden-plate is a jadeite plaque, engraved on both sides, show<strong>in</strong>g Mayan hieroglyphs <strong>and</strong> numbers. It was found<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1864 <strong>in</strong> Guatemala. D — Bernard<strong>in</strong>o de Sahagún (1499?-1590). In Catholic Encyclopedia, 2003.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
13
14<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
C D<br />
Figure 5. A — Arrival of the Spaniards <strong>in</strong> Mexico. Florent<strong>in</strong>e Codex. B — Ix chel, the Maya goddess of medic<strong>in</strong>e. Dresden<br />
Codex. C — Plant of tzacutli, Florent<strong>in</strong>e Codex. Dibble & Anderson, 1963, fig. 665. D — tzacuxóchitl xiuitl (Bletia<br />
campanulata), Florent<strong>in</strong>e Codex. Dibble & Anderson, 1963, fig. 721b.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B
Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco (Gómez-Pompa, 1993: 29)<br />
<strong>and</strong> dedicated the rest of his life to the observation<br />
<strong>and</strong> study of the customs, language <strong>and</strong> history of its<br />
ancient people. S<strong>in</strong>ce 1540 he dedicated himself with<br />
<strong>in</strong>telligence, method <strong>and</strong> perseverance to the great work<br />
of his life: the study of the th<strong>in</strong>gs of Mexico before the<br />
arrival of Cortés. Between 1547 <strong>and</strong> 1577 he wrote the<br />
History of the th<strong>in</strong>gs of New Spa<strong>in</strong> (Sahagún, 1988).<br />
“With the permanent help of old men, of his tril<strong>in</strong>gual<br />
students (Nahuatl, Spanish <strong>and</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong>) <strong>and</strong> of scribes, he<br />
compiled <strong>and</strong> described everyth<strong>in</strong>g about the life of the<br />
ancient Mexicans.... ” (Ballán, 1991: 260). “Schemes of<br />
friars of his same order moved K<strong>in</strong>g Philip II to collect<br />
all versions <strong>and</strong> copies of Sahagún’s work, fear<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
the Indians would rema<strong>in</strong> attached to their beliefs if<br />
they were preserved <strong>in</strong> their native tongue. Follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
this order, Sahagún h<strong>and</strong>ed over to his superior, friar<br />
Rodrigo de Sequera, a copy <strong>in</strong> Spanish <strong>and</strong> Mexican.<br />
This version was taken by father Sequera to Europe <strong>in</strong><br />
1580 <strong>and</strong> is today known as the Manuscript or Copy of<br />
Sequera, identified as the Florent<strong>in</strong>e Codex” (Tudela,<br />
1952: 1092). It is beautifully illustrated <strong>and</strong> owes its<br />
name to the Medicea Laurenziana Library of Florence,<br />
where it is conserved (Fig. 5A). The work of Sahagún<br />
has an extraord<strong>in</strong>ary value because it describes the<br />
customs <strong>and</strong> uses of the Aztecs based on witnesses who<br />
had lived <strong>in</strong> the century before the Spanish conquest.<br />
It is <strong>in</strong> volume XI (Animals, plants <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>erals of the<br />
Indian geography), where we f<strong>in</strong>d most <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
about the knowledge <strong>and</strong> use of <strong>orchids</strong> by the ancient<br />
Aztecs (Dibble & Anderson, 1963). All authors who<br />
have subsequently studied this period have used<br />
Sahagún as a primary source of reference.<br />
Orchids <strong>in</strong> the cultures of Mayans <strong>and</strong> Aztecs. Called<br />
by the Mayans sisbic <strong>and</strong> by the Aztecs tlilxóchitl<br />
or mecaxóchitl, <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> vanilla (Vanilla planifolia<br />
Andrews) began <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>digenous prehispanic world<br />
<strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ues to our days. Therefore, we will only<br />
mention vanilla here as a fundamental species <strong>in</strong> the<br />
prehispanic <strong>orchidology</strong> of Central America. We will<br />
refer to it later <strong>in</strong> a more extensive form (see next<br />
chapter, “The history of Vanilla”) (Fig. 5B).<br />
Besides vanilla, the <strong>in</strong>habitants of prehispanic<br />
Central America used other <strong>orchids</strong> as medic<strong>in</strong>al<br />
plants. Catasetum maculatum, was used among the<br />
Mayans <strong>in</strong> Yucatan to heal sores <strong>and</strong> tumors (Appel<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Kunow, 2003: 115). Balick et al. (2000) mention also<br />
the medic<strong>in</strong>al use given by the Mayans <strong>in</strong> Belize to<br />
Lockhartia pittieri Schltr., Oncidium cebolleta <strong>and</strong><br />
Sobralia fragans L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Balick et al., 2000: 163,<br />
170). Among the Aztecs, Arpophyllum spicatum <strong>and</strong><br />
Encyclia pastoris, were used aga<strong>in</strong>st dysentery, as<br />
was years later documented by Francisco Hernández<br />
(Hágsater et al., 2006: 41). The bulbs of Euchile<br />
citr<strong>in</strong>a were applied on <strong>in</strong>fected wounds, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>fusions<br />
of Laelia autumnalis were a remedy aga<strong>in</strong>st cough.<br />
Also important was the use of several species that<br />
conta<strong>in</strong> mucilag<strong>in</strong>ous substances to prepare agglut<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />
or adhesive products. “... preferred for its mucilag<strong>in</strong>ous<br />
characteristics is Encyclia pastoris” (García Peña &<br />
Peña, 1981: 62), known <strong>in</strong> Nahuatl as tzacutli. Sahagún<br />
describes it as follows: “The branches are slender. It<br />
has stems. Its root is sticky; this is named tzacutli. It is<br />
an adhesive. I glue it.” (Fig. 5C). “To prepare it, they<br />
cut the pseudobulbs <strong>in</strong> slices <strong>and</strong> dried them <strong>in</strong> the sun;<br />
then they stored them <strong>and</strong>, when the time was right,<br />
they soaked them <strong>in</strong> water to dissolve the mucilage <strong>and</strong><br />
give it different uses. This process was <strong>in</strong> the h<strong>and</strong>s of<br />
apprentices” (García Peña & Peña, 1981: 62). Tzacutli<br />
was used as a glue to prepare feather ornaments for<br />
the robes of the priests <strong>and</strong> as a mordent for pigments.<br />
Other species of <strong>orchids</strong> used with the same purpose<br />
were: Bletia campanulata (Fig. 5D):“Its foliage is like<br />
that of the tzacutli. It is tall. [Its blossoms] are chili red,<br />
rose, dark blue. It is tender, very tender...” (Dibble &<br />
Anderson, 1963: 211), B. cocc<strong>in</strong>ea La Llave & Lex.,<br />
Cranichis speciosa La Llave & Lex., C. tubularis La<br />
Llave & Lex., Govenia liliacea, G. superba <strong>and</strong> Laelia<br />
autumnalis. “Laelia autumnalis <strong>and</strong> Laelia speciosa,<br />
were <strong>and</strong> are still used <strong>in</strong> the fabrication of c<strong>and</strong>ies dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the festivities of the Day of all Souls; it is probable that<br />
this practice was not customary <strong>in</strong> prehispanic times<br />
but only after the arrival of the Spaniards” (García<br />
Peña & Peña, 1981: 63). Among the Mayans, the<br />
pseudobulbs of Myrmecophila tibic<strong>in</strong>is were used as help<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g childbirth <strong>and</strong> employed as trumpets <strong>and</strong> flutes<br />
(Arditti, 1992: 637). Bateman, <strong>in</strong> 1838, called this plant<br />
Epidendrum tibic<strong>in</strong>is, referr<strong>in</strong>g to the Lat<strong>in</strong> word tibicen,<br />
or trumpeter (Miller, 1959: 353) (Fig. 6A).<br />
But not everyth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> life is utilitarian. Richard Evans<br />
Schultes wrote <strong>in</strong> 1992: “The role that horticulture has<br />
played <strong>in</strong> the ethnobotanical employment of plants is<br />
not often recognized. It is quite generally presumed that<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
15
16<br />
aborig<strong>in</strong>al peoples usually do not cultivate plants merely<br />
to beautify their surround<strong>in</strong>gs. The opposite is true <strong>in</strong><br />
many, if not most societies. In a number of <strong>in</strong>stances,<br />
it is probable that the species were first ornamentally<br />
valued but were eventually found to be of more practical<br />
value as foods, medic<strong>in</strong>es, narcotics, poisons or for other<br />
economic applications” (cited <strong>in</strong> Griffiths, 1992). Other<br />
sources confirm what Schultes said. Nuttall mentions<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g example: “The most important of all<br />
the ancient gardens of Mexico was that of Huaxtepec<br />
which Montezuma had <strong>in</strong>herited from his predecessor,<br />
Montezuma the Elder. Plac<strong>in</strong>g P<strong>in</strong>otetl as the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal<br />
overseer, he first restored its waterways <strong>and</strong> then<br />
dispatched messengers to the tropical coastal region<br />
with a request to the Lord of Cuetlaxtla for plants with<br />
roots of the vanilla orchid, of cacao <strong>and</strong> magnolia trees<br />
<strong>and</strong> many valuable vegetables” (Nuttall, 1923: 454).<br />
Alvarado Tezozomoc, <strong>in</strong> his Crónica Mexicana, gives<br />
us a detailed description of the gardens of Huaxtepec.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to him, the most primitive gardens of the<br />
Nahuas were the artificial isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> pen<strong>in</strong>sulas that<br />
were constructed <strong>in</strong> lagoons (Alvarado Tezozomoc,<br />
1873). Additional <strong>in</strong>formation has been furnished by<br />
the accounts of Doctor Cervantes de Salazar, whose<br />
chronicle of Mexico was published <strong>in</strong> 1565: “In these<br />
flower gardens Montezuma did not allow any vegetables<br />
<strong>and</strong> fruits to be grown, say<strong>in</strong>g that it was not k<strong>in</strong>gly to<br />
cultivate plants for utility or profit <strong>in</strong> his pleasance. He<br />
said that vegetable gardens <strong>and</strong> orchards were for slaves<br />
<strong>and</strong> merchants” (Nuttall, Z., 1923). Antonio de Solís<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicates that Moctezuma “did not like fruit trees nor<br />
eatable plants <strong>in</strong> his recreations, but said that orchards<br />
were possessions of ord<strong>in</strong>ary people, seem<strong>in</strong>g more<br />
proper of pr<strong>in</strong>ces the delight without utility. All were<br />
flowers of rare diversity <strong>and</strong> fragrance [...] br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to<br />
his gardens all the genera produced by the benignity of<br />
those l<strong>and</strong>s” (Solís, 1970: 195) (Fig. 6B).<br />
Bateman, cit<strong>in</strong>g Francisco Hernández, <strong>in</strong>dicates the<br />
same: “... for Hernández assures us, that <strong>in</strong> Mexico the<br />
Indian chiefs set the highest value on their blossoms<br />
[the <strong>orchids</strong>], for the sake of their great beauty, strange<br />
figure, <strong>and</strong> delightful perfume...” (Bateman, 1837-<br />
43: 2). Stanhopea hern<strong>and</strong>ezii (Kunth) Schltr. <strong>and</strong> S.<br />
tigr<strong>in</strong>a Batem., had great ornamental value dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the prehispanic period, <strong>and</strong> were called by the Aztecs<br />
coatzontecoxóchitl or coatzontemacoxóchitl, because<br />
their flowers resemble serpent heads: “It is like the head<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
of a serpent; that is the way it is by nature” (Dibble<br />
& Anderson, 1963: 211) (Fig. 6C). “[S. hern<strong>and</strong>ezii]<br />
is sought by the Indian Pr<strong>in</strong>ces because of its beauty<br />
<strong>and</strong> elegance.” (Hágsater et al., 2005: 40). “From<br />
cozticcoatzontecoxochitl, which some authors have<br />
identified as Prosthechea citr<strong>in</strong>a, Hernández tells us that<br />
‘the flowers are used to adorn the wreaths, garl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
bouquets whose use is so frequent among the Indians”<br />
(Hágsater et al., 2005: 41). Artorima erubescens, Laelia<br />
anceps, L. autumnalis, L. speciosa <strong>and</strong> Oncidium spp.<br />
were also used ornamentally (Tab. 1).<br />
In his notes on the classification of plants by the<br />
Aztecs, Gates says: “The ornamental plants, the<br />
flowers or xochitl, made another gr<strong>and</strong> division, often<br />
with def<strong>in</strong>ition of the odor, although beauty was the<br />
desired feature, even with no odor... Among the<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>, coa-tzonteco-xochitl, snake-head flower, an<br />
Anguloa; another is yellow, the coztic-coa-tzontecoxochitl,<br />
of the Sobralia” (Gates, 2000). F<strong>in</strong>ally, Acosta<br />
writes that “the Indians are great friends of flowers <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> New Spa<strong>in</strong> more than anywhere else <strong>in</strong> the world…”<br />
(Acosta, 2003: 265).<br />
Two centuries later, Friar Francisco Ximénez was<br />
one of the first to describe the epiphytic growth of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>. In one of his manuscripts, dated <strong>in</strong> 1722, we<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d a beautiful example of the ornamental value they<br />
had for the Mayans <strong>in</strong> Guatemala: “All those flowers,<br />
although many <strong>and</strong> diverse, all of them agree to grow<br />
from little onions, whose roots stick to the bark of the<br />
oaks as if they were deeply rooted <strong>in</strong> the earth <strong>and</strong> they<br />
grow some leaves somewhat thick, but all different<br />
from the others. And those little onions taken from<br />
those trees are transplanted by many Indians to their<br />
houses, stick<strong>in</strong>g them to another tree <strong>and</strong> there it roots<br />
<strong>and</strong> is conserved <strong>and</strong> gives its flower. And so they have<br />
the trees of their houses full of different flowers that<br />
they br<strong>in</strong>g from the forest” (Ximénez, 1967: 313).<br />
The history of Vanilla. As a constituent of the native<br />
flora, Vanilla planifolia occurs naturally <strong>in</strong> the moist,<br />
tropical forests of eastern <strong>and</strong> southern Mexico, Central<br />
America, <strong>and</strong> northern South America. In Mexico,<br />
its northern limits are found <strong>in</strong> <strong>central</strong> Veracruz near<br />
the Gulf Coast, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Michoacán or Colima on the<br />
Pacific. The true vanilla now found grow<strong>in</strong>g wild<br />
<strong>in</strong> parts of the West Indies probably represents an<br />
escape from cultivation of v<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong>troduced dur<strong>in</strong>g the
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Table 1 – List of the <strong>orchids</strong> known by Central American Indians dur<strong>in</strong>g the prehispanic period, with their uses <strong>and</strong><br />
vernacular names. Compiled from García Peña & Peña (1981), Wright (1958), Ximénez (1967), Balick et al. (2000), <strong>and</strong><br />
Appel Kunow (2003).<br />
Botanical name Vernacular name Language Use<br />
Arpophyllum spicatum La Llave & Lex. tzauhxilotl Nahuatl Aga<strong>in</strong>st dysentery<br />
Artorima erubescens (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Dressler & Pollard güitzl Zapotec Ornamental<br />
Bletia campanulata La Llave & Lex. tzacuxóchitl xiuitl Nahuatl Adhesive<br />
Ornamental<br />
Aga<strong>in</strong>st dysentery<br />
Bletia cocc<strong>in</strong>ea Lex. tonalxóchitl Nahuatl Adhesive<br />
Ornamental<br />
Catasetum <strong>in</strong>tegerrimum Hook. chitcuuc Maya Adhesive<br />
Mordent for pigments<br />
Catasetum maculatum Kunth chitcuuc Maya To cure wounds <strong>and</strong> tumors<br />
Cranichis speciosa La Llave & Lex. atzautli Nahuatl Aga<strong>in</strong>st dysentery<br />
Adhesive<br />
Mordent for pigments<br />
Cranichis tubularis La Llave & Lex. acaltzauhtli Nahuatl Adhesive<br />
Mordent for pigments<br />
Encyclia pastoris (La Llave & Lex.) Schltr. tzacutli Nahuatl Aga<strong>in</strong>st dysentery<br />
Adhesive<br />
Mordent for pigments<br />
Euchile citr<strong>in</strong>a (La Llave & Lex.) Withner cozticoatzontecoxóchitl / auroriqua Nahuatl Treatment of <strong>in</strong>fected wounds<br />
Govenia liliacea (La Llave & Lex.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. iztactepetzacuxóchitl Nahuatl Adhesive<br />
Mordent for pigments<br />
Govenia superba (La Llave & Lex.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. cozticzacatzacuxóchitl Nahuatl Adhesive<br />
Mordent for pigments<br />
Laelia anceps L<strong>in</strong>dl. tzicxóchitl / güichila Nahuatl Ornamental<br />
Laelia autumnalis (La Llave & Lex.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. chichiltictepetzacuxóchitl Nahuatl Aga<strong>in</strong>st cough<br />
Adhesive<br />
Ornamental<br />
Laelia speciosa (Kunth) Schltr. itzmaqua Nahuatl Ornamental<br />
Lockhartia pittieri Schltr. Medic<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Myrmecophila tibic<strong>in</strong>is (Batem.) Rolfe dac kis<strong>in</strong> Maya Help dur<strong>in</strong>g childbirth<br />
hom-ikim Maya Employed as trumpets<br />
<strong>and</strong> flutes<br />
Oncidium cebolleta (Jacq.) Sw. sulër kili Bribrí Medic<strong>in</strong>al<br />
suLègLi Cabécar Halluc<strong>in</strong>ogenic<br />
Oncidium spp. ru xiquín tucur / ru xiquín choy Maya Ornamental<br />
Sobralia fragans L<strong>in</strong>dl. te-lum-pim Maya Medic<strong>in</strong>al<br />
Stanhopea hern<strong>and</strong>ezii (Kunth) Schltr. coatzontecoxóchitl Nahuatl Aga<strong>in</strong>st tiredness<br />
Ornamental<br />
Stanhopea tigr<strong>in</strong>a Batem. coatzontemacoxóchitl Nahuatl Ornamental<br />
chichiltic tepetllavhochitz<br />
Vanilla planifolia Andrews mecaxóchitl Nahuatl Flavor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
tlilxóchitl Nahuatl To aid digestion<br />
sisbic Maya Cordial<br />
zacanatum shanat Totonac Appetizer<br />
Aphrodisiac<br />
Diuretic<br />
Ritual<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
17
18<br />
colonial period. (Bruman, 1948: 361). Oersted wrote,<br />
around 1846, that vanilla dom<strong>in</strong>ated among the <strong>orchids</strong><br />
of the Atlantic region of Costa Rica (Oersted, 1863).<br />
The Olmecs (ca. 1<strong>500</strong> A. C. – 400 D. C.) who “not<br />
only engendered Meso<strong>america</strong> but also brought forth<br />
the first Meso<strong>america</strong>n empire” (Mann, 2006: 235),<br />
possibly transferred to the Mayans the use of the seeds<br />
of cacao (kakawa) for the preparation of a beverage.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Maya mithology, Hunahpú gave cacao to<br />
the Maya after humans were created from maize by the<br />
div<strong>in</strong>e gr<strong>and</strong>mother goddess Ixmucané.<br />
The Mayans perfumed this beverage (which we<br />
call today chocolate, from the Nahuatl chocolatl) with<br />
different spices, among them chili <strong>and</strong> vanilla. “Among<br />
the plants that are cultivated to season <strong>and</strong> perfume the<br />
foods are chili or ají, vanilla ... <strong>and</strong> other herbs, leaves<br />
<strong>and</strong> roots” (Morley, 1961: 189). The early Mayans of<br />
Mexico were also familiar with vanilla <strong>and</strong> its uses, their<br />
name for it be<strong>in</strong>g sisbic [or zizbic, as Bruman calls it 7 ]<br />
(cited <strong>in</strong> Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 15). A Totonac legend says<br />
that vanilla orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> the deaths of Tzacopontziza<br />
(‘Morn<strong>in</strong>g Star’) <strong>and</strong> Zkatan-oxga (‘Runn<strong>in</strong>g Deer’),<br />
who were killed by the gods for their forbidden love.<br />
In the desolated place of their sacrifice, a s<strong>in</strong>gle tree<br />
grew (Zkatan-oxga) <strong>and</strong> shortly later a v<strong>in</strong>e embraced it<br />
(Tzacopontziza). So, the lovers rema<strong>in</strong> together through<br />
the ages. The Totonac called vanilla zacanatum shanat<br />
(= black mother vanilla) (Ecott, 2004: 7-8).<br />
Balick et al. mention the medic<strong>in</strong>al <strong>and</strong> ritual use of<br />
vanilla among the native population of Belize (Balick et<br />
al., 2000: 171). Duke, <strong>in</strong> one of his many ethnobotanical<br />
papers, refers to the use as a perfume of Vanilla fragrans<br />
(Salisb.) Ames by the Chocoe Indians <strong>in</strong> the Panamanian<br />
region of Darien (Duke, 1956: 209). García Peña &<br />
Peña refer to V. planifolia <strong>in</strong> the Aztec world: “One of<br />
the oldest records for the utilitarian character of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> America belongs to the Aztec k<strong>in</strong>gdom of Itzcoatl<br />
(1427-1440) <strong>in</strong> Mexico; it mentions vanilla, the v<strong>in</strong>e<br />
orchid, collected <strong>in</strong> the eastern coast. This plant was<br />
used as payment for tributes dur<strong>in</strong>g the k<strong>in</strong>gdoms of<br />
Moctezuma Ilhuiacam<strong>in</strong>a (1440-1469) <strong>and</strong> Axacayatl<br />
(1469-1482)” (García Peña & Peña, 1981: 60). “Some<br />
authors (i.e. Torquemada, 1969) state that vanilla was<br />
part of the tributes paid to the Aztecs by the Totonacs <strong>and</strong><br />
other Indian tribes (Fig. 6D) as early as dur<strong>in</strong>g the reign<br />
of Izcóatl (1427-1440)...” (Hágsater et al., 2005: 47).<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Moctezuma (1502-1520) flavored the beverage<br />
“chocolatl”, a cacao dr<strong>in</strong>k, with the ripe fruit of this<br />
orchid <strong>and</strong> with honey” (García Peña & Peña, 1981:<br />
60). Bernal Díaz del Castillo, aga<strong>in</strong> referr<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
Emperor Moctezuma, tells us: “... from time to time<br />
they brought him cups of f<strong>in</strong>e gold, with a certa<strong>in</strong><br />
beverage made of cacao, that they said was for success<br />
with women...” (Díaz del Castillo, 1916: 185). “Then,<br />
by himself <strong>in</strong> his house, his chocolate was served: green<br />
cacao-pods, honeyed chocolate, flowered chocolate,<br />
flavored with green vanilla” (accord<strong>in</strong>g to Sahagún <strong>in</strong><br />
Coe & Coe, 1996: 89). “Vanilla was not only the most<br />
widely used flavor<strong>in</strong>g, but was also recommended to<br />
aid digestion, <strong>and</strong> was considered good for the heart,<br />
the stomach, as an appetizer, diuretic <strong>and</strong> to attenuate<br />
viscous humors” (García Peña & Peña, 1981: 61).<br />
Sahagún says about vanilla: “Mecaxóchitl: Its<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g place is the hot l<strong>and</strong>s, at the water’s edge. It is<br />
like a slender cord, a little rough. It is of pleas<strong>in</strong>g odor,<br />
perfumed. Its scent is dense; one’s nose is penetrated.<br />
It is potable. It cures <strong>in</strong>ternal [ailments]” (Dibble &<br />
Anderson, 1963: 192 (Fig. 6E). However, accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to Gates (2000: 133) mecaxóchitl is Piper amalago,<br />
L. <strong>and</strong> not Vanilla planifolia. León, J., 2003 (pers.<br />
comm.) confirms this stat<strong>in</strong>g that the illustration does<br />
not represent an orchid. He also calls it tlilxóchitl: “It<br />
is cord-like… Its bean is green, but it is black when<br />
dried… It is perfumed, fragrant, precious, good,<br />
potable, a medic<strong>in</strong>e. Roasted, this is mixed with<br />
chocolate” (Dibble & Anderson, 1963: 198) (Fig. 6F).<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, the first reference to tropical<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> the western hemisphere is the description<br />
<strong>and</strong> illustration of vanilla <strong>in</strong> the Codex Badianus from<br />
1552 (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, M. A., 1995: 15) (Fig. 7).<br />
Francisco Hernández published a manuscript <strong>in</strong><br />
which figured a woodcut of two fruits <strong>and</strong> a portion of<br />
the v<strong>in</strong>e of vanilla, under the name Arico aromatico, with<br />
the native appellation tlilxóchitl (Fig. 8A). Hernández<br />
writes about three aphrodisiac spices that the Aztecs used<br />
<strong>in</strong> their chocolate. The second of Hernández’s reputedly<br />
aphrodisiac trio was tlilxóchitl (‘black flower’), none<br />
other than our familiar vanilla (Vanilla planifolia).<br />
Hernández makes a dist<strong>in</strong>ction call<strong>in</strong>g chocolatl the<br />
beverage that conta<strong>in</strong>s only cacao <strong>and</strong> seeds of pochotl<br />
(Ceiba spp.) <strong>and</strong> atexli that was flavored with vanilla<br />
(Coe, 1994: 104-105). Hernández, follow<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
7 Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Bruman, zizbic seems to refer to Vanilla claviculata, an <strong>in</strong>ferior species that is not the vanilla of commerce.
A<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
C D<br />
E F<br />
Figure 6. A — Indian child play<strong>in</strong>g the ‘trumpet’ with the hollow pseudobulb of Myrmecophila tibic<strong>in</strong>is. In Batemann, 1837-<br />
43: 76. B — Gardens ofAncient Mexico. Florent<strong>in</strong>e Codex. Dibble &Anderson, 1963, fig. 679. C — Coatzontemacoxóchitl<br />
(Stanhopea tigr<strong>in</strong>a). Florent<strong>in</strong>e Codex. Dibble & Anderson, 1963, fig. 719. D — Representation of tributes <strong>in</strong> the Codex<br />
Mendoza, <strong>in</strong> Berdan & Rieff Anawalt, 1997, pl. 46v. E — Mecaxóchitl. Florent<strong>in</strong>e Codex. Dibble & Anderson,1963, fig.<br />
718. F — Tlilxóchitl. Florent<strong>in</strong>e Codex. Dibble & Anderson,1963, fig. 717.<br />
B<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
19
20<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 7. Mecaxóchitl or Tlilxóchitl (first from the left). Plate 104 of the Codex Badianus. In Osp<strong>in</strong>a, 1997:1161.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
C<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
Figure 8. A — Arico aromatico – tlilxóchitl. Hernández, 1959. B — Sixteenth-century woodcut show<strong>in</strong>g the four temperaments.<br />
In Coe & Coe, 1996: 127. C — Gather<strong>in</strong>g vanilla. In Dampier, 1998: 121-122.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
21
22<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 9. Vanilla (labeled as Vanilla mexicana). No. 1407 of the illustrations of the botanical expedition of Sessé <strong>and</strong><br />
Mociño <strong>in</strong> the Torner Collection, Hunt Botanical Institute for Botanical Documentation.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples of Galenic theory of cur<strong>in</strong>g by contraries,<br />
so that “hot” fever called for a “cold” drug, cont<strong>in</strong>ues:<br />
“Add<strong>in</strong>g the mecaxóchitl flavor<strong>in</strong>g to chocolate not<br />
only gives it an agreeable taste, but because it, like most<br />
cacao spices, is ‘hot’ by nature, it ‘warms the stomach,<br />
perfumes the breath…[<strong>and</strong>] combats poisons, alleviates<br />
<strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al pa<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> colics’, <strong>and</strong> so on” (Coe & Coe,<br />
1996: 123). It should be recalled that <strong>in</strong> Galen’s theory<br />
<strong>and</strong> practice, the body conta<strong>in</strong>ed four humors (black<br />
bile, yellow bile, phlegm <strong>and</strong> blood), <strong>and</strong> that good<br />
health depended on a balance between them. Each of<br />
these humors had specific properties — ‘hot’ or ‘cold’<br />
<strong>and</strong> ‘dry’ or ‘moist’. In the European Baroque Age,<br />
the humoral theory was extended to <strong>in</strong>clude all sorts<br />
of phenomena <strong>and</strong> conditions, such as the divisions of<br />
the day, the four seasons, <strong>and</strong> even the card<strong>in</strong>al po<strong>in</strong>ts.<br />
Those with too much blood were sangu<strong>in</strong>e, those with<br />
too much phlegm were phlegmatic, those with too much<br />
yellow bile were choleric, <strong>and</strong> those with too much<br />
black bile were melancholic (Fig. 8B).<br />
Alonso de Mol<strong>in</strong>a began the <strong>in</strong>troduction of<br />
the present name of vanilla, by translat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> his<br />
dictionary the word tlilxóchitl as “ciertas vaynicas de<br />
olores” (= certa<strong>in</strong> fragrant little pods) (Mol<strong>in</strong>a, 1571:<br />
148). Referr<strong>in</strong>g to the town of Lucu, on the banks of<br />
the Belize River, Diego López de Cogolludo, <strong>in</strong> his<br />
History of Yucatán, <strong>in</strong>dicates that Friar Bartolomé<br />
de Fuensalida saw there, <strong>in</strong> 1618, the best achiote<br />
(annatto tree) he had ever seen, together with fruits<br />
of vanilla that the natives called cizbiques (López de<br />
Cogolludo, 1954). The observations of Dampier <strong>in</strong><br />
the second half of the XVII century (see later), about<br />
the use of vanilla by the natives of Bocas del Toro<br />
(Panama) let us assume that knowledge about the uses<br />
of vanilla spread to the rest of Central America after the<br />
conquest of Mexico. It is possible that this knowledge<br />
was brought from Yucatan to Panama by the Miskitos,<br />
who <strong>in</strong> the XVII century made frequent <strong>in</strong>cursions to<br />
the territories located to the north <strong>and</strong> south of their<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ions. The Miskitos <strong>and</strong> Sumas of the coasts of<br />
Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Honduras used Vanilla that they called<br />
diti ba<strong>in</strong>ia, to flavor a beverage “made of cacao <strong>and</strong><br />
maize” (Conzemius, 1984: 198).<br />
That vanilla was brought <strong>in</strong>to Europe by the<br />
Spaniards <strong>in</strong> 1510 (as mentioned by Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, Jacquet,<br />
<strong>and</strong> other authors) is highly improbable, s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
first Spanish expedition to the ma<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> was that of<br />
Ojeda <strong>and</strong> Nicuesa <strong>in</strong> 1508 to Panama, <strong>and</strong> we cannot<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d any reference to this orchid until the conquest of<br />
Mexico by Hernán Cortés <strong>in</strong> 1519.<br />
The Flemish botanist Charles de l’Ecluse (1526-<br />
1609), also known as Carolus Clusius, <strong>in</strong> his Exoticum<br />
liber decem, provided the first botanical description of<br />
vanilla <strong>in</strong> 1605, as Lobus oblongus aromaticus. The<br />
description is from a plant provided by Hugh M<strong>org</strong>an,<br />
pharmacist to Queen Elizabeth I. (Jacquet, 1994: 78).<br />
It was this M<strong>org</strong>an who first called attention to vanilla<br />
as a spice that could have other medic<strong>in</strong>al <strong>and</strong> cul<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
uses, besides be<strong>in</strong>g a flavor<strong>in</strong>g for chocolate. Vanilla<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>s to separate from chocolate <strong>and</strong> starts a life on its<br />
own. L’Ecluse made his first experience with American<br />
plants through the works of Nicolás Monardes (1493-<br />
1588) 8 , that he had read dur<strong>in</strong>g his travels to Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
which he later translated <strong>in</strong>to Lat<strong>in</strong> (Laca Menéndez de<br />
Luarca, 1999: 98).<br />
In 1658 the term vaynilla appeared <strong>in</strong> a work by<br />
William Piso, who added that this name was given by<br />
the Spaniards.” (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 15). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
Piso, who aga<strong>in</strong> follows Galenic theory, vanilla is “hot<br />
<strong>in</strong> the 3rd degree,” <strong>and</strong> the mecaxóchitl spice “hot <strong>in</strong><br />
the 4 th degree” <strong>and</strong> “dry <strong>in</strong> the 3 rd degree”. Piso had<br />
taken part, as official surgeon, <strong>in</strong> the Dutch expedition<br />
to the north of Brazil under the comm<strong>and</strong> of the Count<br />
of Nassau-Siegen, <strong>in</strong> 1638. He assumed charge of<br />
botanical studies <strong>in</strong>sofar as they perta<strong>in</strong>ed to medic<strong>in</strong>e<br />
(Steele, 1964: 14).<br />
Friar Bernabé Cobo, <strong>in</strong> his history of the New<br />
World, published <strong>in</strong> 1653 (Cobo, 1892) gives a detailed<br />
account of the necessary procedures to cure the pods<br />
of vanilla, which he praises as “very precious to put<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the chocolate”, stat<strong>in</strong>g that the best vanilla is that<br />
which grows <strong>in</strong> Chiapas (Pérez de Antón, 2005: 122).<br />
William Dampier observed vanilla plants grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the south of Mexico (1676) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Bocas del Toro<br />
(today Panama), <strong>in</strong> 1681. In his work A New Voyage<br />
Round the World he mentions that the Indians sold<br />
vanilla to the Spaniards <strong>and</strong> describes the method that<br />
they followed to cure the fruits: “This Cod grows on a<br />
small V<strong>in</strong>e which climbs about <strong>and</strong> supports itself by the<br />
neighbour<strong>in</strong>g Trees. It first bears a Flower, from where<br />
8 Monardes, N., 1574, Primera y Segunda y Tercera Partes de la Historia Medic<strong>in</strong>al de las Cosas que se traen de nuestras Indias<br />
Occidentales que sirven en Medic<strong>in</strong>a. Sevilla.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
23
24<br />
the Cod afterwards proceeds. It is first green, but when<br />
ripe turns yellow. Then the Indians, whose Manufacture<br />
it is, <strong>and</strong> who sell it cheap to the Spaniards, gather it <strong>and</strong><br />
lay it <strong>in</strong> the Sun, which makes it soft. Then it changes<br />
to a Chestnut colour. They frequently press it between<br />
their f<strong>in</strong>gers which makes it flat.... These V<strong>in</strong>es grow<br />
plentifully at Boccatoro, where I have gathered <strong>and</strong> tried<br />
to cure them, but could not, which makes me th<strong>in</strong>k that<br />
the Indians have some Secret that I do not know of to<br />
cure them... They are commonly sold for Threepence a<br />
Cod among the Spaniards <strong>in</strong> the West Indies... for they<br />
are much used <strong>in</strong> chocolate to perfume it. Some will use<br />
them <strong>in</strong> Tobacco, for they give a delicate scent. Could<br />
we have learnt the art of it, several of us would have<br />
gone to Boccatoro yearly <strong>and</strong> cured them” (Dampier,<br />
1998: 121) (Fig. 8C).<br />
Francesco Redi (1626-97), a talented Italian scientist<br />
<strong>and</strong> physician to the Medici court, published his<br />
Experimenta circa res diversas naturales (Redi, 1675),<br />
a work on ‘diverse natural matters, <strong>in</strong> particular those<br />
carried to us from the Indies’. Redi’s work conta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
a detailed illustration of a vanilla pod, <strong>and</strong> what is<br />
certa<strong>in</strong>ly the first microscopic view of a vanilla seed.<br />
In 1701, the English traveler Ellis Veryard published<br />
his Choice remarks, concern<strong>in</strong>g his voyage to Spa<strong>in</strong><br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the latter half of the XVII century. His account<br />
of how the Spaniards manufactured their chocolate<br />
says: “...Next you are to add twenty-five Ba<strong>in</strong>illas ...<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ely powder’d, proceed<strong>in</strong>g to mix...” (Veryard, 1701).<br />
In 1703, the French botanist Charles Plumier (1646-<br />
1704), who had seen the plants dur<strong>in</strong>g his travels to<br />
the Antilles, described the genus as Vanilla (Plumier,<br />
1703), although <strong>in</strong> 1749 Carl von L<strong>in</strong>né theorized that<br />
Vanilla was the source, as well as a species, of the<br />
Orchis genus, prescrib<strong>in</strong>g it as a powerful aphrodisiac<br />
elixir (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 18-19). Robert Miller, <strong>in</strong> 1739,<br />
collected seeds <strong>and</strong> cutt<strong>in</strong>gs of Vanilla planifolia near<br />
Campeche, from which the cultivation <strong>in</strong> greenhouses<br />
of this species began <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Denis Diderot (1718-1784), the great French<br />
encyclopedist, disapproved of the tastiest flavor<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
that people added to chocolate, which did noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
but add “fire” to the body. He warned about the use<br />
of vanilla: “The pleasant scent <strong>and</strong> heightened taste it<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
gives to chocolate has made it very popular, but long<br />
experience hav<strong>in</strong>g taught us that it is extremely heat<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
its use has become less frequent, <strong>and</strong> people who<br />
prefer to care for their health rather than please their<br />
senses absta<strong>in</strong> completely.” (Diderot, 1778: 785). The<br />
aphrodisiac properties of vanilla were also mentioned<br />
by the German physician Bezaar Zimmerman, who <strong>in</strong><br />
1762 published a treatise entitled “On experiences”,<br />
<strong>in</strong> which he claimed that “no fewer than 342 impotent<br />
men by dr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g vanilla decoctions, have changed <strong>in</strong>to<br />
astonish<strong>in</strong>g lovers of at least as many women” (Siegel,<br />
2008: 145). Vanilla made its debut <strong>in</strong> the United States<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1789, when the U.S. ambassador to France, Thomas<br />
Jefferson, had his secretary <strong>in</strong> Paris ship him a bundle<br />
of fifty cured beans wrapped <strong>in</strong> newspaper. Thomas<br />
Jefferson’s recipe for vanilla ice cream can be found <strong>in</strong><br />
his papers at the Library of Congress (G<strong>and</strong> & Weiss,<br />
2006: 12).<br />
In 1753, L<strong>in</strong>né, <strong>in</strong> his Species Plantarum , described<br />
vanilla as Epidendron vanilla, <strong>and</strong> it was his countryman<br />
Olof Swartz who reestablished the genus Vanilla <strong>in</strong><br />
1799 (Swartz, 1799: 66). F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> November 1808,<br />
Henry Charles Andrews (1794-1830) published the<br />
description of Vanilla planifolia that is valid today<br />
<strong>in</strong> The Botanists Repository of New <strong>and</strong> Rare Plants<br />
(Jackson & Andrews, 1808). The description was<br />
based on a plant cultivated by Charles Greville that<br />
had flowered the year before (Soto Arenas, 1999: 18).<br />
A beautiful illustration of Vanilla sp. is <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Torner Collection that conta<strong>in</strong>s the illustrations of the<br />
expedition of Sessé y Mociño to New Spa<strong>in</strong> (Fig. 9).<br />
In 1835, L<strong>in</strong>dley separated the genus Vanilla from<br />
the Orchidaceae <strong>and</strong> proposed it as the type for a new<br />
family, the Vanillaceae (L<strong>in</strong>dley, 1835: 73) 9 .<br />
Orl<strong>and</strong>o W. Roberts, English traveler along the<br />
Central American East Coast <strong>in</strong> the years before the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependence of the region from Spa<strong>in</strong>, comments<br />
<strong>in</strong> his book that the Indians <strong>in</strong> the region of Darién<br />
form parties for dr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g preparations of cocoa, of<br />
which they dr<strong>in</strong>k immense quantities A few pages<br />
later he tells that they “also produce vanilla, a valuable<br />
plant...” (Roberts, 1965: 77, 80). With regard to the<br />
cultivation of vanilla <strong>in</strong> the region of the San Juan<br />
River he writes: “The country from San Juan River to<br />
9 Bateman, <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction to his The Orchidaceae from Mexico <strong>and</strong> Guatemala, says: “In this list the Vanilla is not <strong>in</strong>cluded,<br />
as that plant has recently been separated (no doubt, most judiciously) by Dr. L<strong>in</strong>dley, from the natural order “Orchidaceae” <strong>and</strong><br />
constituted the type of a new order of its own”.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
this po<strong>in</strong>t [Bluefields, Nicaragua] abounds <strong>in</strong> vanilla<br />
of the f<strong>in</strong>est quality. This plant climbs with ease to the<br />
top of the highest tree. At a distance the leaves slightly<br />
resemble those of the v<strong>in</strong>e; the flowers are of a white<br />
colour, <strong>in</strong>termixed with red <strong>and</strong> yellow, when these fall<br />
off, they are quickly succeeded by the pods, grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> bunches not unlike the planta<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> generally of<br />
the thickness of a child’s f<strong>in</strong>ger. The pods are green<br />
at first, grow yellow, <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally brown; the method<br />
used to preserve the fruit, is to gather it when yellow,<br />
before the pods beg<strong>in</strong> to open or burst – it is then laid<br />
<strong>in</strong> small heaps for the space of three of four days to<br />
ferment. The fruit is afterwards spread <strong>in</strong> the sun to<br />
dry; <strong>and</strong> when about half dried, flattened with the h<strong>and</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> rubbed over with cocoa, palm or other oil: - it is<br />
once more exposed to the sun, to be fully dried, rubbed<br />
over with oil a second time, put <strong>in</strong> small parcels, <strong>and</strong><br />
closely covered over with the dried leaves of the<br />
planta<strong>in</strong>. [...] The vanilla plant is also found on most<br />
parts of the Mosquito Shore, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the neighborhood<br />
of Breo del Rero <strong>and</strong> Chiriquí Lagoon; it requires heat,<br />
moisture, <strong>and</strong> shade, to br<strong>in</strong>g it to perfection, <strong>and</strong> when<br />
used <strong>in</strong> that state it gives a most delicious flavour to<br />
coffee, chocolate, etc., form<strong>in</strong>g an important article of<br />
commerce, especially among the Spaniards” (Roberts,<br />
1965: 99-100).<br />
Carl Berthold Seemann, <strong>in</strong> 1848, <strong>in</strong>dicated that<br />
“[the] fruit of the Vanilla (Vanilla sp.) <strong>and</strong> Vanilla<br />
chica (Sobralia sp. or Selenipedium chica) are<br />
spices employed <strong>in</strong> flavor<strong>in</strong>g sweetmeats, chocolate<br />
<strong>and</strong> pudd<strong>in</strong>gs” (Seemann, 1852-1857: 69). Moritz<br />
Wagner <strong>and</strong> Carl Scherzer, <strong>in</strong> 1853, observed Vanilla<br />
plants grow<strong>in</strong>g wild <strong>in</strong> the region of Miravalles, <strong>in</strong><br />
northwestern Costa Rica: “The parasitic plant of the<br />
family of the <strong>orchids</strong> that provides the precious vanilla<br />
(Epidendron vanilla), with long, slim <strong>and</strong> aromatic<br />
ovaries, grows wild <strong>in</strong> the lower <strong>and</strong> shady places near<br />
the banks of the rivers”). And near the Río Gr<strong>and</strong>e<br />
(Pacific Coast): “Very frequent, especially <strong>in</strong> shady<br />
places, are several species of vanilla that may be<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>guished for their thick leaves, their multicolored<br />
flowers of marvelous forms <strong>and</strong> their siliquous <strong>and</strong><br />
th<strong>in</strong> fruits which exhale a delicious aroma” (Wagner<br />
& Scherzer, 1974: 168, 225). Wells described the<br />
cultivation <strong>and</strong> trade of Vanilla <strong>in</strong> the Honduran<br />
region of Olancho, <strong>and</strong> gave it the scientific name<br />
10 Wells means Vanilla axillaris Mill., a Mexican species described <strong>in</strong> 1768.<br />
of Vanilla axillans [sic] (Wells, 1857) 10 . Wells states<br />
that Vanilla shows preference for two species of host<br />
trees, “<strong>in</strong>dio desnudo” (Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg.)<br />
<strong>and</strong> “guachipilín” (Casearia sylvestris Sw.), <strong>and</strong> gives<br />
a detailed description of plant habitat, flowers, <strong>and</strong><br />
fruits. As to cultivation, Wells mentions a promis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
experimental plantation <strong>in</strong> the village of Pespire. The<br />
greatest part of the Vanilla from Olancho was taken to<br />
the market of Tegucigalpa, although a small amount<br />
was sent to Trujillo, on the North coast, <strong>and</strong> to Belize.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Wells, <strong>in</strong> good localities a diligent<br />
native could collect between two <strong>and</strong> four pounds a<br />
day. Hartwell (1967-1971) <strong>in</strong>cludes Vanilla <strong>in</strong> his<br />
list of plants used aga<strong>in</strong>st cancer. And more recently,<br />
Alan Hirsch, M.D., of Smell <strong>and</strong> Taste Treatment<br />
<strong>and</strong> Research Foundation Ltd., <strong>in</strong> Chicago, studied<br />
the relationship between smell <strong>and</strong> arousal. He found<br />
that several smells <strong>in</strong>creased blood flow to the penis,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g lavender, pumpk<strong>in</strong> pie, doughnut <strong>and</strong> black<br />
licorice. However, smell<strong>in</strong>g vanilla caused the greatest<br />
degree of arousal <strong>in</strong> older men (Siegel, 2008: 145).<br />
For over 300 years after its discovery by Hernán<br />
Cortés, vanilla was only produced <strong>in</strong> Mexico.<br />
Cultivation was tried <strong>in</strong> many countries, but the<br />
delicate orchid never bore fruit. The mystery was not<br />
solved until 1838, when the Belgian Charles Morren<br />
discovered that common <strong>in</strong>sects cannot poll<strong>in</strong>ate the<br />
flower <strong>and</strong> that its natural fertilizers, bees from the<br />
genus Eulaema, do not survive outside Mexico. Morren<br />
developed the method to poll<strong>in</strong>ate vanilla flowers<br />
by h<strong>and</strong> (Morren, 1838). Soon the French began to<br />
cultivate vanilla <strong>in</strong> their colonies <strong>in</strong> the Indic Ocean,<br />
the Dutch <strong>in</strong> Indonesia <strong>and</strong> the British <strong>in</strong> Jamaica <strong>and</strong><br />
India. F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> 1858, Gobley isolated vanill<strong>in</strong>, the<br />
crystall<strong>in</strong>e component of vanilla, open<strong>in</strong>g the way to<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial production of substitutes for V. planifolia.<br />
“In spite of competition from other tropical regions,<br />
<strong>in</strong> spite of the large-scale commercial production of<br />
synthetic vanill<strong>in</strong>, Mexican vanilla has held its own.<br />
At its best it has a quality unequaled elsewhere, <strong>and</strong> its<br />
excellence is recognized by its great dem<strong>and</strong>” (Bruman,<br />
1948: 372). In the region of Totonicapán, the cultivation<br />
of Vanilla is an important economic factor. “The<br />
Totonacs found the way of grow<strong>in</strong>g vanilla, plant<strong>in</strong>g<br />
it <strong>in</strong> acahuales (secondary forests), <strong>and</strong> learned how to<br />
guide <strong>and</strong> prune the plants” (Hágsater et al., 2005: 50).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
25
26<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g species of Vanilla can be found <strong>in</strong> our<br />
region:<br />
V. hartii Rolfe V. planifolia G. Jackson<br />
V. helleri Hawkes V. pompona Schiede<br />
V. <strong>in</strong>odora Schiede V. sativa Schiede<br />
V. <strong>in</strong>signis Ames V. sylvestris Schiede<br />
V. odorata Presl V. trigonocarpa Hoehne<br />
V. phaeantha Rchb. f.<br />
from The codex badIanus To carl von lInné<br />
“Nature does not proceed by leaps <strong>and</strong> bounds”<br />
Carl von L<strong>in</strong>né<br />
The Codex Badianus. The first descriptions of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
that we know of for the Americas are <strong>in</strong> the Aztec<br />
Herbal of 1552 (Osp<strong>in</strong>a, 1997: 1160), written <strong>in</strong> Mexico<br />
with the title Libellus de Medic<strong>in</strong>alibus Indorum Herbis<br />
(De la Cruz & Badiano, 1996). Its author was the<br />
Aztec physician Martín de la Cruz <strong>and</strong> it was translated<br />
from Nahuatl <strong>in</strong>to Lat<strong>in</strong> by another native named Juan<br />
Badiano. It is therefore commonly known as the Codex<br />
Badianus or Codex de la Cruz-Badianus. There are<br />
two versions, one says that the work was for Emperor<br />
Charles V, <strong>and</strong> the other that the work was conceived<br />
by Francisco, the son of the Viceroy don Antonio<br />
de Mendoza, as a gift for Phillip II (by now K<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong>), <strong>in</strong> an effort to demonstrate that the Indians were<br />
“knowledgeable, capable of learn<strong>in</strong>g from Europeans<br />
<strong>and</strong> very worthy of support from the Viceroyalty <strong>and</strong><br />
the protection of the K<strong>in</strong>g” (Gómez, 2008: 82). De la<br />
Cruz <strong>and</strong> Badiano were two outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g students of the<br />
Imperial College of Santa Cruz de Tlalelolco, were they<br />
met Fray Bernard<strong>in</strong>o de Sahagún.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the early XVII century, the Lat<strong>in</strong> version<br />
became part of the library of Card<strong>in</strong>al Francesco<br />
Barber<strong>in</strong>i, <strong>and</strong> it is therefore also known as Codex<br />
Barber<strong>in</strong>i (Gómez-Pompa, 1993: 29). In 1990, dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a visit of Pope John Paul II to Mexico, the manuscript<br />
was presented as a gift from the Vatican to the Mexican<br />
people <strong>and</strong> is s<strong>in</strong>ce then preserved at the National<br />
Library of Mexico. The first Spanish version, although<br />
<strong>in</strong>complete, was published <strong>in</strong> 1955 by Francisco<br />
Guerra. “It is not only the earliest complete Mexican<br />
medical text which has thus come to light, but it is<br />
the only medical text known to be the work of Aztec<br />
Indians” (Emmart & Sigerist, 1940: xiii).<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
In the previous chapter (The history of vanilla),<br />
reference was already made to tlilxóchitl (V. planifolia)<br />
that, accord<strong>in</strong>g to this codex, was used, with a mixture<br />
of other plants, <strong>in</strong> a prescription for viatores presidium<br />
(Fig. 7), namely “protection for travelers”. “…<br />
pulverized herbs wrapped <strong>in</strong> a magnolia leaf <strong>and</strong> hung<br />
around the neck so that the voyager could ‘catch <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>hale the very redolent odor’ ” (Benz<strong>in</strong>g, 1990: 1).<br />
Another orchid by the name Tzacouhxochitl (from<br />
tzacouh = glue <strong>and</strong> xochitl = flower) was used as an<br />
adhesive <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> a concoction prescribed for timoris vel<br />
micropsychiae remedium, that could be translated as a<br />
“remedy aga<strong>in</strong>st shyness”. This orchid is either Bletia<br />
campanulata or Catasetum maculatum (Osp<strong>in</strong>a, 1997:<br />
1160).<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Osp<strong>in</strong>a, the illustrations of the Aztec<br />
Herbal also represent the first attempt <strong>in</strong> the Americas<br />
to coord<strong>in</strong>ate the floristic or medical descriptions of<br />
plants with their ecological circumstances. The plants<br />
are depicted <strong>in</strong> full, that is, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g flowers, leaves,<br />
stems <strong>and</strong> roots, <strong>and</strong> around the roots there are various<br />
pictorial symbols that undoubtedly refer to the ecology<br />
of the plant. Thus, a blue background color<strong>in</strong>g...<br />
would <strong>in</strong>dicate that the plant grew near the water...;<br />
the relationship between plants <strong>and</strong> ants is shown by<br />
clear pictures of these <strong>in</strong>sects <strong>in</strong> the plant’s roots, <strong>and</strong><br />
so on. This Herbal will, therefore, st<strong>and</strong> as our first<br />
known reference for future works on the <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
their ecology <strong>in</strong> the Americas (Osp<strong>in</strong>a, 1997: 1160-61).<br />
The expedition of Francisco Hernández to New<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> (1570-1577). It was <strong>in</strong> the year of 1570 when<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> started her first scientific expedition to the New<br />
World. In charge was Francisco Hernández (1517-<br />
1587), with the title of First Physician General of the<br />
New Indies, Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Terra Firma of the Ocean; he<br />
carried <strong>in</strong>structions to write a natural history of these<br />
l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> to “draw the herbs <strong>and</strong> other natural th<strong>in</strong>gs”<br />
(San Pío Aladrén & Puig-Samper, 2000: 11). It is quite<br />
possible that the works of Badiano <strong>and</strong> Sahagún had<br />
a strong <strong>in</strong>fluence on Emperor Philip II <strong>and</strong> led him<br />
to f<strong>in</strong>ance the most import botanical expedition of<br />
his time (Gómez-Pompa, 1993: 30). Hernández was<br />
the first European to <strong>in</strong>vestigate the flora of Mexico,<br />
although from a medic<strong>in</strong>al rather than a botanical<br />
st<strong>and</strong>po<strong>in</strong>t (Hemsley, 1887: 117-18). Besides the<br />
scholar, three illustrators, three scribes, a cosmographer
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
<strong>and</strong> several Indian medic<strong>in</strong>e-men took part <strong>in</strong> the<br />
expedition. On March 1, 1571, Hernández presented<br />
his title of Protomédico <strong>in</strong> the palace of the Viceroy, <strong>in</strong><br />
Veracruz. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g six years, the expedition<br />
collected more than 3,000 plants, <strong>500</strong> animals <strong>and</strong> 35<br />
m<strong>in</strong>erals. “As the first expedition of natural history ever<br />
sent out by a government, the Hernández venture is a<br />
l<strong>and</strong>mark <strong>in</strong> the annals of botanical science. Although<br />
he classified his plants largely accord<strong>in</strong>g to unscientific<br />
Aztec st<strong>and</strong>ards, <strong>and</strong> his descriptions are often too<br />
brief or vague, Hernández preserved a body of ethnobotanical<br />
lore that probably otherwise would have been<br />
lost” (Steele, 1964: 7) (Fig. 10A).<br />
In 1577, Hernández returned to Spa<strong>in</strong>, hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
completed a total of six volumes of text <strong>and</strong> ten volumes<br />
of illustrations of what he called Rerum Medicarum<br />
Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus, seu Plantarum,<br />
Animalium, M<strong>in</strong>eralium Mexicanarum Historia or<br />
Natural History of New Spa<strong>in</strong>. The work languished <strong>in</strong><br />
the library of El Escorial <strong>and</strong> Hernández died <strong>in</strong> 1587<br />
without ever hav<strong>in</strong>g seen it published. “This pattern<br />
of failure would be repeated many times over, for the<br />
eyes of Spanish authorities were <strong>in</strong>variably bigger<br />
than their stomachs when it came to digest<strong>in</strong>g the vast<br />
quantities of botanical knowledge unceas<strong>in</strong>gly offered<br />
up by the Indies” (Steele, 1964: 7).<br />
In 1580, Philip II ordered the first physician of<br />
Naples, Dr. Nardo Antonio Recchi, to distil the essence<br />
of Hernández’s f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs. In do<strong>in</strong>g his duty, however,<br />
Recchi not only excluded all of the natural history that<br />
seemed of no use <strong>in</strong> medic<strong>in</strong>e, but ended <strong>in</strong> publish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
noth<strong>in</strong>g either (Steele, 1964: 6). Fortunately, Friar<br />
Francisco Ximénez [who must not be confused with<br />
the translator of the Popol Vuh] saw the need to furnish<br />
a medical guide for the haciendas <strong>and</strong> towns of Mexico<br />
that had neither physician nor pharmacist, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1615<br />
at Mexico City published the first edition of Hernández<br />
work. He based it, however, upon the <strong>in</strong>complete<br />
summation by Recchi (Steele, 1964: 6). Recchi died<br />
before complet<strong>in</strong>g his work <strong>and</strong> his manuscripts<br />
came <strong>in</strong>to possession of Federico Cesi, Pr<strong>in</strong>ce of<br />
Acquasparta (1585-1630), found<strong>in</strong>g member of the<br />
Accademia dei L<strong>in</strong>cei, <strong>in</strong> Roma. Cesi’s <strong>in</strong>tention was<br />
to cont<strong>in</strong>ue the publication of the work of Hernández<br />
with the help of other experts. Johannes Schreck (who<br />
became a monk <strong>in</strong> 1628 <strong>and</strong> took the name of Giovanni<br />
Terrenti or Terenzio), <strong>in</strong> charge of the botany, traveled<br />
Table 2. Orchids <strong>in</strong> the 1651 edition of the Thesaurus (from<br />
Jenny, 1993:4).<br />
Page 38 Tlilxochitl Vanilla<br />
Page 166 Coatzonte Coxochitl Stanhopea hern<strong>and</strong>ezii<br />
Page 349 Amazauhtli Oncidium (illustrated<br />
without flowers, undoubtedly<br />
from the<br />
group of Oncidium<br />
luridum or Oncidium<br />
cavendishianum)<br />
Page 368 Chichiltic tepelauhxochitl Laelia cf. speciosa or<br />
Schomburgkia<br />
Page 433 Tzauxochitl Laelia or Encyclia<br />
to Madrid <strong>in</strong> 1616 on behalf of the L<strong>in</strong>cei, to study<br />
Hernández’s manuscripts. In 1628 the Accademia<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ally published the first part of the Thesaurus. The<br />
same Accademia would publish, <strong>in</strong> 1651 <strong>and</strong> under the<br />
guidance of Francesco Stelluti, an augmented version.<br />
Before the work by Hernández could be fully valued,<br />
his manuscripts were destroyed by the great fire at El<br />
Escorial <strong>in</strong> 1671.<br />
Among the plants mentioned <strong>in</strong> the 1651 edition are<br />
five species of Orchidaceae, all clearly illustrated <strong>and</strong><br />
described <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> (Tab. 2).<br />
In both editions (1628 <strong>and</strong> 1651) the illustrations<br />
<strong>and</strong> descriptions co<strong>in</strong>cide exactly. The Aztec names<br />
are undoubtedly from Hernández, while the Lat<strong>in</strong><br />
equivalents are by Terenzio. Unfortunately, only two<br />
species can be identified with certa<strong>in</strong>ty. The others<br />
are illustrated without flowers, or with little detail<br />
(Fig. 10, B—E). Alzate comments <strong>in</strong> 1791, referr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the work of Hernández, about another orchid called<br />
cozticxochitl (“yellow flower”), that he also calls<br />
istontle, istontli, iztamaxuchitl <strong>and</strong> cocotlacotl (Alzate<br />
y Ramírez, 1791). The Botanical Register, under plate<br />
#13, Govenia liliacea (La Llave & Lex.) L<strong>in</strong>dl., states<br />
that “the first notice we have of the existence of this<br />
species is from Hernández who, <strong>in</strong> the Madrid edition<br />
of his work, calls it by the many-syllabled name of<br />
‘Iztactepetzacuxochitl Icohueyo’ ” (Sprunger, 1991:<br />
123). This <strong>in</strong>dicates that Hernández work was still<br />
known <strong>in</strong> L<strong>in</strong>dley’s time.<br />
Stanhopea hern<strong>and</strong>ezii deserves a special mention.<br />
The romantic <strong>in</strong>terpretation of many authors that the<br />
Lat<strong>in</strong> description that appears <strong>in</strong> the editions of 1628<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1651 (Lyncis flore seu Lyncea = Lynx flower,<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
27
28<br />
also Lyncea) was a premonition of Hernández that<br />
it would be the Accademia dei L<strong>in</strong>cei that would<br />
rescue his works from oblivion (such as Bateman<br />
<strong>in</strong> his Orchidaceae of Mexico <strong>and</strong> Guatemala ) is<br />
opposed by the much more pragmatic op<strong>in</strong>ion of Jenny<br />
(1993: 5) who ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s that Hernández could have<br />
no knowledge of the Roman academy <strong>and</strong> that it was<br />
Terenzio, member of the L<strong>in</strong>cei, who <strong>in</strong>vented the<br />
name. James Bateman (1811-1897) used the flower of<br />
Stanhopea hern<strong>and</strong>ezii to embellish the frontispiece of<br />
his Orchidaceae of Mexico <strong>and</strong> Guatemala (Fig. 10F)<br />
<strong>and</strong> went to the extreme of assur<strong>in</strong>g that Hernández<br />
“ventured to dedicate it, as the loveliest plant of the<br />
Mexican Flora, to the Lyncean Academicians of Rome,<br />
by whom it was immediately adopted …” (Bateman,<br />
1837-43: 7). Bateman f<strong>org</strong>ot that Hernández had died<br />
when Cesi was barely two years old.<br />
We do not know if the loss of a great part of<br />
Hernández’s work was due to neglect or to the zeal of<br />
the Spanish Inquisition. But it is sad to record that a<br />
work of such value shared the same fate of the herbal<br />
of Martín de la Cruz, lost <strong>in</strong> the vaults of the Vatican,<br />
or the monumental work of Sahagún, confiscated to<br />
satisfy religious <strong>in</strong>tolerance.<br />
A new dark age<br />
“Many died <strong>in</strong> the flames <strong>and</strong> it gave me so much<br />
pleasure to see them burn that, pok<strong>in</strong>g the fire, I said:<br />
Heretic dogs, m<strong>in</strong>ister I am of the Holy Inquisition!”<br />
Pedro Calderón de la Barca<br />
The siege of Breda, 1640<br />
In the second half of the XVI century, the Spanish<br />
Empire reached its maximum expansion. Phillip<br />
II could proudly say that the sun did not set <strong>in</strong> his<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ions. The American cont<strong>in</strong>ent excited the<br />
curiosity of erudites <strong>and</strong> travelers. But the chronicles of<br />
Bernal Díaz del Castillo, Francisco López de Gómara,<br />
Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo <strong>and</strong> Fray Bernard<strong>in</strong>o<br />
de Sahagún gave way to a long century of silence <strong>and</strong><br />
darkness. As religious problems exacerbated <strong>in</strong> Europe,<br />
the Spanish Inquisition unleashed its aggressiveness<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the liberty of thought. “... Charles I attempts<br />
to avoid ideological corruption apply<strong>in</strong>g his Index<br />
of forbidden books [Index Librorum Prohibitorum]<br />
which his son Philip would extend prohibit<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
importation of foreign books <strong>and</strong> the travel of students<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
to the European universities” (García de Cortázar, F.,<br />
González Vesga, J. M., 1994: 336). In 1571, the Holy<br />
Office of the Inquisition was established <strong>in</strong> Mexico, to<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigate <strong>and</strong> punish religious crimes. Between 1571<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1600, 600 persons were condemned by the tribunal<br />
of the Inquisition <strong>in</strong> Mexico, 13 of them to die <strong>in</strong> the<br />
flames. (Carmack et el., 1996: 158).<br />
“The sword, the open grave to bury them alive, the<br />
stake, awaited those who sold, bought or copied heretic<br />
books; those who pa<strong>in</strong>ted or sold defamatory images,<br />
damaged or broke the images of the sa<strong>in</strong>ts, those who<br />
celebrated <strong>in</strong> their homes cl<strong>and</strong>est<strong>in</strong>e reunions or<br />
permitted them; those who discussed <strong>in</strong> public or secretly<br />
about the Holy Scripts” (Schneider, 2002: 193).<br />
From a military st<strong>and</strong>po<strong>in</strong>t, the defeat of the<br />
Inv<strong>in</strong>cible Armada <strong>in</strong> 1588 was the first of a series of<br />
disasters that cont<strong>in</strong>ued dur<strong>in</strong>g the Thirty Year War<br />
(1618-1648) <strong>and</strong> marked the end of Spanish hegemony<br />
<strong>in</strong> Europe. With the treaty of Utrecht (1713), Spa<strong>in</strong><br />
said farewell to her last cont<strong>in</strong>ental possessions. The<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ances of the Spanish monarchy looked even worse:<br />
the bankruptcy of 1557 repeated itself monotonously<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1575, 1607, 1627, 1647, 1662 <strong>and</strong> 1666. The<br />
pen<strong>in</strong>sula suffers from depopulation (between 1575<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1650 the Spanish population dim<strong>in</strong>ished by 20 per<br />
cent) <strong>and</strong> economic recession. Instead of promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
local production, the American gold f<strong>in</strong>ances luxury<br />
purchases <strong>in</strong> foreign markets. While the rest of Europe<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased its production, Spa<strong>in</strong> lied <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ancial<br />
chaos. The universities served as recruit<strong>in</strong>g centers<br />
for the imperial bureaucracy. The crown encouraged<br />
all discipl<strong>in</strong>es related to adm<strong>in</strong>istration while the<br />
flames of the autos de fe of the Inquisition strangled<br />
humanism <strong>and</strong> religious pressures suppressed scientific<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigations.<br />
“Medieval <strong>and</strong> modern at the same time, the<br />
imperial society of the XVI <strong>and</strong> XVII centuries is a<br />
society <strong>in</strong> transit... The spirit of exultation of the<br />
k<strong>in</strong>gdoms of Charles I <strong>and</strong> Philip II is replaced by<br />
the prosaic reality of the smaller Hapsburgs... The<br />
bitterness of military failures, the decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the liberty<br />
of thought, grow<strong>in</strong>g del<strong>in</strong>quency, hunger, bureaucratic<br />
<strong>and</strong> religious hypertrophy... cha<strong>in</strong>ed a community<br />
which had been alive hundred years earlier” (García de<br />
Cortázar & González Vesga, 1994: 270-71). We must<br />
therefore not be surprised if, from the last third of the<br />
XVI to the latter XVII century, the history of <strong>orchids</strong>
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B C<br />
D<br />
E<br />
Figure 10. A — The questioner. Native draw<strong>in</strong>g of a Spaniard of the XVI century who asked the Indians about their<br />
traditions, plants <strong>and</strong> antiquities. It is generally assumed that it represents Francisco Hernández. In Lozoya, 1984. B<br />
— Coatzonte coxochitl (Stanhopea hern<strong>and</strong>ezii). In Jenny, 1993: 1. C — Chichiltic tepetlauxochitl (Laelia speciosa).<br />
In Jenny, 1993: 3. D — Tzacuxochitll (Prosthechea vitell<strong>in</strong>a). In Hágsater et al., 2006: 40-41. E — Tzacutli (Bletia<br />
jucunda). In Hágsater et al., 2006: 40-41. F — Enlarged detail from the frontispiece of the work of Bateman with the<br />
illustration of Stanhopea hern<strong>and</strong>ezii.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
F<br />
29
30<br />
A<br />
C<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
E F<br />
Figure 11. A — The ‘Stelis’ of Tabernaemontanus. In Nieder & Barthlott, 1992: 244. B — Signature of Francisco Antonio<br />
de Fuentes y Guzmán, as flowery as his ‘Recollection’. C — Peristeria elata Hook. In Curtis’s Botanical Magaz<strong>in</strong>e, plate<br />
3116. D — Carl von L<strong>in</strong>né (1707-1778). In Coe & Coe, 1996: 18. E — Orig<strong>in</strong>al site plan for the Royal Botanical Garden<br />
<strong>in</strong> Madrid. In San Pío Aladrén et al., 2005: 136. F — Orig<strong>in</strong>al sketch for the ma<strong>in</strong> entrance gate to the Royal Botanical<br />
Garden <strong>in</strong> Madrid. In San Pío Aladrén et al., 2005: 137.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B<br />
D
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
<strong>in</strong> Central America shows a void that lasted almost 125<br />
years, <strong>in</strong> what Carlos Fuentes called “the long night<br />
of El Escorial”. In Steele’s words, “the seventeenth<br />
century was sterile” (Steele, 1964: 11). \It should not<br />
surprise us either that the only exceptions dur<strong>in</strong>g this<br />
period came from Central Europe. In 1588, the German<br />
Jacob Theodor, better known as Tabernaemontanus<br />
(1522-1590), publishes the Neuw vollkommentlich<br />
Kreuterbuch (“New Complete Herbal”).<br />
In this work, without <strong>in</strong>dication of orig<strong>in</strong>, a plant<br />
named Indianisch Mispel or Viscum Indicum is<br />
illustrated, that accord<strong>in</strong>g to Nieder & Barthlott is a<br />
species of Stelis, although, <strong>in</strong> the op<strong>in</strong>ion of Béhar<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pupul<strong>in</strong> (pers. comm., 2007) its ‘lepanthiform’<br />
sheaths could <strong>in</strong>dicate that it is rather a species of the<br />
genera Trichosalp<strong>in</strong>x or Lepanthopsis (Fig. 11A). All<br />
three genera have a wide range of distribution <strong>and</strong> can<br />
be found from Mexico <strong>and</strong> Central America through<br />
the Caribbean <strong>and</strong> South America. It is therefore<br />
clearly speculative to <strong>in</strong>clude this curious reference<br />
of Tabernaemontanus <strong>in</strong> the history of the <strong>orchids</strong><br />
of Central America. The woodcut was probably<br />
prepared from a herbarium specimen that could have<br />
been collected <strong>in</strong> almost any region of the Americas.<br />
Tabernaemontanus <strong>in</strong>curred <strong>in</strong> an underst<strong>and</strong>able error,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g an epiphyte orchid <strong>in</strong> a genus (Viscum) that is<br />
a parasite. The famous German philosopher Immanuel<br />
Kant made the same mistake two hundred years later<br />
when, writ<strong>in</strong>g about the cultivation of vanilla, he said<br />
that you “… only have to tie it unto a tree, from which<br />
it takes its juice” (Nieder & Barthlott, 1992: 243).<br />
As the second exception, we already mentioned the<br />
botanical description of vanilla by l’Ecluse <strong>in</strong> 1605.<br />
It was ironically the same Charles de l’Ecluse who<br />
published, <strong>in</strong> 1576, a flora of Spa<strong>in</strong> (Rariorum aliquot<br />
stirpium per Hispanias observatorum historia), just<br />
as Spa<strong>in</strong> debated about the necessity of exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dex of prohibited books of 1559 (the new <strong>in</strong>dex was<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ally published <strong>in</strong> 1584) (Jacquet, 1994: 78).<br />
The “English American” — the journey through<br />
Mexico <strong>and</strong> Central America of Thomas Gage<br />
(1625-1637). Thomas Gage (1597?-1656) was one<br />
of the most peculiar characters that ever visited our<br />
region. Of Irish orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> born <strong>in</strong>to a traditional<br />
Catholic family, Gage studied <strong>in</strong> France <strong>and</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> convents of the Jesuits by decision of his parents,<br />
who wanted him to become — together with his four<br />
brothers- missionaries for the conversion of Engl<strong>and</strong><br />
(one of the ma<strong>in</strong> objectives of the Spanish Jesuits).<br />
While study<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Valladolid, Gage decided to leave<br />
the Jesuits <strong>and</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>ed the Dom<strong>in</strong>icans, <strong>and</strong> it was as<br />
part of a Dom<strong>in</strong>ican group on route to the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es<br />
that he arrived <strong>in</strong> Veracruz <strong>in</strong> 1625, one the first non-<br />
Spaniard to do so s<strong>in</strong>ce the Spanish conquest of the<br />
territory (despite of the presence of foreigners <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Spanish colonies be<strong>in</strong>g strictly prohibited by a Royal<br />
decree). From Mexico he went on to Guatemala <strong>and</strong><br />
entered the order’s mission <strong>in</strong> the city. Gage lived<br />
for twelve years <strong>in</strong> New Spa<strong>in</strong>, for the most part <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala <strong>and</strong> among the <strong>in</strong>digenous population.<br />
He came to know the customs, the language, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
feel<strong>in</strong>gs of the Indians as very few before or after him.<br />
He returned to Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1637, travel<strong>in</strong>g through<br />
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama <strong>and</strong> Cuba, <strong>and</strong> then<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1642 publicly ab<strong>and</strong>oned the Catholic Church for<br />
a Puritanical form of Anglicanism. Gage later called<br />
himself “the only Protestant that was ever known to<br />
have traveled to those parts” (<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction to his<br />
book ). He embarked <strong>in</strong> 1654 as chapla<strong>in</strong> of Cromwell’s<br />
expedition to the Antilles <strong>and</strong> died f<strong>in</strong>ally <strong>in</strong> Jamaica<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1656. Gage published <strong>in</strong> 1648 the account of this<br />
travels through America <strong>in</strong> A New Survey of the West<br />
Indies be<strong>in</strong>g A Journal of Three thous<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Three<br />
hundred Miles with<strong>in</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> l<strong>and</strong> of America. His<br />
narrative was very popular <strong>in</strong> his time <strong>and</strong> one of the<br />
reasons were the fantastic accounts of Gage (a mixture<br />
of imag<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> truth, full of exact details but also<br />
of exaggerations, of descriptions of gold m<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong><br />
fabulous treasures). Gage’s work was widely read <strong>and</strong><br />
discussed <strong>and</strong> translated to several other languages.<br />
In his work, Gage mentions <strong>in</strong> several occasions the<br />
use given to vanilla <strong>in</strong> relation to the preparation of<br />
chocolate (see above “The history of Vanilla”).<br />
The renaissance of science. Slowly, <strong>in</strong> the last<br />
decades of the XVI century, Spanish <strong>in</strong>tellectuals<br />
began to rebel aga<strong>in</strong>st the discipl<strong>in</strong>ary power of the<br />
Church. The challeng<strong>in</strong>g ‘philosophic letter’ of Juan<br />
de Cabriada, a militant manifest, openly <strong>in</strong> favor<br />
of laboratory experiments, raised <strong>in</strong> 1687 waves of<br />
enthusiasm <strong>and</strong> also scared rejections. With the change<br />
of the century, methods of direct observation ga<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
more <strong>and</strong> more importance. Fern<strong>and</strong>o VI paid special<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
31
32<br />
attention to the botanical gardens, found<strong>in</strong>g the Royal<br />
Botanical Garden <strong>in</strong> Madrid (1755), followed soon<br />
by the botanical gardens of Valencia, Barcelona <strong>and</strong><br />
Zaragoza. Spa<strong>in</strong> opens its doors to foreign scientists.<br />
The botanist Loefl<strong>in</strong>g, pupil of L<strong>in</strong>né, brought his<br />
Spanish colleagues up to date, as reflected <strong>in</strong> the<br />
works of Barnades, Mutis or Gómez Ortega (García<br />
de Cortázar & González Vesga, 1994: 405). In a last<br />
attempt to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> ideological repression, an edict by<br />
the Inquisition <strong>in</strong> 1759 prohibited the read<strong>in</strong>g of the<br />
French Encyclopedia.<br />
Two small works were published <strong>in</strong> Central<br />
America, of more descriptive than scientific character,<br />
<strong>in</strong> which we f<strong>in</strong>d the first descriptions of <strong>orchids</strong> after<br />
the obscurantist <strong>in</strong>terregnum. In 1690, the historian <strong>and</strong><br />
poet Francisco Antonio de Fuentes y Guzmán (1643-<br />
1700) wrote <strong>in</strong> Guatemala his Recordación Florida,<br />
discurso historial y demostración natural, material,<br />
militar y política del Reyno de Guatemala (=Flowery<br />
recollection, historical discourse <strong>and</strong> natural, material,<br />
military <strong>and</strong> political demonstration of the K<strong>in</strong>gdom of<br />
Guatemala), published <strong>in</strong> Madrid <strong>in</strong> 1882. Fuentes y<br />
Guzmán described what is probably a species of the<br />
genus Laelia: “The herb that, <strong>in</strong> the manner of a lily,<br />
grows <strong>in</strong> the formation of its leaves <strong>and</strong> is called Zayte<br />
by the c<strong>and</strong>y makers <strong>and</strong> Cebollín (= little onion) by<br />
peasants <strong>and</strong> shepherds, grows its roots like a potato or<br />
a truffle, covered by a sk<strong>in</strong> or membrane as subtle as<br />
the sk<strong>in</strong> of an onion, but tend<strong>in</strong>g to be green. Its roots<br />
are thick as the wire of the blacksmiths. Its <strong>in</strong>terior is<br />
not covered by sk<strong>in</strong>s like the onion, but between fibers<br />
like a cord it grows white dough of glut<strong>in</strong>ous juic<strong>in</strong>ess.<br />
This dough is used by c<strong>and</strong>y makers for drops <strong>and</strong><br />
cakes, because it gives them firmness. It is also used by<br />
carpenters to weld <strong>and</strong> jo<strong>in</strong> the musical <strong>in</strong>struments <strong>and</strong><br />
to improve the firmness <strong>and</strong> softness of their voices”<br />
(Fuentes y Guzmán, 1932: 246-47). But perhaps<br />
the most curious remark of Fuentes y Guzmán is his<br />
reference to the epiphytic habit of <strong>orchids</strong>. Not able to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong> how a plant grows on a tree, he calls them<br />
“grafts”. In the last paragraph of his work, Fuentes y<br />
Guzmán shows the fear still <strong>in</strong>spired by the Inquisition:<br />
“All what is written <strong>in</strong> the first part of our history of the<br />
K<strong>in</strong>gdom of Guatemala I submit with utmost catholic<br />
humiliation to the correction of our mother, the Holy<br />
Roman Catholic Church, as her obedient son” (Fuentes<br />
y Guzmán 1932: 418) (Fig. 11B).<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Born <strong>in</strong> Andalusia <strong>in</strong> 1666, Friar Francisco Ximénez<br />
(1666-1729) arrived <strong>in</strong> Guatemala when he was 22<br />
years of age <strong>and</strong> became famous for his translation<br />
of the Popol Vuh, the sacred book of the Quiché, <strong>in</strong><br />
the first years of the XVIII century. The manuscript<br />
which Father Francisco Ximénez found <strong>in</strong> his parish at<br />
Chichicastenango ranks highest among the documents<br />
composed by the American Indians after they had<br />
learned to write their own languages by means of<br />
the Lat<strong>in</strong> letters which the Spanish missionaries had<br />
taught them. Its author was undoubtedly one of the first<br />
students who learned from the friars the marvelous art<br />
of phonetic writ<strong>in</strong>g. The Quiché chronicler knew that<br />
<strong>in</strong> olden times there was a book which conta<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />
traditions <strong>and</strong> accounts of his people, <strong>and</strong>, know<strong>in</strong>g<br />
them perfectly, he had the happy <strong>in</strong>spiration of<br />
record<strong>in</strong>g them. The author of the Manuscript says that<br />
he writes it because now the Popol Vuh, or the orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
“Book of the People,” as Ximénez calls it, is no longer<br />
to be seen. We have no facts by which to identify this<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al book other than those which its unknown<br />
author gives. Nevertheless, from the knowledge that<br />
we have of the American Indians’ system of writ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
before the Conquest, it seems doubtful that the ancient<br />
Quiché book could have been a document of set form<br />
<strong>and</strong> permanent literary composition. Rather one must<br />
suppose that it might have been a book of pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs with<br />
hieroglyphs which the priests <strong>in</strong>terpreted to the people<br />
<strong>in</strong> order to keep alive <strong>in</strong> them the knowledge of the<br />
orig<strong>in</strong> of their race <strong>and</strong> the mysteries of their religion.<br />
The Manuscript of Chichicastenango has no title. It<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>s directly with these words:<br />
“This is the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the old traditions of<br />
this place called Quiché. Here we shall write <strong>and</strong><br />
we shall beg<strong>in</strong> the old tales, the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> the<br />
orig<strong>in</strong> of all that was done <strong>in</strong> the town of the Quiché,<br />
by the tribes of the Quiché nation.”<br />
Less known is Ximénez’s Historia Natural del Re<strong>in</strong>o<br />
de Guatemala (= Natural History of the K<strong>in</strong>gdom of<br />
Guatemala), a work written <strong>in</strong> 1722 but not published<br />
until 1967 <strong>and</strong> considered to be the first medical botany<br />
of Guatemala. Ximénez marvels about the nature that<br />
surrounds him: “If any flowers resemble our Div<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Maker with more property, I have no doubt that they are<br />
the flowers of this America, for there are so many <strong>and</strong><br />
so admirable.” A good observer, Ximénez is one of the<br />
first to describe the epiphytic character <strong>and</strong> sympodial
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
growth of <strong>orchids</strong>, without underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g the formation<br />
of fruits <strong>and</strong> seed. In book XI of his work, About the<br />
flowers, he dedicates a chapter to <strong>orchids</strong> under the<br />
title: “Flowers of the trees”: “No seed is recognized <strong>in</strong><br />
them from that they reproduce, but from one little onion<br />
new others are born <strong>and</strong> if one gives once a flower, it<br />
will not give it aga<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> it leaves other onions at its<br />
foot produced from itself <strong>and</strong> so those plants multiply”<br />
(Ximénez, 1722: 313). He tells us also how <strong>orchids</strong> are<br />
only found <strong>in</strong> adult trees: “On the other h<strong>and</strong>, one sees<br />
an oak grow<strong>in</strong>g, that had its bark clean, <strong>and</strong> suddenly<br />
out of him comes some genus of those flowers, which<br />
are without number. And this can only be seen when the<br />
oak is old” (Ximénez, 1722: 303).<br />
Ximénez cont<strong>in</strong>ues describ<strong>in</strong>g several species<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong>. He mentions the monjitas (= little nuns<br />
— Lycaste spp.), the flower of Sa<strong>in</strong>t Mart<strong>in</strong> (Laelia<br />
superbiens L<strong>in</strong>dl.) <strong>and</strong> the flower of Sacrament<br />
(“They give it this name because it flowers at the time<br />
of Lent <strong>and</strong> they put this flowers on the altars. It is very<br />
fragrant <strong>and</strong> out of the onion rise long twigs, about<br />
a vara 11 long <strong>and</strong> it all fills with little flowers like a<br />
real 12 ” (Ximénez, 1722: 314). Ximénez also mentions<br />
the m<strong>in</strong>iatures: “Others give smaller flowers <strong>and</strong> still<br />
others give some that are extremely small.”<br />
As it is a terrestrial, it does not surprise us that<br />
Ximénez fails to recognize Peristeria elata (Fig. 11C)<br />
as an orchid, although it attracts his attention that they<br />
have not been able to acclimate it to Guatemala: “In<br />
the fields near the city of Panama grows a herb whose<br />
flower is a well formed white dove, that is the reason<br />
that they call this the flower of the Holy Spirit, <strong>and</strong> it is<br />
so unique to that l<strong>and</strong>, that it has not been possible to<br />
take it to another, notwithst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g all efforts that have<br />
been made...”. Ximénez mentions a total of more than<br />
12 species, end<strong>in</strong>g with a reference to the great variety<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region <strong>and</strong> to the impossibility<br />
of describ<strong>in</strong>g them all: “There are [so] many others<br />
that grow on onions that I do not remember any more”<br />
(Ximénez, 1722: 304).<br />
Little more can be told about <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central<br />
America dur<strong>in</strong>g the XVII <strong>and</strong> the first half of the<br />
XVIII centuries. While Sloane <strong>and</strong> Plumier explored<br />
the Antilles <strong>and</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> France <strong>in</strong>creased their<br />
knowledge about the floras of their colonies, Spanish<br />
11 vara = unit of length, about 2.8 ft.<br />
12 real = a silver co<strong>in</strong>.<br />
science cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> a profound lethargy. Botanical<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest slowly extended from the British colonies to<br />
Tierra Firme. “A few botanical specimens may have<br />
been garnered by the British buccaneer William Dampier<br />
(1652-1715).... [who] stopped at Cocos Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Cabo<br />
Blanco [Costa Rica] <strong>in</strong> June <strong>and</strong> July (respectively) of<br />
1684 aboard the pirated ship Batchelor’s Delight...”<br />
(Hammel et al., 2004: 2). Dur<strong>in</strong>g his voyages to the<br />
Caribbean <strong>and</strong> Central America, the Scott William<br />
Houston spent four years (1729-1733) <strong>in</strong> Cuba,<br />
Veracruz, Campeche <strong>and</strong> Jamaica, collect<strong>in</strong>g specimens<br />
<strong>and</strong> seeds (Steele, A. R., 1964: 15). There are however<br />
no <strong>orchids</strong> among his collections. In the previous chapter<br />
(The history of vanilla) we already commented about the<br />
collections of R. Miller <strong>in</strong> Campeche <strong>in</strong> 1739. Shortly<br />
afterwards, the Swede Carl von L<strong>in</strong>né (1707-1778)<br />
set the foundation for modern botanical nomenclature.<br />
“Accord<strong>in</strong>g to present rules, the term<strong>in</strong>ology of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
starts on May 1, 1753... “ (Jacquet, 1994: 96). With<br />
L<strong>in</strong>né, “... botanical science came to life, if not yet to<br />
maturity” (Steele, 1964: 9) (Fig. 11D).<br />
enlIghTenmenT <strong>and</strong> Independence<br />
“Hispaniae Florae nullae nobis <strong>in</strong>noterunt,<br />
adeoque plantae istae rarissimae, <strong>in</strong> locis<br />
Hispaniae fertilissimis, m<strong>in</strong>us detectae sunt.<br />
Dolendus est, quod <strong>in</strong> locis Europa cultioribus,<br />
tanta existat nostro tempore barbaries botanices.”<br />
(= Noth<strong>in</strong>g comes to us from the Hispanic<br />
Flora, because these rare plants that live <strong>in</strong> the<br />
fertile regions of Spa<strong>in</strong> are barely taken <strong>in</strong>to<br />
consideration. It is pa<strong>in</strong>ful to see that so much<br />
botanical barbarity exists <strong>in</strong> such enlightened<br />
places of Europe)<br />
Carl von L<strong>in</strong>né, Bibliotheca botanica, 1751<br />
The Age of Reason. Fern<strong>and</strong>o VI, who ascended to<br />
the throne <strong>in</strong> 1746, proved that Spanish botany only<br />
needed the support of the crown <strong>in</strong> order to grow. After<br />
a petition of Secretary of State José de Carvajal, L<strong>in</strong>né<br />
sent to Spa<strong>in</strong> one of his favorite pupils, Pehr Löfl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(1729-1756). “Löfl<strong>in</strong>g cast off to br<strong>in</strong>g light to Darkest<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> May, 1751” (Steele, 1964: 31). As proof that<br />
the XVIII century desire for “useful knowledge” had<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
33
34<br />
penetrated Spanish consciousness, the government<br />
decided to send Löfl<strong>in</strong>g, together with other experts,<br />
on an expedition that should explore Venezuela. This<br />
expedition bore little results, due to the premature<br />
death of Löfl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region of the Or<strong>in</strong>oco river, but<br />
above all because the Spanish government refused to<br />
lend or even show L<strong>in</strong>né the material collected by his<br />
pupil <strong>and</strong> especially the manuscripts that he compiled<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g his brief stay <strong>in</strong> America. To this day, nobody<br />
knows what happened to Löfl<strong>in</strong>g’s herbarium, one of<br />
the first collections made <strong>in</strong> America.<br />
The advantages that Enlightenment saw <strong>in</strong> utilitarian<br />
science were expressed by L<strong>in</strong>né: “Various nations<br />
consider it a raison d’etat to hide their advantages,<br />
especially <strong>in</strong> the distant colonies. But Señor Carvajal<br />
was too great a statesman to let himself be deceived<br />
by these motives. He knew that the rich resources of<br />
nature are <strong>in</strong>exhaustible <strong>and</strong> that, us<strong>in</strong>g them with the<br />
necessary knowledge, one had no need to fear their lack.<br />
He saw how the French <strong>and</strong> English, <strong>in</strong> many varied<br />
ways, had learned to exploit their colonies after hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
learned to know their territories <strong>and</strong> products <strong>in</strong> a better<br />
manner” (Rydén, 1957: 204-205. The quote is from the<br />
prologue of L<strong>in</strong>né <strong>in</strong> his Iter Hispanicum, 1758).<br />
Though its beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>gs were tortuous <strong>and</strong> slow,<br />
Spanish botany entered an era of excited ferment <strong>in</strong> the<br />
last half of the eighteenth century (Steele, 1964: 46).<br />
The Royal Botanical Garden of Madrid was founded<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1755. On October 17, 1755, Fern<strong>and</strong>o VI signed a<br />
royal order: “Wish<strong>in</strong>g the K<strong>in</strong>g the furtherance of the<br />
Arts <strong>and</strong> Sciences, <strong>and</strong> especially those whose progress<br />
promise great advantages to the health of his subjects,<br />
has he come to grant to his Royal Protomedicate the<br />
use of his garden at Migascalientes with the purpose<br />
of form<strong>in</strong>g there a Royal Garden <strong>and</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
these K<strong>in</strong>gdoms the important study of Botany” (Fig.<br />
11, E—F). José Quer (1695-1764) was named as its<br />
first professor of Botany. He would publish, between<br />
1762 <strong>and</strong> 1764, the first Spanish flora, <strong>in</strong> four volumes,<br />
which was left unf<strong>in</strong>ished at the time of his death (Quer,<br />
J., 1762, Flora Española o Historia de las plantas que<br />
se crían en España, Madrid) (De San Pío Aladrén et<br />
al., 2005: 23).<br />
Moved by the necessity of reviv<strong>in</strong>g the Spanish<br />
economy <strong>and</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g unemployment, the Count<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
of Campomanes, <strong>in</strong> his famous Discourse on the<br />
furtherance of popular <strong>in</strong>dustry (1774), mentioned the<br />
importance of study<strong>in</strong>g natural history. Thus was the<br />
idea born to send expeditions to the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal regions<br />
of the empire. In 1777 the expedition of Ruiz <strong>and</strong><br />
Pavón departed for the Viceroyalty of Peru, followed<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1787, 1789 y 1799 by those of Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño to<br />
New Spa<strong>in</strong>, Malasp<strong>in</strong>a to the Pacific <strong>and</strong> Mutis to New<br />
Granada. All this research, made dur<strong>in</strong>g twenty years<br />
<strong>in</strong> the most fertile regions of the new cont<strong>in</strong>ent, has not<br />
only enriched the doma<strong>in</strong> of science with more than four<br />
thous<strong>and</strong> new species of plants; it has also contributed<br />
greatly to spread the taste for natural history among the<br />
<strong>in</strong>habitants of the country (Steele, 1964: vii, who cites<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>er von Humboldt, <strong>in</strong> his Essai politique sur le<br />
royaume de la Nouvelle-Espagne (1811).<br />
Under the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the ideas of Enlightenment<br />
<strong>and</strong> the political events that shook France <strong>and</strong> the<br />
English colonies <strong>in</strong> North America, Spa<strong>in</strong> experimented<br />
<strong>in</strong> the last third of the XVIII century a cultural <strong>and</strong><br />
scientific renaissance that, ironically, would be a<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>cipal cause for the loss, few years later, of its<br />
American empire. K<strong>in</strong>g Charles IV, great promoter<br />
of the botanical exploration of America, <strong>and</strong> his wife<br />
María Luisa, where honored by Ruiz & Pavón <strong>in</strong> the<br />
nam<strong>in</strong>g of the genus Carludovica, from the family of<br />
the Cyclanthaceae (From the Lat<strong>in</strong> Carolus = Charles,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Ludovica = Luisa, Louise) 13 .<br />
The expedition of Aless<strong>and</strong>ro Malasp<strong>in</strong>a to the<br />
Pacific (1789-1794). On July 30, 1789, after many<br />
months of careful plann<strong>in</strong>g, two small corvettes<br />
left the port of Cádiz. Comm<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g some 200 men,<br />
Aless<strong>and</strong>ro Malasp<strong>in</strong>a (1754-1810), one of the most<br />
brilliant officers of the Spanish Navy, went ahead with<br />
the most ambitious project of Spanish enlightenment:<br />
the scientific exploration of the American coasts <strong>and</strong> of<br />
the greater part of the isl<strong>and</strong>s of the eastern Pacific (Fig.<br />
12). Malasp<strong>in</strong>a had been born <strong>in</strong> Italy but was educated<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Company of Naval Guards <strong>in</strong> Cádiz, which<br />
was at that time the most prestigious naval school <strong>in</strong><br />
Europe. He took part <strong>in</strong> the Spanish-English wars <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> 1782 began a brilliant career <strong>in</strong> the Spanish Armada.<br />
Between 1786 <strong>and</strong> 1788, comm<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g the frigate<br />
Astrea, he circumnavigated the globe by order of the<br />
13 The type species for Carludovica is Carludovica palmata Ruiz & Pavón, the well known “paja toquilla” from which the famous<br />
‘Panama’ hats are made.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 12. Aless<strong>and</strong>ro Malasp<strong>in</strong>a (1754-1810). Navy Museum, Madrid.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
35
36<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
E<br />
Figure 13. A — The corvettes ‘Descubierta’ <strong>and</strong> ‘Atrevida’. Navy Museum of Madrid. B — El Viejo volcano from the<br />
port of Realejo. Draw<strong>in</strong>g by José Cardero (fragment). Museo de América, Madrid. C — Thaddeus Haenke (1761-1817).<br />
Portrait by V. Grüner, <strong>in</strong> Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid, 1989: 83. D — Epidendrum iridifolium. Collection <strong>and</strong> draw<strong>in</strong>g<br />
by Haenke. In Ibañez Montoya, 1990: 69. E — Louis Neé (ca. 1734-1807). Sketch by Felipe Bauzá, <strong>in</strong> Real Jardín<br />
Botánico de Madrid, 1989: 59. F —The naturalists on the isl<strong>and</strong> of Naos, Panama. Draw<strong>in</strong>g by José Cardero (fragment).<br />
In Malasp<strong>in</strong>a, A., 1990: 211.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
D<br />
F
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Royal Company of the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es. In a letter from<br />
September 1788 to the Naval M<strong>in</strong>istry, together with<br />
his colleague José Bustamante y Guerra, he expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
the ideas that <strong>in</strong>spired him to his expedition: “to<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease the knowledge about natural sciences (biology,<br />
botany, zoology <strong>and</strong> geology), to undertake astronomic<br />
observations <strong>and</strong> to ‘construct hydrographical charts<br />
for the most remote regions of America’ ” (Becquer<br />
Casaballe, 2003: 2). The government approved his<br />
proposal as a “scientific <strong>and</strong> political voyage around<br />
the world” <strong>and</strong> gave the order for the construction of<br />
two corvettes, that were baptized “Santa Justa” <strong>and</strong><br />
“Santa Ruf<strong>in</strong>a”, names which Malasp<strong>in</strong>a immediately<br />
changed to “Descubierta” <strong>and</strong> “Atrevida”, <strong>in</strong> honor of<br />
the ships “Discovery” <strong>and</strong> “Resolution” of the English<br />
explorer James Cook (although the second name is not<br />
the most fortunate of translations) (Fig. 13A).<br />
The expedition did not have the <strong>in</strong>tention of<br />
discover<strong>in</strong>g new territories, but of explor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> depth<br />
those already known. Malasp<strong>in</strong>a, a man of vast<br />
culture, was therefore very meticulous <strong>in</strong> the selection<br />
of the scientists who were to accompany him. The<br />
most prom<strong>in</strong>ent among the botanists chosen for the<br />
expedition, were P<strong>in</strong>eda, Haenke <strong>and</strong> Neé. Malasp<strong>in</strong>a<br />
professed great admiration for these three men <strong>and</strong> their<br />
scientific qualities. In addition to this, Malasp<strong>in</strong>a had<br />
sought <strong>and</strong> received the advice of the most prom<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
European men of science of his time, among them<br />
Joseph Banks, president of the Royal Horticultural<br />
Society (Soler Pascual, 1999: 29). The artists of the<br />
expedition were José Cardero, Felipe Bauzá, José Guío<br />
<strong>and</strong> Francisco L<strong>in</strong>do.<br />
Antonio P<strong>in</strong>eda was born <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>in</strong> 1751<br />
<strong>and</strong> received his education <strong>in</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong> under the<br />
guidance of Casimiro Gómez Ortega, soon st<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
out as a naturalist <strong>and</strong> botanist. He held the position<br />
of Infantry Lieutenant of the Spanish Royal Guards<br />
when Malasp<strong>in</strong>a, <strong>in</strong> 1788, asked for his designation<br />
as director of the natural history research of the<br />
expedition. After be<strong>in</strong>g appo<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>in</strong> the month of<br />
December, P<strong>in</strong>eda proposed as his assistants for<br />
Botany <strong>and</strong> M<strong>in</strong>eralogy Louis Neé, employee of<br />
the garden of the Royal Boutique, <strong>and</strong> the chemist<br />
Florian Coetanfeu. While the gardener, stimulated by<br />
his precarious position, accepted the offer without<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g it over, <strong>and</strong> tried to obta<strong>in</strong> substantial<br />
benefits by tergivers<strong>in</strong>g his curriculum, the chemist<br />
used the subterfuge of his family to resign from the<br />
expedition. F<strong>in</strong>ally, Tadeo Haenke was admitted as<br />
the third expeditionary naturalist” (Puig Samper et al.,<br />
2001: 50). In Central America, P<strong>in</strong>eda took part of<br />
the exploration of Panama <strong>and</strong> somewhat later <strong>in</strong> the<br />
ascend to the El Viejo volcano, <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, together<br />
with Haenke (Fig. 13B). While explor<strong>in</strong>g the isl<strong>and</strong> of<br />
Luzon (Philipp<strong>in</strong>es) P<strong>in</strong>eda fell sick <strong>and</strong> died <strong>in</strong> June<br />
of 1792.<br />
Thaddeus Peregr<strong>in</strong>us Xaverius Haenke was born <strong>in</strong><br />
Bohemia <strong>in</strong> 1761. He studied natural sciences <strong>in</strong> the<br />
universities of Vienna <strong>and</strong> Prague. In 1786 Haenke<br />
was selected as a botanist to participate <strong>in</strong> the first<br />
multidiscipl<strong>in</strong>ary expedition to the Giant Mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
(Krkonoše, Riesengebirge) <strong>org</strong>anized by the Royal<br />
Czech Society. The results of that expedition were<br />
published <strong>in</strong> 1788. This was the most important work<br />
of Haenke from Bohemia, <strong>and</strong> he was awarded for it<br />
a silver medal by the Royal Czech Scientific Society.<br />
Haenke always wanted to travel to distant places <strong>and</strong><br />
study the botany of new, botanically uncharted areas.<br />
He was <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Capta<strong>in</strong> Bill<strong>in</strong>gs’<br />
expedition sponsored by the Russian Cather<strong>in</strong>e II, but<br />
Bill<strong>in</strong>gs ultimately did not take any scientists with<br />
him 14 . In 1789 Haenke was offered the position of a<br />
botanist <strong>in</strong> the Malasp<strong>in</strong>a expedition <strong>and</strong> he eagerly<br />
accepted the offer. The Austrian Emperor Joseph II<br />
learned about Haenke, now one of the best botanists<br />
<strong>in</strong> all of Austria, <strong>and</strong> did not want to allow Haenke to<br />
leave the country. Emperor Joseph II allowed Haenke<br />
to leave only after the <strong>in</strong>tervention by Professor<br />
Jacqu<strong>in</strong>, but Haenke had to agree that he would return<br />
back to Austria after the expedition. By misfortune,<br />
Haenke arrived <strong>in</strong> Cádiz one day after the corvettes<br />
had sailed. This forced him to take another vessel to<br />
Buenos Aires, cross<strong>in</strong>g the Andes all the way to Chile<br />
<strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the group <strong>in</strong> Valparaíso. “But this<br />
contrariety served the purpose of forc<strong>in</strong>g Haenke [...]<br />
to cross the South American all the way to Santiago<br />
14 Capta<strong>in</strong> Joseph Bill<strong>in</strong>gs, an English navigator, had earlier accompanied Capta<strong>in</strong> James Cook on his third voyage to the Pacific,<br />
<strong>and</strong> subsequently entered the Russian navy, <strong>in</strong>itially as a lieutenant. In 1785, Empress Cather<strong>in</strong>e II of Russia, act<strong>in</strong>g for her<br />
government, commissioned Bill<strong>in</strong>gs to comm<strong>and</strong> an expedition to search for the Northeast Passage, form<strong>in</strong>g the “Northeastern<br />
Secret Geographical <strong>and</strong> Astronomical Expedition” (1785-94).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
37
38<br />
de Chile <strong>and</strong> collect<strong>in</strong>g on the way some 250 species<br />
of plants” (Puig Samper et al. 2001: 18) (Fig. 13,<br />
C—D). Haenke’s botanical f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs were published<br />
by Presl <strong>in</strong> 1827 with the title Reliquiae Haenkeanae<br />
seu Descriptiones et Icones Plantarum quas <strong>in</strong><br />
America Meridionali et Boreali, <strong>in</strong> Insulis Phillip<strong>in</strong>is<br />
et Marianis Collegit. In 1793, when the expedition<br />
was prepar<strong>in</strong>g for the return voyage to Spa<strong>in</strong>, he stayed<br />
<strong>in</strong> El Callao (Peru), want<strong>in</strong>g to cont<strong>in</strong>ue his botanical<br />
explorations. Some years later he established himself<br />
<strong>in</strong> Bolivia, from where he cont<strong>in</strong>ued send<strong>in</strong>g the results<br />
of his collections. He died <strong>in</strong> the city of Cochabamba<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1816 (Slavik & Ceska, 2002).<br />
Louis Neé (ca. 1734-1807), French by birth, was<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Madrid <strong>in</strong> the garden of the Royal Pharmacy<br />
when P<strong>in</strong>eda proposed him as a member of the scientific<br />
group. He was accepted <strong>and</strong>, dur<strong>in</strong>g the five years of the<br />
expedition, collected an important herbarium with over<br />
10,000 specimens (Fig. 13E). Before leav<strong>in</strong>g Madrid for<br />
Cadiz, where the expedition was to embark, Neé <strong>in</strong>sisted<br />
<strong>in</strong> receiv<strong>in</strong>g a certa<strong>in</strong> amount of money <strong>in</strong> advance,<br />
to cover his travel expenses <strong>and</strong> for the “subsistence<br />
of his family, which was left <strong>in</strong> charge of his wife,<br />
Doña Francisca Luz”. His request was f<strong>in</strong>ally granted<br />
<strong>and</strong>, with all f<strong>in</strong>ancial matters settled, Neé writes: “the<br />
day of the expedition June 5, I left Madrid for Cadiz<br />
<strong>in</strong> the company of Don Antonio P<strong>in</strong>eda, Don Vicente<br />
Tofiño <strong>and</strong> Don Felipe Bauzá. I presented myself to<br />
the Comm<strong>and</strong>er, don Alej<strong>and</strong>ro Malasp<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong> to don<br />
José Bustamante, second Comm<strong>and</strong>er of the expedition,<br />
who greeted me with great k<strong>in</strong>dness. Our departure<br />
took place on July 30, at ten o’clock <strong>in</strong> the morn<strong>in</strong>g”<br />
(Muñoz Garmendia, & Sanz Álvarez, 1990:31). In the<br />
course of the expedition, Neé dedicated himself ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
to the collection of plants, although he also collected<br />
other objects, such as shells, m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>and</strong> ethnographic<br />
materials. These collections were made mostly alone, or<br />
<strong>in</strong> the company of Antonio P<strong>in</strong>eda, who was the member<br />
of the expedition with whom he worked together more<br />
often. The impression arises that the two botanists, Neé<br />
<strong>and</strong> Haenke, did not <strong>in</strong>tend to form a team nor to sum<br />
efforts for a future jo<strong>in</strong>t publication. Each one collected<br />
on his own <strong>and</strong> made the descriptions separately,<br />
without tak<strong>in</strong>g part, apparently, <strong>in</strong> any attempt of<br />
cooperation. The herbaria were sent separately to Cadiz<br />
<strong>and</strong> the distrust went so far that Neé, on March 22, 1979,<br />
writes to Juan de Lángara: ‘s<strong>in</strong>ce the valuable collection<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
has already been made, of which mister Haencke, the<br />
renowned German botanist <strong>and</strong> fellow traveler has<br />
duplicates, be it published <strong>in</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong> as soon as possible<br />
so that the foreigners cannot anticipate us <strong>in</strong> prejudice<br />
of the national honor <strong>and</strong> that of the undersigned, who<br />
has worked so hard to be the first author <strong>and</strong> discoverer’<br />
(Muñoz Garmendía, & Sanz Álvarez, 1990:37). Neé<br />
was the only of the three botanists to return to Europe.<br />
Of importance for Meso<strong>america</strong> are his collections,<br />
together with P<strong>in</strong>eda <strong>and</strong> Haenke, <strong>in</strong> Panama, Nicaragua<br />
<strong>and</strong> Mexico.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the period of <strong>in</strong>terest for this study,<br />
Malasp<strong>in</strong>a’s corvettes sailed from El Callao <strong>in</strong> Peru<br />
to Guayaquil <strong>in</strong> Ecuador, from where they departed<br />
to Panama <strong>in</strong> October of 1790. The surround<strong>in</strong>gs of<br />
the city of Panama <strong>and</strong> the isl<strong>and</strong> of Taboga where<br />
explored <strong>in</strong> December 1790 (Fig. 13F). From the<br />
journal of Luis Neé we have the follow<strong>in</strong>g dates:<br />
October, 28:<br />
Weigh<strong>in</strong>g anchor <strong>in</strong> the port of Guayaquil towards<br />
Panama.<br />
November, 16:<br />
Arrival at Pericó Isl<strong>and</strong>, close to Panama.<br />
November, 17/December, 10:<br />
Suround<strong>in</strong>gs of Panama, towards Punta Mala,<br />
Ancón Hill, the coast, convent of the Nuns of<br />
the Concepción, towards San Lázaro, Coconut<br />
Orchard, Pericó Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> others surround<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
harbor, coastl<strong>in</strong>e towards Arenal Gr<strong>and</strong>e.<br />
Excursion of 7 leagues towards Portobelo, on the<br />
Atlantic coast.. P<strong>in</strong>eda follows the Cruces River.<br />
December, 10:<br />
Weigh<strong>in</strong>g anchor from Panama.<br />
December, 11 / 14:<br />
Anchor<strong>in</strong>g at Taboga Isl<strong>and</strong>. Neé <strong>and</strong> Haenke<br />
collect on Taboga Isl<strong>and</strong><br />
December, 15:<br />
Sett<strong>in</strong>g sail from Taboga Isl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
It was then when Malasp<strong>in</strong>a first studied the possibility<br />
of build<strong>in</strong>g a canal to communicate both oceans. In the<br />
first months of 1791, the corvettes sailed towards Costa<br />
Rica <strong>and</strong> separated. While the Atrevida, after visit<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the isl<strong>and</strong> of Cocos, set a straight course to Acapulco,<br />
the Descubierta navigated along the Central American<br />
coast, l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> El Realejo (Nicaragua) <strong>and</strong> Sonsonate<br />
(El Salvador), arriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Acapulco on March 25.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
It is aga<strong>in</strong> Luis Neé who gives us the dates <strong>in</strong> his<br />
journal:<br />
January 17 / 30:<br />
Sojourn of the corvette “Descubierta” <strong>in</strong> the<br />
harbor of Realejo (Nicaragua). P<strong>in</strong>eda <strong>and</strong> Haenke<br />
explore the surround<strong>in</strong>gs of Realejo <strong>and</strong> go to the<br />
El Viejo volcano from January 20 to 22; on the 23,<br />
P<strong>in</strong>eda <strong>and</strong> Malasp<strong>in</strong>a went to the Cardón Isl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>ly shells; Cayetano Valdés traveled<br />
to León <strong>and</strong> to the Telica volcano, collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
materials for the Natural History collection. On<br />
January 30, the “Descubierta” set sail for Acapulco<br />
(Muñoz Garmendia, & Sanz Álvarez, 1990:338).<br />
Presl, <strong>in</strong> his Reliquiae Haenkeanae, gives us the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g description of the journey of the expedition<br />
along the Central American coast:<br />
“Mense DeCeMbre e s<strong>in</strong>u porTuque guayaquil<br />
uTerque navis abiiT, CursuM sepTenTrioneM versus<br />
DirexiT eT <strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>u eT porTu panaMa CoMMoraviT.<br />
planTaruM panaMensiuM FasCiCulus DiligenTiaM<br />
popularis nosTri <strong>in</strong> hoC orbis loCo DeMonsTraT. naves<br />
Malasp<strong>in</strong>a DuCenTe ii. Februarii 1791 aD aCapulCo<br />
<strong>in</strong> nova hispania pervenerunT, posTquaM porTuM<br />
eT urbeM guaTiMala TeTigerunT” [By the month of<br />
December both ships departed from the gulf <strong>and</strong> the<br />
port of Guayaquil, direct<strong>in</strong>g their course toward the<br />
North, <strong>and</strong> arrived to the gulf <strong>and</strong> port of Panama. The<br />
fascicle of the Panamanian plants demonstrates the<br />
diligence of our people <strong>in</strong> this place of the world. The<br />
ships conduced by Malasp<strong>in</strong>a came to Acapulco <strong>in</strong> New<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> on February 2nd, 1791, after hav<strong>in</strong>g touched the<br />
port <strong>and</strong> city of Guatemala] (Presl, 1827).<br />
After explor<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>terior of Mexico <strong>and</strong> the<br />
northwest coast of the cont<strong>in</strong>ent all the way to Alaska,<br />
the expedition cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>in</strong> the first months of 1792<br />
to the Marianne <strong>and</strong> Philipp<strong>in</strong>e isl<strong>and</strong>s. In 1793 the<br />
group was aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Peru <strong>and</strong> returned f<strong>in</strong>ally to Cádiz<br />
<strong>in</strong> September of 1794. It is noteworthy that, while<br />
the expeditions of Malasp<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño<br />
co<strong>in</strong>cided dur<strong>in</strong>g the year of 1791 along the Mexican<br />
Pacific coast, history does not record any encounter<br />
between either groups (Novo y Colsón, 1885).<br />
Haenke’s herbarium, with over 15,000 specimens,<br />
was dispersed among numerous European herbaria.<br />
In 1827, Carl Boriwog Presl compiled an important<br />
part which was conserved <strong>in</strong> Prague <strong>and</strong> Vienna<br />
<strong>and</strong> published his Reliquiae Haenkeanae, where he<br />
enumerated 27 species of <strong>orchids</strong>. In the second volume<br />
we f<strong>in</strong>d the only illustration of an orchid <strong>in</strong> our area<br />
of study, that Haenke named Dendrobium mexicanum<br />
<strong>and</strong> Christenson (1991) identified later as Eulophia<br />
alta (L.) Fawc. & Rendle (Fig. 14A). Among Haenke’s<br />
collections, Presl described at least four new species<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong>, which are widely distributed <strong>in</strong> our region:<br />
Oncidium obovatum Presl [= Barkeria obovata (Presl)<br />
Chistenson], Elleanthus l<strong>in</strong>ifolius Presl, Elleanthus<br />
lancifolius Presl <strong>and</strong> Vanilla odorata Presl.<br />
The herbarium of Neé stayed dur<strong>in</strong>g long years<br />
<strong>in</strong> Madrid, <strong>in</strong> unopened boxes, without anybody<br />
bother<strong>in</strong>g to study it. It came to the botanical garden<br />
of Madrid where, fortunately, it could not be reached<br />
by Pavón, who had an offer from Webb to purchase<br />
it. Th<strong>in</strong>gs rema<strong>in</strong>ed unchanged until recently, <strong>in</strong> 1980,<br />
the ‘Ancient General Herbarium’, which had survived<br />
more or less <strong>in</strong>tact, was diluted <strong>in</strong> the ‘General<br />
Herbarium’ (that now holds over 466,000 sheets),<br />
thanks to an unfortunate <strong>and</strong> hasty decision of the<br />
‘conservators’ (Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid, 1989:<br />
70). Thanks to this, the study of the orig<strong>in</strong>al specimens<br />
collected by Neé has become an almost impossible<br />
task. However, 370 sheets of botanical illustrations<br />
have survived, which are now one of our ma<strong>in</strong> sources<br />
of <strong>in</strong>formation about the collections by the botanists<br />
of Malasp<strong>in</strong>a’s expedition. Among them we f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
four species of Orchidaceae. One is an illustration of<br />
Caularthron bilamellatum (Rchb. f.) R. E. Schult.,<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> Guayaquil (Ecuador). The other three are<br />
Catasetum sp., from the isl<strong>and</strong> of Taboga (Panama),<br />
Ionopsis utricularioides (Sw.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. from the port<br />
of San Blas (state of Nayarit, Mexico) <strong>and</strong> Laelia sp.<br />
from the m<strong>in</strong>es of Real del Monte (state of Hidalgo,<br />
Mexico). By far, the most <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g for us is the<br />
illustration by José Guío, draftsman of the expedition,<br />
of a species of Catasetum <strong>in</strong> the isl<strong>and</strong> of Taboga<br />
(Panama) dur<strong>in</strong>g the last days of December 1790 <strong>and</strong><br />
given by Neé the number 19. It is probably the first<br />
botanical illustration of a Central American species<br />
of Orchidaceae, with the exceptions of those by De la<br />
Cruz, Sahagún, Hernández <strong>and</strong> Tabernaemontanus, <strong>in</strong><br />
the XVI century (Fig. 14B). The other two illustrations<br />
are from species that where not collected with<strong>in</strong> our<br />
area of study. However, Ionopsis utricularioides (Fig.<br />
14C) is a common species <strong>in</strong> all Meso<strong>america</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
39
40<br />
Laelia sp. (Fig. 14D) was collected not far from the<br />
limits of modern Central America.<br />
Shar<strong>in</strong>g the fortune of the other Spanish botanical<br />
expeditions, Malasp<strong>in</strong>a never saw the publication of<br />
the botanical results of his voyage. His proposal to<br />
the k<strong>in</strong>g for a political re<strong>org</strong>anization of the empire<br />
brought him charges of treason to the state. Imprisoned<br />
<strong>in</strong> Galicia from 1796 to 1802, Malasp<strong>in</strong>a was liberated<br />
thanks to mediation by Napoleon but had to leave<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> return to his native Italy, where he died <strong>in</strong><br />
1810. Malasp<strong>in</strong>a’s was doubtless the best <strong>org</strong>anized<br />
of all Spanish scientific expeditions to America. An<br />
important factor for this was the fact that it was the only<br />
one which was structured along strict military l<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
The Royal Botanic Expedition of Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño<br />
to New Spa<strong>in</strong> (1787-1803). After the Jesuits were<br />
expelled from Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1767, an orig<strong>in</strong>al copy <strong>in</strong> five<br />
volumes of the manuscripts of Francisco Hernández<br />
was found <strong>in</strong> the library of the Imperial College of<br />
Madrid. Casimiro Gómez Ortega, director of the Royal<br />
Botanical Garden, decided to publish the manuscripts,<br />
but found himself with two problems: the work by<br />
Hernández was no longer up to date <strong>and</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
draw<strong>in</strong>gs were miss<strong>in</strong>g. In the meantime, <strong>in</strong> January<br />
1785, the Spanish physician Martín de Sessé y Lacasta<br />
(1751-1808), who served <strong>in</strong> Cuba <strong>in</strong> the squadron of<br />
the Marquis del Socorro, proposed to Gómez Ortega<br />
the idea of establish<strong>in</strong>g a botanical garden <strong>and</strong> a<br />
chair of Botany <strong>in</strong> the Mexican capital (Fig. 15A).<br />
As he wrote: “Consider<strong>in</strong>g you one of the lovers of<br />
the flora, I dare to <strong>in</strong>terrupt your occupations with<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g discourse aimed at mak<strong>in</strong>g them sh<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>and</strong> give fruit <strong>in</strong> this part of the New World” (Letter<br />
from Sessé to Gómez Ortega, January 30, 1785). The<br />
idea had already been expressed by Löfl<strong>in</strong>g, who <strong>in</strong><br />
a letter to L<strong>in</strong>né dated June 24, 1753, writes: “I gave<br />
him [the Marquis of Grimaldi] to th<strong>in</strong>k that it would<br />
be of advantage to go to Mexico, where Hernández<br />
had been, but ob fata seculi (= for dest<strong>in</strong>y’s fate) he<br />
left his observations obscure <strong>and</strong> imprecise” (Muñoz<br />
Garmendia, & Sanz Álvarez, 1990:25).<br />
The idea to complete the publication of the work<br />
of Hernández with documents <strong>and</strong> draw<strong>in</strong>gs that could<br />
eventually be found <strong>in</strong> Mexico, <strong>and</strong> the timely proposal<br />
of Sessé, where the motives for the promulgation by<br />
K<strong>in</strong>g Charles III of the Royal Order of October 27,<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
1786. The establishment of the Botanical Garden <strong>in</strong><br />
New Spa<strong>in</strong>, the Chair of Botany (the first <strong>in</strong> America)<br />
<strong>and</strong> the formation of an expedition that should “form<br />
the draw<strong>in</strong>gs, collect the natural productions <strong>and</strong><br />
complete the writ<strong>in</strong>gs of Francisco Hernández” , was<br />
ordered (Maldonado Polo, 1996: 25). The expedition<br />
was therefore <strong>org</strong>anized as an extension of the<br />
enterprise that had started two centuries earlier. It<br />
was composed <strong>in</strong>itially by Martín de Sessé, Vicente<br />
Cervantes, José Long<strong>in</strong>os Martínez, Juan del Castillo<br />
<strong>and</strong> Jaime Senseve.<br />
The Garden <strong>and</strong> the Chair of Botany were<br />
<strong>in</strong>augurated <strong>in</strong> May, 1788 (Fig. 15B). A short time<br />
later, dur<strong>in</strong>g the second course of botany (1789), a<br />
brilliant student stood out who was dest<strong>in</strong>ed to have<br />
a prom<strong>in</strong>ent role <strong>in</strong> the expedition at the side of<br />
Sessé: the Creole José Mariano Mociño (1757-1820)<br />
(Fig. 15C). In 1787 Sessé had already started his field<br />
activities, which extended <strong>in</strong>itially until 1794. In<br />
different excursions, jo<strong>in</strong>ed by Mociño after 1790, the<br />
expeditionaries explored the <strong>central</strong> regions of Mexico,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the Pacific Coast <strong>and</strong> the Gulf of Mexico.<br />
Other it<strong>in</strong>eraries brought members of the expedition to<br />
the north of Mexico, California <strong>and</strong> the coast of the<br />
Canadian Pacific. Of particular <strong>in</strong>terest to our study is<br />
the excursion of Mociño to the Gulf coast (1793-1794)<br />
where he seems to have explored the region to the<br />
south of Veracruz <strong>and</strong> adjacent Tabasco. “Southeastern<br />
Mexico, as far as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, belongs<br />
also to biological Central America” (Williams, 1956:1)<br />
(Fig. 15, D—F; Tab. 3). In the Torner collection of the<br />
Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation we f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
beautiful orchid illustrations, drawn by the draftsmen<br />
of the expedition, Juan de Dios Vicente de la Cerda y<br />
Atanasio Echeverría y Godoy (Fig. 16—18; 19B—C).<br />
The term given to the expedition expired <strong>in</strong> October,<br />
1794. S<strong>in</strong>ce the territories of the southern regions of<br />
the Vicek<strong>in</strong>gdom -the border of Guatemala- had not<br />
yet been explored, Sessé asked for an extension, which<br />
was approved by Royal Order of September 15, 1794.<br />
It was resolved that the expedition should explore,<br />
for a period of two years, the k<strong>in</strong>gdom of Guatemala<br />
<strong>and</strong> simultaneously the W<strong>in</strong>dward isl<strong>and</strong>s. Ever s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
the expedition of Malasp<strong>in</strong>a had touched Central<br />
American l<strong>and</strong>s, clear consciousness existed that these<br />
territories could not be left out by the members of the<br />
expedition to New Spa<strong>in</strong>.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
Figure 14. A — Dendrobium mexicanum. In Presl, C., 1827, (2): 102. B — Catasetum sp. Illustration by José Guío <strong>in</strong> Real<br />
Jardín Botánico de Madrid, 1989: plate 137. C — Ionopsis utricularioides (Sw.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. Illustration by José Guío <strong>in</strong> Real<br />
Jardín Botánico de Madrid, 1989: plate 1260. D — Laelia sp. Illustration by Francisco L<strong>in</strong>do <strong>in</strong> Real Jardín Botánico de<br />
Madrid, 1989: plate 198.<br />
D<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
41
42<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
C D<br />
15. a — View of Mexico, 1754. In San Pío Aladrén, 2000: 41. B— Plan of the Botanical Garden <strong>in</strong> Mexico. In Maldonado<br />
Polo, 1996: 30. C — José Mariano Mociño (1757-1820). Portrait courtesy of Esthela S<strong>and</strong>oval. D — Routes of Sessé<br />
<strong>and</strong> Mociño, 1793-94. In Maldonado Polo, 1996: 50. E — Manuscript by Mociño, part of his <strong>in</strong>dex of collected plants. In<br />
San Pío Aladrén, 2000: 59. F — Labels from the Mociño herbarium. In San Pío Aladrén, 2000: 65.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B<br />
F
C<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 16. Stanhopea oculata (Lodd.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. No. 0164 of the illustrations of the expedition of Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Torner Collection. Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
43
44<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 17. Vanilla pompona Schiede. No. 0483 of the illustrations of the expedition of Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño <strong>in</strong> the Torner<br />
Collection. Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 18. Bletia roezlii Rchb. f. Nº 0091 of the illustrations of the expedition of Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño <strong>in</strong> the Torner Collection.<br />
Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
45
46<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 19. A — Route of Mociño <strong>and</strong> De la Cerda through Central America. In Maldonado Polo,1996: 74. B — Prosthechea<br />
baculus (Rchb. f.) W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s. No. 1933 of the illustrations of the expedition of Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño <strong>in</strong> the Torner<br />
Collection. Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation. C — Isochilus l<strong>in</strong>earis (Jacq.) R. Br. Nº 0829, id.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
The expedition split <strong>in</strong> two <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> May, 1795, a first<br />
group at the comm<strong>and</strong> of Sessé sailed from Veracruz<br />
to explore the isl<strong>and</strong>s of Cuba, Santo Dom<strong>in</strong>go <strong>and</strong><br />
Puerto Rico. The second group, lead by Mociño,<br />
departed <strong>in</strong> June of the same year from Mexico on a<br />
southern route. Another of the scientists, José Long<strong>in</strong>os<br />
Martínez, started a few days before <strong>and</strong> arrived <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala before Mociño, who encountered multiple<br />
delays dur<strong>in</strong>g his trip. Mociño <strong>and</strong> De la Cerda f<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
arrived <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>in</strong> October, 1796. In the first days<br />
of the year 1797, Mociño <strong>and</strong> De la Cerda <strong>in</strong>itiated <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala a long journey, explor<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g the next<br />
two years the Pacific Coast belt of Central America.<br />
Their route would take them through El Salvador,<br />
Honduras <strong>and</strong> Nicaragua, reach<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>ally Cartago, <strong>in</strong><br />
Costa Rica. The route from the capital of Guatemala<br />
to Nicaragua was called the “passage of Nicaragua”<br />
<strong>and</strong> passed through Cartago, from where it cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
to Panama. Mociño <strong>and</strong> De la Cerda kept always,<br />
except for small variations, to this route by way of<br />
Ahuachapán, Sonsonate, San Salvador, Cojutepeque,<br />
San Vicente, Zacatecoluca, San Miguel <strong>and</strong><br />
Conchalagua, all towns <strong>in</strong> the territory of El Salvador.<br />
Then, border<strong>in</strong>g the Gulf of Fonseca, they traveled<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Table 3. Orchids collected by Mociño dur<strong>in</strong>g the excursion of 1793-94 (From McVaugh, 2000: 408-424). Not <strong>in</strong>cluded are<br />
the unidentified species.<br />
Name used by Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño Botanical name that is valid today Locality of collection<br />
Epidendrum acum<strong>in</strong>atum Prosthechea baculus (Rchb. f.) W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s San Andrés Tuxtla<br />
Epidendrum capitatum Elleanthus cynarocephalus (Rchb. f.) Rchb. f. Volcán de San Martín, Tuxtla<br />
Epidendrum cornutum Stanhopea oculata (Lodd.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. Orizaba, Veracruz<br />
Epidendrum ellipticum Cranichis sylvatica A. Rich. & Gal. San Andrés, Tuxtla<br />
Epidendrum emarg<strong>in</strong>atum Pleurothallis tubata (?) (Lodd.) Steud. Acayucán<br />
Epidendrum guttatum Oncidium lankesteri Ames Córdoba, Veracruz<br />
Epidendrum lamellatum Corallorrhiza macrantha Schltr. Orizaba, Veracruz<br />
Epidendrum l<strong>in</strong>eare Isochilus l<strong>in</strong>earis (Jacq.) R. Br. San Andrés, Tuxtla<br />
Epidendrum nutans Nidema boothii (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Schltr. Córdoba, Veracruz<br />
Epidendrum paniculatum Epidendrum diffusum Sw. Córdoba, Veracruz<br />
Epidendrum pulchellum Encyclia pterocarpa (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Dressler San Andrés, Tuxtla<br />
Epidendrum pusillum Eryc<strong>in</strong>a pusilla (L.) N. H. Williams & M. W. Chase Veracruz<br />
Epidendrum tigr<strong>in</strong>um Epidendrum raniferum L<strong>in</strong>dl. Papantla, Veracruz<br />
Epidendrum vanilla Vanilla pompona Schiede Córdoba, Veracruz<br />
Orchis pauciflora Comparettia falcata Poepp. & Endl. Córdoba, Veracruz<br />
through Choluteca <strong>in</strong> Honduras until they arrived <strong>in</strong><br />
Nicaragua. Follow<strong>in</strong>g the same route along the coast,<br />
they were <strong>in</strong> El Viejo, Realejo, Ch<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong>ega, León,<br />
Nagarote, Mateare <strong>and</strong> Managua. From this last city<br />
they directed themselves to the Lake of Nicaragua,<br />
border<strong>in</strong>g it along its southwestern marg<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
cross<strong>in</strong>g to the isl<strong>and</strong> of Ometepe, pass<strong>in</strong>g later<br />
through Masaya <strong>and</strong> Granada, <strong>and</strong> arriv<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
<strong>in</strong> the town of Nicaragua (afterwards named Rivas)<br />
(Taracena, 1983) (Fig. 19, A). Vegetal specimens from<br />
the Gulf of Nicoya <strong>and</strong> Cartago have been identified,<br />
allow<strong>in</strong>g the assumption that the expedition, or part<br />
of it, cont<strong>in</strong>ued its route further to the south. The<br />
return journey followed the same route, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
expeditionaries arrived back <strong>in</strong> Guatemala at the end<br />
of March, 1798, after hav<strong>in</strong>g survived the earthquake<br />
of San Salvador, <strong>in</strong> February of the same year.<br />
The most important botanical result of the<br />
expedition to Central America is the manuscript<br />
of the Flora de Guatemala, that Mociño <strong>in</strong>tended<br />
to publish later together with the Flora de México.<br />
Although the results may seem meager, the relatively<br />
low number of species described <strong>in</strong> the manuscript (a<br />
total of 526) may obey to the fact that the botanists, <strong>in</strong><br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
47
48<br />
this case Mociño, only treated new species that they<br />
found on their way, not mention<strong>in</strong>g those previously<br />
found dur<strong>in</strong>g the earlier excursions. “Of strong<br />
<strong>in</strong>fluence must have been also the fact that the Central<br />
American territories where less explored from the<br />
botanical st<strong>and</strong>po<strong>in</strong>t than other regions of New Spa<strong>in</strong>,<br />
at least less well known to the European explorers <strong>in</strong><br />
the XVIII <strong>and</strong> the preced<strong>in</strong>g centuries, that impeded<br />
their [the plants’] identification <strong>and</strong> knowledge. Thus,<br />
many plants where stored <strong>and</strong> not <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the list”<br />
(Maldonado Polo, 1996: 121-122).<br />
McVaugh warns: “Botanists of the future,<br />
if work<strong>in</strong>g with the collections of Sessé <strong>and</strong><br />
Mociño… will do well to remember, however, that<br />
any <strong>in</strong>dividual specimens of unknown orig<strong>in</strong> may<br />
have been collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, <strong>in</strong> El Salvador,<br />
<strong>in</strong> Nicaragua or even <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica” (McVaugh,<br />
1977: 49). No trace is left from the draw<strong>in</strong>gs made<br />
for the Flora de Guatemala, most of them hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
been destroyed <strong>in</strong> the earthquake of San Salvador<br />
of 1798. Notwithst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g, this work can however<br />
be considered as the first modern flora of Central<br />
America. The number of <strong>orchids</strong> described <strong>in</strong> this<br />
flora is pitifully small, <strong>and</strong> no locality of collection is<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicated for any of them. A total of two genera <strong>and</strong><br />
10 species are described (Tab. 4; Fig. 19, B—C).<br />
The authorized term for the extension of the<br />
expedition expired <strong>and</strong> it was not until May, 1798,<br />
that Sessé returned to the Mexican capital. Mociño<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Table 4. Orchids <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the Flora of Guatemala of Mociño.<br />
Name used by Mociño (genus) Name used by Mociño (species) Botanical name valid today<br />
Serapias “Serapias bulbis ovatis, compressis,<br />
foliis ensiformibus, nectarii labio<br />
trifido; lac<strong>in</strong>ia <strong>in</strong>termedia rugosa<br />
gl<strong>and</strong>ulosa” ?<br />
Epidendrum emarg<strong>in</strong>atum Pleurothallis tubata (?) (Lodd.) Steud.<br />
acum<strong>in</strong>atum Prosthechea baculus (Rchb. f.) W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s<br />
pusillum Eryc<strong>in</strong>a pusilla (L.) N. H. Williams & M. W. Chase<br />
viridiflorum ?<br />
veracrucense ?<br />
nervosum ?<br />
oblongum ?<br />
ellipticum Cranichis sylvatica A. Rich. & Gal.<br />
l<strong>in</strong>eare Isochilus l<strong>in</strong>earis (Jacq.) R. Br.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
did the same <strong>in</strong> February, 1799. New h<strong>in</strong>drances,<br />
particularly the war with Engl<strong>and</strong>, delayed the return<br />
of the expeditionaries to Spa<strong>in</strong>, that f<strong>in</strong>ally took place<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1803.<br />
The last months of the expedition <strong>in</strong> Mexico<br />
co<strong>in</strong>cided with the arrival of Alex<strong>and</strong>er von Humboldt<br />
<strong>in</strong> the capital of New Spa<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong> April, 1803. Although<br />
the name of von Humboldt is not directly relevant to<br />
us (his collections lie all outside of our area of study),<br />
it is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to note that both Mociño <strong>and</strong> Cervantes<br />
met the great German naturalist, before the departure<br />
of Mociño to Cádiz, <strong>in</strong> June of that year. After their<br />
encounter Humboldt wrote: “MM. Cervantes, Sessé<br />
et Moc<strong>in</strong>o nous feront connoitre sous peu la flore de<br />
ce pays; mais sur un terra<strong>in</strong> aussi immense la nature<br />
est pour a<strong>in</strong>si dire <strong>in</strong>épuisable, et nous possédons sans<br />
doute plusieurs végétaux mexica<strong>in</strong>s qui ont échappé á<br />
la sagacité de ces botanistes” (= Messrs. Cervantes,<br />
Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño made known to us <strong>in</strong> a short time<br />
the flora of that country; but <strong>in</strong> such an immense<br />
territory nature is -we could say- <strong>in</strong>exhaustible, <strong>and</strong><br />
we possess without doubt several Mexican vegetables<br />
which have escaped the sagacity of these botanists)<br />
(Humboldt & Bonpl<strong>and</strong> 1808: iii).<br />
The material collected by the expedition arrived<br />
<strong>in</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g days of great political convulsion.<br />
Mociño was made responsible for publish<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
results of the expeditions to Mexico, Guatemala,<br />
California <strong>and</strong> the W<strong>in</strong>dward Isl<strong>and</strong>s. To do so he
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
was given the help of the Mexican Pablo La Llave<br />
(1773-1833) (González Bueno & Rodríguez Nozal,<br />
R., 2006: 173) But the wartime situation <strong>in</strong> which<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> found itself did not favor the project. The ma<strong>in</strong><br />
part of the collections (particularly the herbarium)<br />
came to the “Botanical Office” 15 controlled by<br />
Pavón, especially after the forced exile of Mociño<br />
to France <strong>in</strong> 1813, accused of collaborat<strong>in</strong>g with the<br />
French occupation forces. The attempts by Sessé<br />
<strong>and</strong> Mociño to publish a Mexican flora never bore<br />
fruit (Fig. 20A). Between herbarium specimens <strong>and</strong><br />
botanical draw<strong>in</strong>gs made dur<strong>in</strong>g the expedition, we<br />
are left with a total of 136 species of Orchidaceae.<br />
In many cases the species have not been identified.<br />
In others there is no <strong>in</strong>formation about the locality of<br />
collection, so that we can not be sure if they belong<br />
to our area of study.<br />
In spite of the circumstances that prevented the<br />
publication of the scientific results, there is no doubt<br />
that the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Spa<strong>in</strong> is<br />
a milestone <strong>in</strong> the history of our <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
The dispersal of the botanical collections<br />
“Misfortunes always pursue men of genius”<br />
Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote<br />
Pavón, start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1814, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> charge of the<br />
Botanical Office, began to h<strong>and</strong>le the collections as if<br />
they were his own, sell<strong>in</strong>g specimens of the herbarium<br />
of the expedition to New Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> duplicates of that<br />
of the flora of Peru <strong>and</strong> Chile, so squ<strong>and</strong>er<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
funds which were under his care. In the meantime, <strong>in</strong><br />
Engl<strong>and</strong>, the opulent botanist Aylmer Bourke Lambert<br />
(1761-1842) (Fig. 20B) was named <strong>in</strong> 1798 as one of<br />
the first members of the L<strong>in</strong>nean Society. A passionate<br />
collector, Lambert amassed, through tenacity <strong>and</strong><br />
wealth, a large library <strong>and</strong> one of the most important<br />
herbaria of his time. We do not know how Lambert got<br />
notice of Pavón’s deal<strong>in</strong>gs, but we know that between<br />
1814 <strong>and</strong> until 1825 Pavón sold to him more than<br />
15,000 botanical <strong>and</strong> zoological specimens that were<br />
kept at the Botanical Office <strong>in</strong> Madrid.<br />
But Lambert was not the only one to receive<br />
materials from Pavón. As an example, let us mention<br />
the almost 5,000 specimens which Philip Baker Webb<br />
received between 1826 y 1827, that today form part of<br />
the herbarium of the Botanical Institute of Florence,<br />
as part of a legacy from Webb to the Duke of Tuscany<br />
(Fig. 20C).<br />
John L<strong>in</strong>dley <strong>and</strong> the Lambert herbarium. Pavón’s<br />
conduct does not admit excuses. But if we look at this<br />
case from a practical po<strong>in</strong>t of view, the sale of the<br />
herbarium specimens of the expedition was perhaps<br />
the best way to br<strong>in</strong>g the botanical richness of New<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>to the h<strong>and</strong>s of the botanists of those times<br />
(although this was surely not the motive of Pavón).<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> herbarium that was conserved at the Royal<br />
Botanical Garden <strong>in</strong> Madrid (probably with about<br />
half of the orig<strong>in</strong>al number of specimens) was not<br />
unpacked until 1930. The specimens were numbered<br />
<strong>and</strong> sent on loan to Chicago where, between 1936<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1964, all were identified <strong>and</strong> photographed,<br />
before be<strong>in</strong>g returned to Madrid (McVaugh, 2000: 1).<br />
In other words: all specimens that were not sold by<br />
Pavón had to wait over 140 years before they could<br />
be studied!<br />
Generous with his colleagues <strong>and</strong> friends,<br />
Lambert always gave them free use of his library<br />
<strong>and</strong> herbarium. In this manner the great John L<strong>in</strong>dley<br />
(1799-1865) (Fig. 21A) was able to study <strong>and</strong> identify<br />
many of the specimens that came from Madrid. In<br />
his monumental work The Genera <strong>and</strong> Species of<br />
Orchidaceous Plants (1830-40) L<strong>in</strong>dley mentions a<br />
total of 12 species based on material that had been<br />
sold by Pavón to Lambert.In all of his descriptions we<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d the follow<strong>in</strong>g note by L<strong>in</strong>dley ‘Hab. <strong>in</strong> Mexico;<br />
Pavon, (exam. s. sp. <strong>in</strong> Herb. Lambert)’. This note<br />
was the reason why Pavón was considered, for many<br />
years, the collector of this species, f<strong>org</strong>ett<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
he had never been to Mexico. Two of the species<br />
described by L<strong>in</strong>dley (Epidendrum fruticosum y<br />
Epidendrum radicans) have, as the name of their<br />
author, ‘Pavon ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.’ This <strong>in</strong>dicates that L<strong>in</strong>dley<br />
respected an epithet that had already been suggested<br />
by Pavón (Fig. 21B).<br />
August<strong>in</strong> De C<strong>and</strong>olle <strong>and</strong> the “Ladies of Geneva”<br />
The 2,000 illustrations of the botanical expedition to<br />
New Spa<strong>in</strong> went a different way. Mociño marched<br />
15 The Botanical Office (“Ofic<strong>in</strong>a Botánica”), located <strong>in</strong> Madrid as a dependence of the M<strong>in</strong>istry of Justice of the Indies, was<br />
conceived as a State Center for the study <strong>and</strong> publication of the American flora.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
49
50<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Table 5. Species described by L<strong>in</strong>dley based on specimens <strong>in</strong> the Lambert herbarium that had been bought from Pavón.<br />
Name given by L<strong>in</strong>dley Botanical name that is valid today<br />
Epidendrum bidentatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. Encyclia bidentata (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Hágs. & Soto Arenas<br />
Epidendrum floribundum H. B. K. Epidendrum paniculatum Ruiz & Pavón<br />
Epidendrum fruticosum Pavon ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. Epidendrum fruticosum Pavon ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Epidendrum polyanthum L<strong>in</strong>dl. Epidendrum polyanthum L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Epidendrum radicans Pavon ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. Epidendrum radicans Pavon ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Epidendrum raniferum L<strong>in</strong>dl. Epidendrum raniferum L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Epidendrum vitell<strong>in</strong>um L<strong>in</strong>dl. Prosthechea vitell<strong>in</strong>a (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Eucnemis brevilabris L<strong>in</strong>dl. Govenia liliacea (Lex.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Oncidium funereum L<strong>in</strong>dl. Oncidium reflexum L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Oncidium pauciflorum L<strong>in</strong>dl. Oncidium pauciflorum L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Ponera juncifolia L<strong>in</strong>dl. Ponera juncifolia L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Stanhopea bucephalus L<strong>in</strong>dl. Stanhopea oculata (Lodd.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
with them to his exile <strong>in</strong> Montpellier, where he met<br />
the Swiss botanist August<strong>in</strong> Pyramus De C<strong>and</strong>olle<br />
(1778-1841) (Fig. 21C), who was impressed by the<br />
quality of the work. A short time later Mociño, who<br />
seemed to have lost all hopes of return<strong>in</strong>g to Spa<strong>in</strong>,<br />
gave the draw<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> the manuscripts of the Flora<br />
Mexicana to De C<strong>and</strong>olle, who took them with him<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1816 to Geneva. Six months later, <strong>in</strong> April, 1817,<br />
he received a letter from Mociño, who was still <strong>in</strong><br />
Montpellier, lett<strong>in</strong>g him know that he had received<br />
permission to return to Spa<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> ask<strong>in</strong>g him to<br />
return the collections. Honest until his last days,<br />
Mociño dared not to go back without the draw<strong>in</strong>gs:<br />
they belonged to the Crown (McVaugh, 1998).<br />
With the help of more than 120 volunteers,<br />
most of them ladies of Geneva’s high society, De<br />
C<strong>and</strong>olle managed to copy almost 1,200 plates <strong>in</strong><br />
only 10 days. Together with 300 duplicates, that<br />
were a gift from Mociño, he formed a collection of<br />
13 bound volumes known today as the Flora of the<br />
Ladies of Geneva. Many species discovered dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the expedition to New Spa<strong>in</strong> could be known dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the XIX century thanks to this work. S<strong>in</strong>ce, as we<br />
shall see later, the orig<strong>in</strong>al draw<strong>in</strong>gs of Mociño<br />
disappeared from 1817 until 1981, the collection of<br />
copies <strong>and</strong> duplicates <strong>in</strong> Geneva became the only<br />
source of knowledge about the illustrations of the<br />
expedition. In De C<strong>and</strong>olle’s two ma<strong>in</strong> works, his<br />
Regni Vegetabilis Systema Naturae (1817-1821)<br />
<strong>and</strong> his Prodomus Systematics Naturales Regni<br />
Vegetabilis (1824-1873, completed by his son<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Alphonse), more than 300 species of plants were<br />
described based on the draw<strong>in</strong>gs of the expedition.<br />
Encyclia c<strong>and</strong>ollei (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Schltr. was dedicated to<br />
De C<strong>and</strong>olle. Apparently only 10 species of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
were copied. Most of them have been identified to<br />
date, although -aga<strong>in</strong>- we can not be certa<strong>in</strong> that they<br />
belong to our area of study, s<strong>in</strong>ce no localities of<br />
collection are <strong>in</strong>dicated. The orig<strong>in</strong>als of six of these<br />
copies are still preserved <strong>in</strong> the Torner Collection of<br />
the Hunt Institute.<br />
With the recovered collections, Mociño returned<br />
to Spa<strong>in</strong>, where the illustrations disappeared after<br />
his death. In 1981 they were discovered by the<br />
Table 6. Orchidaceae <strong>in</strong> the “Flora of the Ladies of<br />
Geneva” (Torner: Number of the orig<strong>in</strong>al draw<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />
collection of the Hunt Institute; Icones: orig<strong>in</strong>al number<br />
assigned by Sessé y Mociño; DC: Number assigned by<br />
De C<strong>and</strong>olle).<br />
Botanical name Torner Icones DC<br />
Bletia roezli 0091 258 1196<br />
Cypripedium irapeanum 1112 294 1225<br />
Encyclia lancifolia 0370 253 1225<br />
Prosthechea radiata 253 1190<br />
Govenia sp. 258 1196<br />
Malaxis carnosa 0218 175 1219<br />
Malaxis unifolia 0219 176 1219*<br />
Spiranthes c<strong>in</strong>nabar<strong>in</strong>a 174 1221<br />
Sacoila lanceolata 173 1220<br />
Stenorrhynchos aurantiacus 1751 174 1221
A<br />
C<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 20. A — Front cover of Mociño’s unpublished manuscript for the Flora of New Spa<strong>in</strong>. San Pío Aladrén, 2005: 72. B —<br />
Aylmer Bourke Lambert (1761-1842). Courtesy of the Oakes Ames Herbarium, Harvard University. C — Dispersal of the<br />
botanical collections proceed<strong>in</strong>g from the expeditions to Peru <strong>and</strong> New Spa<strong>in</strong>. San Pío Aladrén & Puig-Samper, 2000: 11.<br />
B<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
51
52<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
A B<br />
C D<br />
Figure 21. A — John L<strong>in</strong>dley (1799-1865). From a contemporary etch<strong>in</strong>g. In Orquídea (Mex.), June 1975: 90. B — Copy of a<br />
page of the list of specimens sent by Pavón to Lambert, where the epithet radicans was used for the the first time. Courtesy of<br />
the British Museum of Natural History <strong>and</strong> of Henry Oakeley. C — August<strong>in</strong> Pyramus De C<strong>and</strong>olle (1778-1841). Courtesy of<br />
the Oakes Ames Herbarium, Harvard University. D — José Cecilio del Valle (1777-1834). Hall & Pérez Brignoli, 2001: 168.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation of<br />
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, <strong>in</strong> the private library of<br />
the Torner family <strong>in</strong> Barcelona, <strong>and</strong> acquired for the<br />
ridiculous sum of 2,000 pesetas (ca. $12) for each<br />
illustration. As had happened 160 years earlier with<br />
the herbarium specimens, the illustrations of the<br />
expedition of Sessé <strong>and</strong> Mociño went abroad under<br />
the accommodat<strong>in</strong>g eyes of the Spanish government.<br />
Poor <strong>and</strong> sick, Mociño died <strong>in</strong> Barcelona <strong>in</strong> 1820.<br />
His friend, the Spanish botanist Mariano Lagasca,<br />
wrote <strong>in</strong> November of the same year to De C<strong>and</strong>olle:<br />
“Mociño noster sex abh<strong>in</strong>c mensibus e vita discessit<br />
<strong>in</strong> urbe Barc<strong>in</strong>onensi ... Vir certe melioris fortunae<br />
dignus” (McVaugh, 1998).<br />
The history of the expedition to New Spa<strong>in</strong> does<br />
not have a happy end: Sessé <strong>in</strong> 1808 <strong>and</strong> Mociño<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1820, died without fulfill<strong>in</strong>g their dream of<br />
publish<strong>in</strong>g the floras of Mexico <strong>and</strong> Guatemala.<br />
Lambert died <strong>in</strong> 1842 <strong>and</strong> the provision <strong>in</strong> his will<br />
that his herbarium should be kept <strong>in</strong>tact was not<br />
obeyed. His collections were auctioned <strong>in</strong> separate<br />
lots <strong>and</strong> dispersed all over the world (Anonymous,<br />
1842). An important part of the materials that Pavón<br />
had sold to Lambert passed <strong>in</strong>to the h<strong>and</strong>s of the<br />
British Museum of Natural History, where they<br />
still rema<strong>in</strong>. Another significant portion is today <strong>in</strong><br />
Geneva. Pavón was f<strong>in</strong>ally asked to account for his<br />
acts <strong>in</strong> 1831 <strong>and</strong> three years later the Board of the<br />
Science Museum of Madrid suspended him from his<br />
salary. A sad guardian of the treasures brought from<br />
America by the botanical expeditions of the latter<br />
XVIII century, he died <strong>in</strong> disgrace <strong>in</strong> 1840.<br />
Mariano de la Paz wrote these words <strong>in</strong> reference<br />
to the collections of the Spanish expedition of 1862<br />
to the Pacific 16 , words that are valid for practically<br />
all materials that came to Spa<strong>in</strong> as a product of the<br />
great expeditions of the Century of Light: “These<br />
precious collections, brought together at so much<br />
effort, await, as many others of similar orig<strong>in</strong> which<br />
have been neglected for years <strong>in</strong> the limbus of<br />
Science, the doubtful arrival of a naturalist savoir,<br />
who will glorify their authors, br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g them to<br />
light, if moths <strong>and</strong> ants did not get to them first”<br />
(Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid,1989: 97).<br />
The Cab<strong>in</strong>et of Natural History of Guatemala.<br />
Aside from its scientific achievements, the Royal<br />
Botanical Expedition to New Spa<strong>in</strong>, bearer of the ideas<br />
<strong>and</strong> ideals of the Enlightenment, had a strong <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
on the social <strong>and</strong> political environment of Central<br />
America <strong>in</strong> the last years of the XVIII century.<br />
The Royal Economical Society of Friends of the<br />
Country of Guatemala was founded <strong>in</strong> 1795, as a<br />
result of the new ideas that were slowly impos<strong>in</strong>g<br />
themselves upon the colony. Life <strong>in</strong> the capital of<br />
Guatemala went on <strong>in</strong> this ambience of reforms, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
last years of the XVIII century, when the expedition<br />
arrived, proceed<strong>in</strong>g from the largest <strong>and</strong> most<br />
advanced city <strong>in</strong> America, which was the capital of<br />
Mexico” (Maldonado Polo,1996: 78-79). Long<strong>in</strong>os<br />
Martínez established contacts to the Society, that had<br />
among its priorities the development of natural history.<br />
In December 1796, <strong>and</strong> due to the efforts of<br />
Long<strong>in</strong>os Martínez, the Cab<strong>in</strong>et of Natural History<br />
of Guatemala was solemnly <strong>in</strong>augurated, with the<br />
presence of the prom<strong>in</strong>ence <strong>and</strong> high authorities of<br />
the Capta<strong>in</strong>cy General. As we will see, the presence<br />
this day of José Cecilio del Valle (1777-1834) (Fig.<br />
21C) was of extraord<strong>in</strong>ary importance. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>in</strong>auguration, the museum of natural history opened<br />
its doors to the public <strong>and</strong> the first pupils were tested:<br />
Pascasio Ortiz de Letona <strong>and</strong> Mariano Antonio de<br />
Larrave. Mociño <strong>and</strong> Long<strong>in</strong>os Martínez shared<br />
their knowledge, carry<strong>in</strong>g out the first physical <strong>and</strong><br />
chemical analysis of the dr<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g water <strong>in</strong> the area<br />
around the city.<br />
Although the Society was prohibited <strong>in</strong> 1799, its<br />
ideas prevailed. And it is no co<strong>in</strong>cidence that it was<br />
Del Valle who drafted, twenty two years later, the<br />
declaration of <strong>in</strong>dependence of the Capta<strong>in</strong>cy General,<br />
that was signed <strong>in</strong> Guatemala on September 15, 1821,<br />
<strong>and</strong> that we f<strong>in</strong>d the name of Mariano Larrave amongst<br />
those who signed it.<br />
At the end of this period we must mention what<br />
was perhaps the best posthumous homage that Mociño<br />
received: that of his friend Pablo La Llave, who <strong>in</strong><br />
1832 designated the resplendent quetzal, the mythical<br />
bird of freedom <strong>in</strong> Central America s<strong>in</strong>ce prehispanic<br />
times, with the name of Pharomachrus moc<strong>in</strong>no.<br />
16 The “Spanish Scientific Commission of the Voyage to the Pacific (1862-1866)” explored ma<strong>in</strong>ly South America, with the<br />
exception of a short visit to Taboga Isl<strong>and</strong> (Panama), from where no collections of Orchidaceae are recorded.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
53
54<br />
The new republIcs<br />
By the law of the seas <strong>and</strong> the distances,<br />
America can only belong to itself”<br />
Fray Serv<strong>and</strong>o Teresa de Mier (1811)<br />
Times of change. After <strong>in</strong>dependence <strong>in</strong> 1821, the<br />
Central American republics jo<strong>in</strong>ed the ephemeral<br />
Mexican empire of Agustín de Iturbide. The Central<br />
American Federation was constituted <strong>in</strong> 1825, under<br />
the name of United Prov<strong>in</strong>ces of the Center of America.<br />
Mexico became a federal republic <strong>in</strong> 1824, under the<br />
name of the United Mexican States.<br />
In those confus<strong>in</strong>g times, the spirit of Enlightenment<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>ed present for a short period of time. “On<br />
October 5, 1825 [José Cecilio del Valle] addressed<br />
a letter to the Secretary of the Supreme Government<br />
propos<strong>in</strong>g an expedition, f<strong>in</strong>anced by European<br />
<strong>and</strong> Guatemalan <strong>in</strong>vestors. He even proposed that<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>er von Humboldt should come back to<br />
America, suggest<strong>in</strong>g he start with the Central American<br />
regions. The German never came back, but a large<br />
number of botanists started explor<strong>in</strong>g the area dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the XIX <strong>and</strong> XX centuries” (Brad<strong>in</strong>g, 1991: 639).<br />
In Mexico, Juan Martínez de Lexarza (1785-1824),<br />
Pablo de La Llave (1773-1833) <strong>and</strong> Vicente Cervantes<br />
(1755-1829) cont<strong>in</strong>ued the work started by Sessé <strong>and</strong><br />
Mociño, of whose expedition Cervantes had been a<br />
member. A word about Cervantes: such was his prestige<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mexico, where he held the chair of Botany, that the<br />
Mexican government, although he was a Spaniard,<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed him <strong>in</strong> his position after <strong>in</strong>dependence. He<br />
directed the Chair <strong>and</strong> the Botanical Garden until his death,<br />
<strong>and</strong> was also <strong>in</strong> charge of the pharmacy of the Hospital<br />
of San Andres, where he set up an excellent chemical<br />
laboratory. Cervantes was a brilliant <strong>in</strong>vestigator of the<br />
Mexican flora <strong>and</strong> described many new species. He kept a<br />
close scientific relationship with Antonio José Cavanilles,<br />
the great Spanish botanist, to whom he sent large amounts<br />
of material, <strong>and</strong> had also connections with Alex<strong>and</strong>er von<br />
Humboldt <strong>and</strong> Aimé Bonpl<strong>and</strong>, whose friendship he had<br />
made dur<strong>in</strong>g their stay <strong>in</strong> Mexico. William Bullock, who<br />
arrived <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1823, visited the Botanical Garden<br />
<strong>and</strong> praised its beauty <strong>and</strong> the perfection with which the<br />
plants were kept. He met Professor Cervantes <strong>and</strong> was<br />
thankful for receiv<strong>in</strong>g a total of 31 plants, for which<br />
Cervantes provided the botanical names. No <strong>orchids</strong> are<br />
found <strong>in</strong> this list (Bullock, 1825: 147-152).<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Lexarza’s work, Novorum Vegetabilium Descriptiones,<br />
was published <strong>in</strong> 1824-1825. One hundred species<br />
where described, <strong>in</strong> conjunction with La Llave <strong>and</strong><br />
Cervantes, as new to science. The Orchidianum<br />
Opusculum that appeared <strong>in</strong> the second fascicle of<br />
1825 <strong>in</strong>cludes the descriptions of 50 new species<br />
of Orchidaceae distributed <strong>in</strong> 20 genera, of which<br />
4 proved to be new. Lexarza proposed here a new<br />
classification of <strong>orchids</strong>, based on an analysis of their<br />
seeds <strong>and</strong> pollen.<br />
“Lexarza gave promise of mak<strong>in</strong>g an accomplished<br />
botanist, but he attempted too much <strong>and</strong> was cut<br />
off young. Several of his <strong>orchids</strong> have not been<br />
identified <strong>in</strong> consequence of their descriptions be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
imperfect” (Hemsley, 1887: 122). The Mexican state<br />
of Michoacán, where most of the plants described<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Novorum Vegetabilium Descriptiones were<br />
collected, lies outside of our limits. It is therefore<br />
not clear if Lexarza should be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> this story.<br />
However, there are evidences that he, or La Llave (or<br />
both) collected plants from other families <strong>in</strong> the area<br />
of Veracruz, many of which can also be found <strong>in</strong> other<br />
regions of Central America.<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g species, among others, were<br />
dedicated to Lexarza: Cypripedium lexarzae Scheidw.,<br />
Macrocl<strong>in</strong>ium lexarzanum (Hágs. & González)<br />
Dodson, Maxillaria lexarzana Soto Arenas & Cabrera<br />
<strong>and</strong> Notylia lexarzana Hágs. & González. On the other<br />
h<strong>and</strong>, La Llave is remembered <strong>in</strong> Epidendrum llavei<br />
Steud. <strong>and</strong> Schiedeella llaveana Schltr. And both<br />
honored their friend Cervantes with Rhynchostele<br />
cervantesii (La Llave & Lex.) Soto Arenas & Salazar.<br />
The works of Lexarza, De La Llave <strong>and</strong> Cervantes<br />
are the last examples of ‘Spanish botany’ <strong>in</strong> Central<br />
America. It does not surprise us therefore, that many<br />
of their collections went the same way as those of the<br />
great Spanish expeditions of the preced<strong>in</strong>g century <strong>and</strong><br />
ended up lost <strong>in</strong> the h<strong>and</strong>s of Spanish bureaucracy.<br />
In 1836, Joaquín Velásquez, assigned to the Mexican<br />
Legation <strong>in</strong> Rome, brought with him a small collection<br />
of dried plants <strong>and</strong> seeds collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, which<br />
formed the basis of the Florula Guatimalensis (1840)<br />
of Antonio Bertoloni (1775-1869) although no species<br />
of Orchidaceae are mentioned <strong>in</strong> this work. Bertoloni<br />
was the most important Italian botanist of his time <strong>and</strong><br />
was also <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> exotic plants that he received<br />
from his friends. His collections of samples are kept <strong>in</strong>
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
the archives of the Botanic Garden of Bologna.<br />
Those were times of change. The Central American<br />
Federation was dissolved <strong>in</strong> 1838. While the newly<br />
born Central American nations took their first steps<br />
<strong>in</strong> republican life, other powers, particularly Great<br />
Brita<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> the United States, sharpened their weapons<br />
to fill the void left by Spa<strong>in</strong>. “All Europe is now, after<br />
those immense territories were opened, occupied with<br />
commercial speculations <strong>in</strong> those directions” (Schott,<br />
F., Preface by the translator <strong>in</strong> Bullock, 1825: vi ).<br />
Central American society, overwhelmed with<br />
political, economical <strong>and</strong> social problems of great<br />
magnitude, could not f<strong>in</strong>d time or resources for the<br />
development of the natural sciences. As Wells wrote<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1857: “S<strong>in</strong>ce their separation from the Spanish<br />
authority, the Central American States have been,<br />
with brief <strong>in</strong>tervals, a sorrow example to all lovers<br />
of republican <strong>in</strong>stitutions. The experiment of selfgovernment<br />
has proved to be a pitiful failure, after<br />
thirty years of revolutions <strong>and</strong> exhaust<strong>in</strong>g wars”<br />
(Wells, 1857: 419). In fact, with the notable exception<br />
of the trio formed by Martínez de Lexarza, de La Llave<br />
<strong>and</strong> Cervantes, we can not talk about a national science<br />
<strong>in</strong> Central America until the last quarter of the XIX<br />
century. The scientific discovery of the natural richness<br />
of the region was left <strong>in</strong> h<strong>and</strong>s of foreign explorers,<br />
collectors <strong>and</strong> travelers, who would soon start arriv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
at its shores.<br />
Orchidomania<br />
“... it was neither to provide us with food or<br />
raiment, nor to protect us from disease or cold,<br />
that tropical forests were made to teem with an<br />
almost endless variety of the tribe [Orchidaceae]:<br />
either, therefore, <strong>in</strong> the cheerless spirit of atheism,<br />
we must suppose them to have been created <strong>in</strong><br />
va<strong>in</strong>, or we must conclude that their office was<br />
someth<strong>in</strong>g other <strong>and</strong> higher than to m<strong>in</strong>ister to<br />
the mere animal necessities of our nature. No;<br />
it was to yield us a pleasure of an <strong>in</strong>tellectual<br />
k<strong>in</strong>d, <strong>and</strong> so to w<strong>in</strong> our affections from more<br />
hurtful th<strong>in</strong>gs, that these most worthless of plants<br />
were clothed <strong>in</strong> unrivalled charms; - it was to<br />
provide a rich banquet <strong>in</strong> the temple of Flora,<br />
which, while it yielded the utmost enjoyment to<br />
her most constant votaries, might, at the same<br />
time, draw round her <strong>in</strong>nocent table those who<br />
were more rarely numbered among her guests; an<br />
enterta<strong>in</strong>ment, <strong>in</strong> short, which might attract the<br />
man of pleasure by its splendour, the virtuoso by<br />
its rarity, <strong>and</strong> the man of science by its novelty <strong>and</strong><br />
extraord<strong>in</strong>ary character. It is, we are conv<strong>in</strong>ced,<br />
on this pr<strong>in</strong>ciple alone that we can attempt to<br />
underst<strong>and</strong> the ‘Orchido-Mania’, which now<br />
pervades all (<strong>and</strong> especially the upper) classes,<br />
to such a marvellous extent. Not contented with<br />
the exertions of our foreign connexions, we send<br />
men expressly to all the po<strong>in</strong>ts of the compass, to<br />
swell the number of the species <strong>in</strong> cultivation; <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> this zeal for their <strong>in</strong>troduction, the amateur,<br />
the nurseryman, <strong>and</strong> the public establishment,<br />
all vie with each other. The nobility, the clergy,<br />
those engaged <strong>in</strong> the learned professions or <strong>in</strong> the<br />
pursuits of commerce, seem alike unable to resist<br />
the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the prevail<strong>in</strong>g passion; nay, if we<br />
may trust a paragraph <strong>in</strong> a morn<strong>in</strong>g paper, it has<br />
even extended to W<strong>in</strong>dsor Castle itself.”<br />
James Bateman, <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction to<br />
Orchidaceae of Mexico <strong>and</strong> Guatemala (1843)<br />
Around the same time that Pavón was deal<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
Lambert <strong>and</strong> sell<strong>in</strong>g the botanical samples of the Royal<br />
Spanish expeditions, enthusiasm for <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
<strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong>. “Exotic <strong>orchids</strong> arrived <strong>in</strong> Europe at a<br />
propitious moment, an epoch puls<strong>in</strong>g with an appetite<br />
<strong>and</strong> admiration for exotic flora. They represented the<br />
fasc<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> lovel<strong>in</strong>ess of far-off l<strong>and</strong>s that were<br />
fast com<strong>in</strong>g closer as colonialists built up the great<br />
empires of the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century. It was <strong>in</strong> such<br />
conquered territories that <strong>orchids</strong> were uprooted or<br />
stripped from trees <strong>and</strong> rocks, beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g their long<br />
journey to hothouses <strong>and</strong> herbaria” (Berliochii, 2000:<br />
57-58).<br />
The Royal Horticultural Society was founded <strong>in</strong><br />
1804 by Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820) <strong>and</strong> a few<br />
years later started send<strong>in</strong>g out collectors to the tropical<br />
regions (Fig. 22A). In 1812, Joachim Conrad Loddiges<br />
(1738-1821), was becom<strong>in</strong>g fairly successful <strong>in</strong><br />
cultivat<strong>in</strong>g the ‘Epidendrums’ or ‘air plants’, as nearly<br />
all the epiphytic species were termed, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
numbers of their plants began appear<strong>in</strong>g at the newly<br />
established horticultural exhibitions” (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995:<br />
26). The nurseries of Loddiges <strong>in</strong> Hackney, managed<br />
after his death by his son Ge<strong>org</strong>e (1784-1846), signaled<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
55
56<br />
the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>gs of commercial orchid cultivation, <strong>and</strong><br />
many plants grown by Loddiges became the types for<br />
new species, described chiefly by L<strong>in</strong>dley <strong>in</strong> Edwards’<br />
Botanical Register.<br />
Through its exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g collection of tropical plants,<br />
the Royal Horticultural Society contributed to the<br />
popularization of the <strong>orchids</strong> among the wealthy<br />
classes. The fashion of grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> as a hobby<br />
had its real beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1833 when William Spencer<br />
Cavendish, sixth Duke of Devonshire, discovered a<br />
plant of Oncidium papilio at one of the aforementioned<br />
exhibitions (Fig. 22B).<br />
“A number of commercial nurseries found it highly<br />
profitable to supply the dem<strong>and</strong> for new species, <strong>and</strong><br />
several hired collectors to travel <strong>in</strong>to the tropical areas<br />
of the world where they might locate new sources of<br />
species that had already become horticulturally popular<br />
– <strong>and</strong> to collect new species which might stimulate<br />
further <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>and</strong> profit” (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 27). A<br />
new breed of adventurers started explor<strong>in</strong>g the tropics<br />
<strong>in</strong> search of new species. The mania for possess<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> raised the prices of all available plants. Great<br />
auctions were held <strong>in</strong> London <strong>and</strong> Liverpool where<br />
prices of one hundred pounds for a s<strong>in</strong>gle plant were<br />
not unusual. “This is the epic phase <strong>in</strong> the orchid’s<br />
history, written <strong>in</strong> the sweat <strong>and</strong> blood of a group of<br />
adventurers <strong>and</strong> explorers – the hunters of wild flowers<br />
that could sometimes prove every bit as dangerous as<br />
their animal counterparts” (Berliocchi, 200: 59-60)<br />
(Fig. 22C).<br />
The <strong>in</strong>vention, <strong>in</strong> about 1829, of the “Wardian<br />
case”, by Dr. Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward unleashed a<br />
revolution <strong>in</strong> the mobility of commercially important<br />
plants. Dr. Ward was a physician with a passion for<br />
botany who accidentally discovered that fern spores<br />
were germ<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a bit of soil <strong>in</strong>side<br />
of a bottle, thus protected from the contam<strong>in</strong>ation of<br />
the outside air. Ward communicated his discovery<br />
to Ge<strong>org</strong>e Loddiges, who had a carpenter build him<br />
closely-fitted glazed wooden cases. The first “Wardian<br />
cases” were shipped to Australia <strong>in</strong> 1833, filled with<br />
British ferns <strong>and</strong> grasses, <strong>and</strong> after a voyage of several<br />
months the plants were found still <strong>in</strong> good condition<br />
(Gómez, 2007: 481-482). Wardian cases soon became<br />
features of stylish draw<strong>in</strong>gs rooms <strong>in</strong> Western Europe<br />
<strong>and</strong> the United States. In the polluted air of Victorian<br />
cities, the fern craze <strong>and</strong> the craze for grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong><br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
that followed owed much of their impetus to the new<br />
Wardian cases.<br />
By 1834, ‘orchidomania’ had spread throughout<br />
Engl<strong>and</strong>. But orchid cultivation also flourished<br />
elsewhere. M. Pescatore, of St. Cloud, near Paris,<br />
was one of the first Europeans outside Engl<strong>and</strong> to<br />
grow <strong>orchids</strong> as a leisure activity, hav<strong>in</strong>g cultivated<br />
a large collection of plants for many years – as had<br />
Consul Schiller of Hamburg, Germany (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka,<br />
1995: 31). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to L<strong>in</strong>den, Jean-Pierre Pescatore<br />
(1793-1855) had ‘la plus riche collection d’Orchidées<br />
du cont<strong>in</strong>ent’ (= the richest orchid collection of<br />
the Cont<strong>in</strong>ent). Reichenbach dedicated to him the<br />
genus Pescatoria. Many personalities from other<br />
countries were <strong>in</strong>strumental also <strong>in</strong> the discovery <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>troduction of new species. As orchid cultivation<br />
ga<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> fashionability <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong>, horticulturists <strong>in</strong><br />
Belgium were quick to recognize that trade <strong>in</strong> tropical<br />
<strong>and</strong> subtropical <strong>orchids</strong> could be profitable. In 1838 the<br />
passion for <strong>orchids</strong> had already extended to the United<br />
States, where John Wright Boott, of Boston, received<br />
a collection of plants sent to him from Engl<strong>and</strong> by his<br />
brother James. Years later (ca. 1870), General John<br />
F. Rathbone, of Albany, New York, wrote: “I was so<br />
delighted with the plant <strong>and</strong> flowers that I caught the<br />
Orchid fever, which I am happy to say is now prevail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to considerable extent <strong>in</strong> this country, <strong>and</strong> which I trust<br />
will become epidemic” (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 31).<br />
Very soon, scientists <strong>and</strong> collectors would turn their<br />
eyes to the natural richness of Central America, thus<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g one of the most <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g periods <strong>in</strong> the<br />
history of the <strong>orchids</strong> of this region (Fig. 23A).<br />
Britannia rules the waves<br />
“To thee belongs the rural reign<br />
Thy cities shall with commerce sh<strong>in</strong>e<br />
All th<strong>in</strong>e shall be, shall be the subject ma<strong>in</strong><br />
And every shore it circles th<strong>in</strong>e.”<br />
‘Rule Britannia’ from<br />
Thomas August<strong>in</strong>e Arne (1710-1788)<br />
Orl<strong>and</strong>o W. Roberts, an English merchant who arrived<br />
at the Gulf of Darién <strong>in</strong> 1816 <strong>and</strong> conducted trade with<br />
the natives of the Central American East coast dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
seven years, wrote an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g account of his travels<br />
<strong>in</strong> his book Narrative of Voyages <strong>and</strong> Excursions on<br />
the East Coast <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Interior of Central America,
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
published <strong>in</strong> 1827. Roberts sailed along the coast from<br />
Panama to Cape Gracias a Dios, <strong>in</strong> Honduras, <strong>and</strong> spend<br />
considerable time with the Miskitos <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua <strong>and</strong><br />
with the “Valientes” <strong>in</strong> Panama. His descriptions of<br />
the natives’ use of cocoa <strong>and</strong> vanilla are <strong>in</strong> the chapter<br />
about The History of Vanilla. But Roberts was also<br />
important because he was one of the first travelers to<br />
explore a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific.<br />
For this, he navigated the San Juan River to the Lake<br />
of Nicaragua, <strong>and</strong> went then on to the Pacific. In San<br />
Juan del Norte, Roberts was deta<strong>in</strong>ed by the Spanish<br />
authorities <strong>and</strong> sentenced to death for be<strong>in</strong>g a spy for<br />
the <strong>in</strong>dependentists. Roberts escaped narrowly <strong>and</strong> was<br />
later acquitted of all charges (Fig. 23B).<br />
Immediately after <strong>in</strong>dependence, the open<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
commercial relations with the British created a sudden<br />
rise <strong>in</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess. Merchants from Belize, who had been<br />
trad<strong>in</strong>g illegally with Guatemala for the preced<strong>in</strong>g<br />
twenty years, ga<strong>in</strong>ed access <strong>and</strong> direct contacts to most<br />
of Central America” (Wortman, 1991: 227). Brita<strong>in</strong> had<br />
prevailed <strong>in</strong> the long-last<strong>in</strong>g naval war aga<strong>in</strong>st Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
France between 1790 <strong>and</strong> 1815 <strong>and</strong> had almost ga<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
a monopoly on world naval trade. The United States,<br />
whose power <strong>in</strong>creased day by day, responded quickly.<br />
In 1823 president Monroe formulated the ‘Monroe<br />
Doctr<strong>in</strong>e’, that stipulated that the American cont<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
should not be subject to European colonization <strong>and</strong><br />
that the United States would not tolerate European<br />
<strong>in</strong>tervention. This doctr<strong>in</strong>e can be resumed <strong>in</strong> the classic<br />
expression: ‘America for the Americans’. It was the<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the fight among the powers on Central<br />
American soil, a fight that <strong>in</strong>itially favored Great Brita<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> that only <strong>in</strong> the second half of the century would<br />
turn slowly <strong>in</strong> favor of the United States.<br />
Burdened by great economic problems, the first<br />
federal president, Manuel José de Arce, embarked on a<br />
bold revolutionary program. The tax reform elim<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
unpopular Spanish levies, but left little revenue to<br />
cover the debt assumed from the colonial <strong>and</strong> imperial<br />
governments or to pay for expensive new projects. Arce<br />
turned to British capitalists to meet the f<strong>in</strong>ancial crisis,<br />
but a loan from the London firm of Barclay, Herr<strong>in</strong>g &<br />
Richardson produced only a small amount of cash for<br />
the federation. S<strong>in</strong>ce the government repaid practically<br />
none of it, the loan did not place an immediate burden<br />
on the federation’s f<strong>in</strong>ances, but the <strong>in</strong>debtedness<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>ed for decades, provid<strong>in</strong>g repeated opportunities<br />
for British diplomats to negotiate favorable concessions<br />
for British economic <strong>in</strong>terests” (Woodward, 1997).<br />
Possible routes for the construction of an <strong>in</strong>teroceanic<br />
canal <strong>in</strong> Central America began to be explored. “In the<br />
monumental work <strong>in</strong> which he describes his voyage<br />
to the New World from 1799 to 1804, Alex<strong>and</strong>er<br />
von Humboldt names n<strong>in</strong>e possible routes for an<br />
<strong>in</strong>teroceanic canal <strong>and</strong> urges scientific studies <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to decide which was the most advantageous, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
only <strong>in</strong>complete studies had been done on some of<br />
them. Among these routes he names that of Nicaragua,<br />
to that he assigns the first place, <strong>and</strong> the route of<br />
Panama, that he places fourth after those of Atrato <strong>and</strong><br />
Tehuantepec. A real comparative study between the<br />
various canal routes was not undertaken until many<br />
years later, but the Panama route was explored <strong>in</strong><br />
1827 by Lloyd <strong>and</strong> Falmare, <strong>in</strong> 1831 by Peacock <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> 1844 by Garella; <strong>and</strong> that of Nicaragua <strong>in</strong> 1837 by<br />
Baily, <strong>in</strong> 1848 by Oersted <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1850 by Childs. In<br />
addition to these explorations there were many projects<br />
that used <strong>in</strong>formation of prior surveys. Among these<br />
we can cite those of Pr<strong>in</strong>ce Louis Napoleon <strong>in</strong> 1846,<br />
Squier <strong>in</strong> 1849 <strong>and</strong> Belly <strong>in</strong> 1858” (Montiel, 1969).<br />
Let us remember that Panama had been discovered by<br />
Christopher Columbus on his 4th trip <strong>in</strong> 1502. It was<br />
then that a canal was first envisioned by K<strong>in</strong>g Carlos V<br />
of Spa<strong>in</strong> who ordered the very first topographic studies<br />
for the construction of a canal through the narrowest<br />
part of the isthmus (80 kilometers). A Royal Order from<br />
February 20, 1534 to the Governor of Panama Pascual<br />
de Andagoya said that “hav<strong>in</strong>g been <strong>in</strong>formed that the<br />
River Chagres, that enters <strong>in</strong>to the North Sea, can be<br />
navigated with caravels for three or four leagues, <strong>and</strong><br />
other three or four <strong>in</strong> barges, <strong>and</strong> that from there to<br />
the South Sea there are another four leagues by l<strong>and</strong>...<br />
you shall go to see the l<strong>and</strong> from the River Chagres to<br />
the South Sea <strong>and</strong> exam<strong>in</strong>e what form <strong>and</strong> order can<br />
be given to open that l<strong>and</strong> so that, once opened, the<br />
South Sea can jo<strong>in</strong> said river, so that navigation can<br />
happen, <strong>and</strong> to explore what difficulties it has, be it<br />
by the tides of the sea or by the height of the l<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
what cost <strong>in</strong> money <strong>and</strong> men will be necessary, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
what time it can be done...” (Ediciones Balboa, 2007:<br />
5). This was a visionary project but unfortunately such<br />
an enterprise was beyond the capabilities of the period.<br />
Andagoya <strong>in</strong>formed his K<strong>in</strong>g that, although the canal<br />
could be built, it would dem<strong>and</strong> more resources than<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
57
58<br />
those available to any ruler of that time (Sosa & Arce,<br />
1964: 80).<br />
Basil Hall (1788—1844) a British naval officer from<br />
Scotl<strong>and</strong>, was probably the first European to set foot <strong>in</strong><br />
our region after the <strong>in</strong>dependence from Spa<strong>in</strong>. In the<br />
years of 1820 to 1822, Hall sailed <strong>in</strong> the comm<strong>and</strong> of<br />
H.M.S. Conway along the Pacific coast of South <strong>and</strong><br />
Central America. In February of 1822 he anchored<br />
<strong>in</strong> Panama, where he stayed for a few days, sail<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from there to Acapulco, <strong>in</strong> Mexico. While <strong>in</strong> Panama,<br />
Hall discussed with one of the merchants of the place,<br />
who had particularly studied the question of cutt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a passage across the isthmus. “He was of the op<strong>in</strong>ion<br />
that an immense <strong>and</strong> immediate advantage would be<br />
ga<strong>in</strong>ed by mak<strong>in</strong>g a good road from sea to sea across<br />
the isthmus; which might be done very easily, <strong>and</strong> at<br />
an expense <strong>in</strong>calculably less than a canal could be cut,<br />
under the most favourable circumstances...” (Hall,<br />
1824: 158-159).<br />
In 1825, an Englishman by the name of John Hale<br />
signed a colonization agreement with the Costa Rican<br />
government of Juan Mora Fernández. “The purpose of<br />
Hale was to form this colony with North American <strong>and</strong><br />
British families…, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the year 1826 he published a<br />
pamphlet <strong>in</strong> the city of New York, with the <strong>in</strong>tention of<br />
mak<strong>in</strong>g the new l<strong>and</strong> known to the future settlers, a l<strong>and</strong><br />
overflow<strong>in</strong>g with natural richness, which only awaited<br />
their arrival to become a paradise” (Hale, 1826).<br />
“The natural history of foreign seas <strong>and</strong> countries is<br />
abundantly studied by men who ‘live at home at ease’<br />
<strong>in</strong> the midst of cab<strong>in</strong>ets <strong>and</strong> books, dependent for their<br />
specimens of birds, shells, or <strong>in</strong>sects, on the stores<br />
of dealers <strong>in</strong> such objects; but the number of those<br />
who have undergone the arduous personal exertion of<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g them, with a scientific spirit, <strong>in</strong> their native<br />
haunts, is comparatively few. Of this small number<br />
the life <strong>and</strong> adventures of Mr. Hugh Cum<strong>in</strong>g present<br />
one of the most remarkable <strong>in</strong>stances of record”<br />
(Dance, 1980: 477). Hugh Cum<strong>in</strong>g (1791-1865) (Fig.<br />
24A) l<strong>and</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Central America <strong>in</strong> 1829, dur<strong>in</strong>g one<br />
of his multiple voyages. Born near K<strong>in</strong>gsbridge <strong>in</strong><br />
Devon, Cum<strong>in</strong>g’s early <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> natural history was<br />
fostered by well-known naturalist Ge<strong>org</strong>e Montagu<br />
(1751-1815). Around 1820, Cum<strong>in</strong>g traveled to<br />
Chile, where he established a sail mak<strong>in</strong>g bus<strong>in</strong>ess.<br />
Interested <strong>in</strong> natural history, he sold his bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
17 The name appears <strong>in</strong>dist<strong>in</strong>ctly as Henchman or Henchmann.<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
<strong>and</strong> built a yacht designed with the sole purpose of<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g specimens for the British Museum <strong>and</strong><br />
some botanical gardens. It was a schooner which he<br />
named Discoverer, fitted out expressly for the purpose<br />
of stor<strong>in</strong>g natural objects (Dance, 1980: 478). In 1831<br />
he returned to Engl<strong>and</strong> with a huge load of animals,<br />
plants <strong>and</strong> shells for several museums <strong>and</strong> gardens.<br />
“It may also be mentioned that Hugh Cum<strong>in</strong>g, the<br />
well-known <strong>and</strong> extensive collector of objects of<br />
natural history, collected <strong>in</strong> Taboga I. <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Pearl<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Panama, <strong>and</strong> Montijo Bay, Chiriquí river,<br />
around 1829, <strong>and</strong> there is a set of his plants <strong>in</strong> the Kew<br />
Herbarium; but it is impossible to dist<strong>in</strong>guish <strong>in</strong> many<br />
cases which were collected with<strong>in</strong> our limits, because<br />
they are labeled ‘Panamá et Colombia occidentalis’”<br />
(Hemsley, 1887: 133). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Dance, Cum<strong>in</strong>g<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> our region <strong>in</strong> the Gulf of Panama, Pearl<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Gulf of Chiriquí, Puntarenas (Costa Rica),<br />
El Realejo (Nicaragua) <strong>and</strong> the Gulf of Fonseca,<br />
<strong>in</strong> Honduras (Dance, 1980: 482). At least four of<br />
Cum<strong>in</strong>g’s specimens from Central America became<br />
the types for new species described by L<strong>in</strong>dley:<br />
Aspasia epidendroides (‘Cum<strong>in</strong>g s.n.’), Oncidium<br />
(=Chelyorchis) ampliatum (‘Cum<strong>in</strong>g 1312’) (Fig.<br />
24B), Dichaea panamensis (‘Cum<strong>in</strong>g 1292’) <strong>and</strong><br />
Hexisea (=Scaphyglottis) bidentata (‘Cum<strong>in</strong>g s.n.’).<br />
All four are still quite common <strong>in</strong> Central America.<br />
Cum<strong>in</strong>g collected later <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> although<br />
he was barely capable of sign<strong>in</strong>g his own name, his<br />
botanical <strong>in</strong>st<strong>in</strong>ct led him to the discovery of thirtythree<br />
new species of <strong>orchids</strong>. He was called, with<br />
good reason ‘The Pr<strong>in</strong>ce of Collectors’. For 20 years,<br />
he acted as a dealer <strong>in</strong> natural history material, buy<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> sell<strong>in</strong>g collections obta<strong>in</strong>ed by other naturalists<br />
<strong>in</strong> many parts of the world.” Cum<strong>in</strong>g developed a<br />
reputation for return<strong>in</strong>g “liv<strong>in</strong>g” plants to Engl<strong>and</strong><br />
(Herman, 1994: 14). “Such men as Cum<strong>in</strong>g live after<br />
their death, <strong>and</strong> hence the marvellous <strong>in</strong>crease with<strong>in</strong><br />
a very few years, <strong>in</strong> our knowledge of Nature, <strong>and</strong> of<br />
God’s bounty to the world” (Dance, 1980: 495).<br />
The father of Hugh Low ( 1824 - 1905 ), a<br />
Scot by birth, established <strong>in</strong> 1820 one of the most<br />
prestigious English nurseries <strong>in</strong> Clapton, near<br />
London. Young Low followed soon his father’s<br />
ideals. The firm was one of the first to receive<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> from the Tropics. John Henchmann (1814
A<br />
C<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 22. A — Sir Joseph Banks (1743-1820). Portrait by Benjam<strong>in</strong> West, courtesy of the Hunt Institute for Botanical<br />
Documentation. B — Oncidium papilio, Edwards Botanical Register, plate 1825. C — Typical British greenhouse: the<br />
‘epiphyte house’ of Bateman at Knypersley Hall. In Bateman, 1837-43: 18.<br />
B<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
59
60<br />
A<br />
B<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 23. A — The Plant Hunter. Draw<strong>in</strong>g by Paul Weber, 1941, from Hamer, 1974 (courtesy of Hedwig Hamer). B — Map<br />
of Nicaragua by Orl<strong>and</strong>o Roberts. In Roberts, 1965.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
-1893) 17 , work<strong>in</strong>g for Low, collected <strong>in</strong> Mexico<br />
between 1835 <strong>and</strong> 1840, especially <strong>in</strong> the region of<br />
Veracruz, discover<strong>in</strong>g an important number of new<br />
species of Orchidaceae: Laelia barkeriana Knowles<br />
& Westc. (‘Plant cultivated by G. Barker, sent to<br />
him by J. Henchman from the vic<strong>in</strong>ity of Jalapa’),<br />
Oncidium luridum var. henchmannii Knowles &<br />
Westc. (Henchmann s.n.), Maxillaria henchmannii<br />
Hook. (Henchmann s.n.), Maxillaria cucullata<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (‘a native of Equ<strong>in</strong>octial America, whence<br />
it is said to have been brought by Mr. Henchman’)<br />
(Fig. 24C), Humboldtia octomerioides (L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
Kuntze (Henchmann s.n.), <strong>and</strong> Stanhopea tigr<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Bateman ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. (‘Henchman s.n., 1835, Habitat<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mexico, propè urbem Xalapam’). He also worked<br />
for Ge<strong>org</strong>e Barker <strong>and</strong> had been before <strong>in</strong> Venezuela,<br />
from where we know of at least one collection,<br />
Chysis aurea L<strong>in</strong>dl. (‘<strong>in</strong> the valley of Cumanacoa,<br />
<strong>in</strong> Venezuela, Mr. Henchman s.n.’).<br />
Much later, <strong>in</strong> 1864, Capta<strong>in</strong> John M. Dow mentions<br />
a collector by the name of Macgee, who collected<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> for Low <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, but we have no other<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation about him (Letter from Dow to Sk<strong>in</strong>ner,<br />
Feb. 20, 1864).<br />
The genus Barkeria was first described by Knowles<br />
<strong>and</strong> Westcott <strong>in</strong> 1838 <strong>and</strong> named <strong>in</strong> honour of Ge<strong>org</strong>e<br />
Barker (1776-1845) of Spr<strong>in</strong>gfield, Engl<strong>and</strong>, who<br />
had imported a plant from Mexico. Barker was a<br />
pioneer <strong>in</strong> import<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong>, ma<strong>in</strong>ly from Mexico,<br />
among which many new species were discovered.<br />
A few of them are: Trichopilia tortilis L<strong>in</strong>dl. (G.<br />
Barker s.n., Mexico), Pleurothallis (=Restrepiella)<br />
ophiocephala L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Mexico, Loddiges & Barker<br />
s.n.), Odontoglossum cordatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. (‘Ge<strong>org</strong>e<br />
Barker s.n., flowered <strong>in</strong> cultivation, orig<strong>in</strong>ally from<br />
Mexico’), Microstylis excavata L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Mexico, Mr.<br />
Barker s.n.), <strong>and</strong> Laelia furfuracea L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Karw<strong>in</strong>ski,<br />
Oaxaca). Barker is undoubtedly an important figure<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction of <strong>orchids</strong> from our region to<br />
Europe, <strong>in</strong> the early years after the <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />
of the Central American countries from Spa<strong>in</strong>. “As<br />
a botanist, Mr. Barker was much dist<strong>in</strong>guished. He<br />
bestowed considerable attention on the cultivation of<br />
orchidaceous plants, of which he had a collection that<br />
is believed to have been almost unique, <strong>and</strong> certa<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
was unsurpassed <strong>in</strong> value by that of any private<br />
horticulturist <strong>in</strong> Europe” (Urban, 1846: 324-325).<br />
John Ross (?—?), who collected <strong>orchids</strong> between<br />
1837-1840 <strong>in</strong> Mexico, sent many plants to Barker,<br />
among them several species of Odontoglossum for<br />
which Schlechter, <strong>in</strong> 1916, proposed the name of<br />
Rossioglossum <strong>in</strong> his honor (Schlechter, 1916: 153).<br />
The name was formally published as a new genus by<br />
Garay <strong>and</strong> Kennedy <strong>in</strong> 1976. Another species named<br />
for him was Odontoglossum rossii L<strong>in</strong>dl., today<br />
Rhynchostele rossii (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Soto Arenas y Salazar<br />
(‘A charm<strong>in</strong>g plant, sent to Mr. Barker from Mexico<br />
by his collector Mr. Ross, after whom it is named’).<br />
“Ross started <strong>in</strong> 1837, but his collection did not reach<br />
Engl<strong>and</strong> till the follow<strong>in</strong>g year. It <strong>in</strong>cluded the beautiful<br />
Odontoglossum rossii <strong>and</strong> Peristeria (Ac<strong>in</strong>eta) barkeri,<br />
the latter be<strong>in</strong>g discovered <strong>in</strong> a dark rav<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the<br />
neighbourhood of Xalapa” (Anonymous, 1931: 364).<br />
Other collections by Ross <strong>in</strong>clude Peristeria barkeri<br />
Bateman (Ross s.n., Jalapa), Gale<strong>and</strong>ra baueri L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(‘Ross s.n., Mexico’), Laelia majalis L<strong>in</strong>dl. (‘Habitat<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mexico - Schiede, Hartweg, Ross’), Epidendrum<br />
aloifolium L. <strong>and</strong> Chysis laevis L<strong>in</strong>dl. (‘Habitat <strong>in</strong><br />
Mexico - Ross’).<br />
The British naval expeditions to the coasts of<br />
Central America, the most important be<strong>in</strong>g those of<br />
H.M. S. Conway (1822), H.M.S. Blossom (1827) <strong>and</strong> of<br />
H.M.S. Sulphur (1836), had undoubtedly also scientific<br />
purposes, but their ma<strong>in</strong> goal was the geographical<br />
exploration <strong>and</strong> the construction of reliable maps<br />
prepar<strong>in</strong>g for a future dom<strong>in</strong>ation of the region <strong>and</strong> the<br />
control of the canal routes.<br />
The decade which began <strong>in</strong> 1840 “is the epoch of<br />
maximum English power <strong>in</strong> Central America. Great<br />
Brita<strong>in</strong> would try to confront the grow<strong>in</strong>g power of<br />
the United States <strong>and</strong> both nations would choose the<br />
border region between Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Nicaragua as the<br />
ground where they would test their forces...” (Obregón<br />
Quesada, 1993: 75). Great Brita<strong>in</strong>, who already had a<br />
stronghold <strong>in</strong> Belize, pretended <strong>in</strong> addition the control<br />
of the access to the San Juan river.<br />
“A new period of activity set <strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
almost unbroken for many years; but few of the<br />
numerous travelers had received a scientific tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g,<br />
hence the botanical results were by no means so<br />
satisfactory as they might have been. Indeed, the<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>cipal object of many of these travelers was the<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduction of liv<strong>in</strong>g plants <strong>in</strong>to European gardens”<br />
(Hemsley, 1887: 123).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
61
62<br />
“If we are requested to select the most <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from the multitude of vegetable tribes, we should,<br />
on the whole, perhaps, be will<strong>in</strong>g to give the<br />
preference to the natural order of Orchideae.<br />
Whether we consider general elegance of<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals, durability of blossoms, splendid<br />
colours, delicious perfume, or extraord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
structure, it would be difficult to select any order<br />
superior to Orchideae <strong>in</strong> these respects, <strong>and</strong> few<br />
even equal to them.”<br />
John L<strong>in</strong>dley, Collectanea Botanica<br />
(<strong>in</strong> Stearn, 1999: 107)<br />
The <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the botanical exploration<br />
of Central America had its counterpart <strong>in</strong> the enormous<br />
figure of John L<strong>in</strong>dley (1790-1865), who <strong>in</strong> 1830 began<br />
<strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong> the publication of his famous work The<br />
Genera <strong>and</strong> Species of Orchidaceous Plants, describ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
numerous species which were new to science. The<br />
Austrian botanist Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher (1804-<br />
1849) published his Genera Plantarum secundum<br />
Ord<strong>in</strong>es naturales disposita between 1836 <strong>and</strong> 1841.<br />
In this work, Endlicher recognized 367 genera of<br />
Orchidaceae, of which 117 had been established by<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dley (Stearn, 1999: 57). Another of L<strong>in</strong>dley’s<br />
ventures was the found<strong>in</strong>g, with Joseph Paxton <strong>and</strong><br />
others, of The Gardeners’ Chronicle <strong>in</strong> 1841, of which<br />
the horticultural part was edited by L<strong>in</strong>dley. L<strong>in</strong>dley’s<br />
editorship for twenty years ensured the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance of<br />
a high st<strong>and</strong>ard which earned it <strong>in</strong>ternational repute.<br />
Many species were dedicated to L<strong>in</strong>dley, of which only<br />
a few, that are found <strong>in</strong> the American tropics, shall be<br />
mentioned: Aspidogyne l<strong>in</strong>dleyana (Cogn.) Garay,<br />
Barkeria l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Batem. ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Fig. 24D),<br />
Bletia l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Rchb. f., Catasetum l<strong>in</strong>dleyanum<br />
Mansf., Cattleya l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Rchb. f., Cyclopogon<br />
l<strong>in</strong>dleyanus (L<strong>in</strong>k, Klotzsch & Otto) Schltr., Laelia<br />
l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Nichols., Lepanthes l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Oerst.<br />
ex Rchb.f., Malaxis l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Rchb. f., Maxillaria<br />
l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Schltr., Odontoglossum l<strong>in</strong>dleyanum Rchb.<br />
f. & Warsz., Odontoglossum l<strong>in</strong>dleyi Galeotti ex<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl., Oncidium l<strong>in</strong>dleyi (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) R. Jiménez & Soto<br />
Arenas, Phragmipedium l<strong>in</strong>dleyanum (R.H. Schomb.<br />
ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.) R.A. Rolfe, Pleurothallis l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Cogn.,<br />
Sobralia l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Rchb. f., Stanhopea l<strong>in</strong>dleyi Zucc.,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Stelis l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Cogn.<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
18 Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Wagner (2001: 118), Klee was the first German immigrant to Guatemala.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Oakes Ames, for many years the lead<strong>in</strong>g American<br />
orchidologist, stated that L<strong>in</strong>dley ‘laid the foundations<br />
of modern <strong>orchidology</strong>’. With that verdict there is <strong>and</strong><br />
has long been unanimous agreement (Stearn, 1999: 66).<br />
Ge<strong>org</strong>e Ure Sk<strong>in</strong>ner (1804-1867) (Fig. 25),<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>essman, diplomat <strong>and</strong> amateur botanist is<br />
without doubt the most fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g character <strong>in</strong> the<br />
history of the <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the first half of the XIX century. “Son of a Scots<br />
clergyman, Sk<strong>in</strong>ner steadfastly refused to follow<br />
his father’s vocation or <strong>in</strong> any way to consider an<br />
ecclesiastical or academic career. The call he heard<br />
was from the world of Mammon…” (Berliocchi,<br />
2000: 72). He arrived <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>in</strong> 1831 <strong>and</strong><br />
jo<strong>in</strong>ed Carl R. Klee, Consul of the Hanseatic Towns,<br />
with whom he founded the firm of Klee, Sk<strong>in</strong>ner &<br />
Co. 18 He was actively engaged <strong>in</strong> the political <strong>and</strong><br />
commercial life of the Central American Federation,<br />
not only pursu<strong>in</strong>g his own <strong>in</strong>terests but as an active<br />
agent of those of Great Brita<strong>in</strong>. A skilled diplomat, he<br />
enjoyed the sympathy of most of the Central American<br />
politicians of that time. This made him a valuable<br />
adviser of the omnipotent English Consul Frederick<br />
Chatfield <strong>and</strong> turned Sk<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>in</strong>to one of the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal<br />
ideologists of English policy <strong>in</strong> Central America,<br />
which pretended territorial ga<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> exchange for the<br />
unpaid debt result<strong>in</strong>g from the loan that had been<br />
granted years before to the government of Manuel<br />
José de Arce. Klee, Sk<strong>in</strong>ner & Co. became the most<br />
important British company not only <strong>in</strong> Guatemala but<br />
<strong>in</strong> the whole of Central America <strong>in</strong> the period before<br />
1850 (Naylor, 1988: 120).<br />
The only route of these days from Europe to the<br />
highl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the capital of Guatemala was via Jamaica<br />
to Belize, then along the Río Dulce to Izabal (a small<br />
port on Lake Izabal), <strong>and</strong> from there by mule over the<br />
terrible road across the Mounta<strong>in</strong>s of the Mico, a 10day<br />
long ride. This route was used by all travelers until<br />
the <strong>in</strong>auguration of the Panama railway. It became then<br />
much easier to travel to Panama, take the tra<strong>in</strong> across<br />
the isthmus <strong>and</strong> then a ship to Port San José or Iztapa,<br />
on the Pacific Coast of Guatemala.<br />
In relation to Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s <strong>and</strong> Klee’s activities on Lake<br />
Izabal, Pérez de Antón (2005: 80) calls our attention<br />
to what he describes as “the first manifestation of<br />
Spanglish <strong>in</strong> Central America”. Klee, Sk<strong>in</strong>ner & Co.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
Figure 24. A — Hugh Cum<strong>in</strong>g (1791-1865). From a litograph by Hawk<strong>in</strong>s, 1850. Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny. B — Oncidium<br />
ampliatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. From Reichenbachia. C — Maxillaria cucullata L<strong>in</strong>dl. Curtis’ Botanical Magaz<strong>in</strong>e, Plate 3945.<br />
D — Barkeria l<strong>in</strong>dleyana Batem. ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. Curtis’s Botanical Magaz<strong>in</strong>e, plate 6098.<br />
D<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
63
64<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 25. Ge<strong>org</strong>e U. Sk<strong>in</strong>ner (1804-1867). Portrait by Ge<strong>org</strong>e Wash<strong>in</strong>gton Bronlow (ca.1860). Courtesy of the Hunt Institute<br />
for Botanical Documentation.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
B<br />
A<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 26. A — Lycaste sk<strong>in</strong>neri. Field note <strong>and</strong> sketch by Sk<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>in</strong> a letter to Hooker dated December 26, 1840. The<br />
alba variety of Lycaste sk<strong>in</strong>neri is the so-called ‘White Nun’, the National Flower of Guatemala. In Hamilton, 1991: 776.<br />
B — Cattleya dowiana. Pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g by Emilio Span. Courtesy of Dr. Ricardo Kriebel.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
65
66<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 27. James Bateman (1811-1897). Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
built warehouses on the northern shore of the lake<br />
which, <strong>in</strong> their correspondence, were referred to as The<br />
Store. The place prospered <strong>and</strong> grew until it became<br />
a small village, which kept the name <strong>and</strong> is called<br />
today El Estor. S<strong>in</strong>ce his arrival <strong>in</strong> Guatemala Sk<strong>in</strong>ner<br />
showed <strong>in</strong>terest for its natural beauties, collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
birds <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>sects that he sent to Engl<strong>and</strong>, persuaded by<br />
his friend, the ornithologist <strong>and</strong> writer John Gould. So<br />
began his relation with Bateman, who conv<strong>in</strong>ced him<br />
to collect <strong>orchids</strong>. “In his first letters Bateman showed<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner by means of descriptions <strong>and</strong> a few rough<br />
sketches what he was look<strong>in</strong>g for; Sk<strong>in</strong>ner quickly<br />
learned all he needed to know how to get started<br />
(Hamilton, 1990: 1241).” Bateman wrote years later:<br />
“My letter [to Sk<strong>in</strong>ner], dated March 17, 1834, reached<br />
him <strong>in</strong> due course, <strong>and</strong> as he never tired of tell<strong>in</strong>g me,<br />
the day of its arrival was as it were a new birthday, for<br />
it gave a fresh <strong>in</strong>terest to his life, which never left him<br />
to his very latest hour” (Hamilton, 1992).<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g more than 30 years he traveled constantly<br />
between Guatemala <strong>and</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong>, dedicat<strong>in</strong>g more <strong>and</strong><br />
more time to the <strong>orchids</strong>. Because of his knowledge<br />
of the l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> his excellent relations, he was a great<br />
help to other naturalists who explored Central America<br />
<strong>in</strong> his time, such as Hartweg, Friedrichsthal, von<br />
Warscewicz <strong>and</strong> Salv<strong>in</strong>. All important orchidologists of<br />
his time, from L<strong>in</strong>dley to Bateman <strong>and</strong> Bentham, were<br />
his friends, but important above all was his friendship<br />
with Sir William Jackson Hooker, a Scot like him who<br />
was later (1841) to be appo<strong>in</strong>ted as Director of the<br />
Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew.<br />
The almost constant political unrest frequently<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrupted his activities. In 1839 he wrote to Hooker:<br />
“Such has been the state of this Country that my<br />
occupations legitimate have been stopped <strong>and</strong> had<br />
it not been for my thirst after Orchidaceae long ere I<br />
[would have] cut my throat” (Hamilton, 1990: 1239).<br />
Although he collected chiefly <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, he<br />
obta<strong>in</strong>ed plants from all Central American countries.<br />
Capta<strong>in</strong> John M. Dow, <strong>in</strong> a letter to Sk<strong>in</strong>ner dated<br />
December 30, 1861, recollects his excursions with<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua (El Realejo) <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica<br />
(Puntarenas <strong>and</strong> Barranca). A note by L<strong>in</strong>dley, <strong>in</strong> his<br />
description of Epidendrum clavatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. seems to<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t to the fact that Sk<strong>in</strong>ner collected at some moment<br />
of his life <strong>in</strong> Venezuela: “Found <strong>in</strong> August, 1834, near<br />
Cumaná [Venezuela], by Mr. Sk<strong>in</strong>ner”.<br />
He also collected <strong>in</strong> the Bahamas. The ‘Botanical<br />
Register’, <strong>in</strong> its note below plate # 61, Epidendrum<br />
altissimum Jacq., says: “Found <strong>in</strong> rocky parts of the<br />
Bahamas by the <strong>in</strong>defatigable Mr. Sk<strong>in</strong>ner, from whom<br />
I received it <strong>in</strong> the summer of 1837. ” Sk<strong>in</strong>ner tells<br />
us about his l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g on Crooked Isl<strong>and</strong>, Bahamas<br />
<strong>and</strong> says: “… was much struck with the appearance<br />
of a rock of lava bear<strong>in</strong>g such curious varieties of<br />
plants, I made a considerable collection of Orchideae,<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>cipally Epidendreae….” (<strong>in</strong> a letter to Hooker,<br />
February 28, 1837).<br />
With<strong>in</strong> his collections, almost a hundred new species<br />
were found. Some of the types collected by Sk<strong>in</strong>ner<br />
are: Barkeria sk<strong>in</strong>neri (Batem. Ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.) A. Rich.<br />
& Gal., Catasetum <strong>in</strong>tegerrimum Hook., Clowesia<br />
russelliana (Hook.) Dodson, Coelia guatemalensis<br />
Rchb. f., Cycnoches egertonianum Batem., Deiregyne<br />
pyramidalis (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Burns-Bal., Epidendrum<br />
papillosum Batem., Epidendrum stamfordianum<br />
Batem., Guarianthe aurantiaca (Batem. ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
Dressler & N. H. Wms., Guarianthe sk<strong>in</strong>neri<br />
(Batem.) Dressler & W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s, Lycaste sk<strong>in</strong>neri<br />
(Batem. ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Fig. 26A), Odontoglossum<br />
urosk<strong>in</strong>neri L<strong>in</strong>dl., Oncidium sk<strong>in</strong>neri L<strong>in</strong>dl., <strong>and</strong><br />
Xylobium elongatum (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Hemsl. Two of Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s<br />
discoveries were later declared as National Flowers.<br />
The alba variety of Lycaste sk<strong>in</strong>neri, “a th<strong>in</strong>g too<br />
beautiful for words” (Boyle, 1983: 81) is today the<br />
National Flower of Guatemala, while Cattleya (=<br />
Guarianthe) sk<strong>in</strong>neri is the National Flower of Costa<br />
Rica. “...The <strong>in</strong>valuable Lycaste sk<strong>in</strong>neri, which<br />
now enjoys, <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong>deed, richly merits an amount of<br />
popularity - a popularity which is ever <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>crease -<br />
such as has not been accorded to any other orchid with<br />
which I am acqua<strong>in</strong>ted” (Hamilton, 1992: 18).<br />
At the end of his life he pursued, <strong>in</strong> an almost<br />
obsessive way, the collection of the famous Catlleya<br />
dowiana (dedicated to Capta<strong>in</strong> John M. Dow, of the<br />
Pacific Steamship Company) (Fig. 26B), which had<br />
been discovered years before by Warscewicz. With<br />
this purpose he hired (together with Salv<strong>in</strong>, for whom<br />
Arce had previously worked) a Guatemalan collector<br />
by the name of Enrique Arce, who also collected birds.<br />
Arce traveled first to Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> then to Panama,<br />
on board of Capta<strong>in</strong> Dow’s ship. Dow, generous as<br />
always, had promised free passage for Arce <strong>and</strong> his<br />
equipment <strong>and</strong> collections (Letter from Dow to Salv<strong>in</strong>,<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
67
68<br />
February 1, 1864). On Feb. 9, 1864, Arce arrives at<br />
Puntarenas, travels first to the North, along the Gulf of<br />
Nicoya, <strong>and</strong> goes later to the highl<strong>and</strong>s. At the end of<br />
that year, Arce arrives <strong>in</strong> Panama. His younger brother<br />
is his companion on his expedition. “Arce is now<br />
here... The poor fellow has been very sick with fever,<br />
<strong>and</strong> his little brother almost died from the same cause...<br />
I have advised him Arce not to start on his expedition<br />
to Chiriquí until he is <strong>in</strong> a condition to <strong>in</strong>sure his ability<br />
to go straight through” (Letter from Dow to Salv<strong>in</strong>,<br />
December 19, 1864). However, Arce seems to have<br />
been more successful <strong>in</strong> collect<strong>in</strong>g birds than <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
Another collector was sent by Sk<strong>in</strong>ner to Central<br />
America. In one of Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s last letters, to Capta<strong>in</strong><br />
Dow <strong>in</strong> Panama on October 17 th , 1866, he said: “By<br />
this steamer we have sent you a f<strong>in</strong>e young fellow, a<br />
Mr. Carl Kramer, who is to go on at once to Costa Rica.<br />
If Arce is still <strong>in</strong> Panama when this reaches, he will go<br />
on with him, but Arce has been so dilatory about go<strong>in</strong>g<br />
after the birds <strong>and</strong> plants we want, that others have been<br />
beat<strong>in</strong>g us <strong>in</strong> our manor. Cattleya dowiana surpasses<br />
all the Cattleyas yet known... we must get a batch of<br />
it.... And I hope you will for Dowiana’s sake take care<br />
that his [Kramer’s] collections reach us well, … for<br />
my credit is at stake. I never was beat. …Dowiana<br />
for ever.” About the nam<strong>in</strong>g of Cattleya dowiana we<br />
follow Veitch: “It was the wish of Warscewicz, the<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al discoverer, that his plant should bear the name<br />
Lawrenceana, <strong>in</strong> compliment to Mrs. Lawrence of<br />
Eal<strong>in</strong>g, a generous patroness of Horticulture, but as his<br />
specimens miscarried, this fact was not made known<br />
until after Bateman had named it <strong>in</strong> compliment to<br />
Capta<strong>in</strong> J. M. Dow of the American Packet Service, to<br />
whose k<strong>in</strong>dness orchidists <strong>and</strong> men of science owe so<br />
much” (Veitch, 1906: 116-117).<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s partner Klee also discovered a new<br />
species: Epidendrum myrianthum L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Klee s.n.),<br />
aga<strong>in</strong> collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala.<br />
In December 1866, Sk<strong>in</strong>ner arrived <strong>in</strong> Panama, on<br />
his way to Guatemala, where he pretended to wrap<br />
up his bus<strong>in</strong>ess for he wanted to retire <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong>.<br />
He crossed the Isthmus <strong>in</strong> a railcar <strong>and</strong> still had time<br />
to collect his last <strong>orchids</strong>. In those days he wrote to<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Veitch: “I have sent home a box, with orders that it<br />
may be sent to you at once. You will f<strong>in</strong>d an Ionopsis<br />
which may be good, Pleurothallis, <strong>and</strong> some very<br />
curious Epidendra” (Hamilton, 1993: 182). A few days<br />
later, on January 9 th , 1867, he died <strong>in</strong> Colón, Panama,<br />
a victim of yellow fever. He was buried at Mount<br />
Hope Cemetery, <strong>in</strong> Colón <strong>and</strong> his tombstone bears the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>scription:<br />
“S.I.M. GEORGII URE SKINNER F.L.S. E. SCOTIA ORTI<br />
QUEM INTER OCEANOS CUM TRIGANTANOVIES<br />
TRANSIISSET GUATEMALAM ASCENSURAM DEUS<br />
MISERECORS MUNDANO EX MARI PORTUM IN OPTATUM<br />
VOCAVIT DIE JANUARII NONE A.D. MDCCCLXVII<br />
R.I.P. BEATI MUNDO CORDE CUONIAM IPSI DEUM<br />
VIDEBRUNT. DEO GRATIAS.” 19<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dley dedicated to him the genus Urosk<strong>in</strong>nera,<br />
from the Scrophulariaceae. Capta<strong>in</strong> John M. Dow,<br />
after receiv<strong>in</strong>g the sad news of Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s death, wrote<br />
to his wife (March 30, 1867): “May the mantle of his<br />
energy <strong>and</strong> enthusiasm for science rest on his friends<br />
who still await the call which he received, to rest from<br />
his labour.”<br />
After Sk<strong>in</strong>ner´s death (Klee had passed away <strong>in</strong><br />
1853), Klee’s son <strong>in</strong>herited his bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala, but had to accept the condition to use<br />
‘Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’ as his second name. He named himself<br />
therefore J<strong>org</strong>e Sk<strong>in</strong>ner Klee. His son jo<strong>in</strong>ed both<br />
family names <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce that time the family name<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner-Klee is common <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, where<br />
numerous descendants of both partners still live <strong>and</strong><br />
carry their comb<strong>in</strong>ed names (Wagner, 2007: 43).<br />
James Bateman (1811-1897) (Fig. 27) was<br />
undoubtedly the greatest beneficiary from Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s<br />
collections. With<strong>in</strong> ten years of beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g his relation<br />
with Sk<strong>in</strong>ner, “Bateman possessed the f<strong>in</strong>est examples<br />
of Guatemalan <strong>orchids</strong> then available <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong>”<br />
(Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1964: 297). “After several years of enjoy<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the orchidaceous bounty sent to him by Sk<strong>in</strong>ner,<br />
Bateman conceived the brilliant idea of shar<strong>in</strong>g his<br />
good fortune with the rest of the world… by publish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a book with the largest illustrations of <strong>orchids</strong> ever<br />
seen…. The title would be The Orchidaceae of Mexico<br />
19 “In lov<strong>in</strong>g memory of Ge<strong>org</strong>e Ure Sk<strong>in</strong>ner, F.L.S., born <strong>in</strong> Scotl<strong>and</strong>, who when he had crossed the oceans thirty-n<strong>in</strong>e times <strong>and</strong><br />
was about to go to Guatemala, was summoned by a merciful God from the wordly sea to a pleasant haven on the 9th of January<br />
1867. R.I.P. Blessed are the pure <strong>in</strong> the heart for they shall see God. Thanks be to God.” – Translation by Mary Raymond Daniell,<br />
great-gr<strong>and</strong>daughter of Sk<strong>in</strong>ner. In Hamilton, 1993.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
<strong>and</strong> Guatemala” (Hamilton, 1990: 1242-43). “It is<br />
this… eccentric but exquisite study – <strong>in</strong> so gargantuan<br />
a format as to make no more than 125 copies feasible<br />
<strong>in</strong> the first pr<strong>in</strong>t run – which more than justifies<br />
Bateman’s place <strong>in</strong> the pantheon of orchid pioneers”<br />
(Berliocchi, 2000: 53) (Fig. 28A).<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner was the key element <strong>in</strong> the creation of<br />
Bateman’s book, because all the wealth <strong>and</strong> enthusiasm<br />
of Bateman would have been of little use without<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s plants. Over half of the species illustrated<br />
by Bateman <strong>in</strong> his monumental work had their orig<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> collections by Sk<strong>in</strong>ner. “… <strong>in</strong> fact, the <strong>in</strong>clusion of<br />
Guatemala <strong>in</strong> the work must have been due entirely<br />
to the collections of Sk<strong>in</strong>ner” (Williams, 1972: 200).<br />
Their friendship was strong, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1860 Sk<strong>in</strong>ner<br />
took Bateman’s eldest son back to Guatemala, to see<br />
the source of his discoveries (Herman, 1976: 59). In<br />
gratitude for his great contributions to botany, Bateman<br />
proposed Sk<strong>in</strong>ner as a member of the prestigious<br />
‘L<strong>in</strong>nean Society’ <strong>in</strong> June 1866. The recommendation<br />
was accepted shortly before Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s death, on<br />
December 6 of the same year. Bateman was deeply<br />
religious <strong>and</strong> he strongly believed that hybridization<br />
by man was <strong>in</strong>terfer<strong>in</strong>g with the work of God (Rigby,<br />
2000). L<strong>in</strong>dley named the genus Batemannia <strong>in</strong> honor<br />
of this great British orchidologist. “His enthusiasm for<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> rema<strong>in</strong>ed strong throughout his long life, <strong>and</strong><br />
when he died, at eighty-six years of age, on November<br />
27, 1897, the orchid world was irreparably saddened<br />
by the loss of one of his most knowledge <strong>and</strong> energetic<br />
pioneers” (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1964: 298).<br />
William Jackson Hooker (1785-1865), Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s<br />
friend <strong>and</strong> from 1841 to 1865 Director of the Royal<br />
Botanic Gardens at Kew, described <strong>in</strong> 1831 a beautiful<br />
terrestrial orchid from Panama as Peristeria elata.<br />
It had been sent <strong>in</strong> 1826 by Mr. Henry Barnard,<br />
a Peruvian merchant, to Mr. Robert Harrison, of<br />
Liverpool, <strong>in</strong> whose stove it flowered for the first time<br />
<strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1831 (Veitch, 1963: 128). This orchid,<br />
known popularly as the ‘Holy Ghost Orchid’, is today<br />
Panama’s National Flower. Although without formal<br />
botanical tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, William Hooker became one of<br />
the most <strong>in</strong>fluential British botanists of his time. He<br />
had managed a brewery before becom<strong>in</strong>g Professor<br />
of Botany at Glasgow University (1820-1840). After<br />
the death of Banks, Kew Gardens was allowed to s<strong>in</strong>k<br />
<strong>in</strong>to decl<strong>in</strong>e. The appo<strong>in</strong>tment of William Hooker<br />
as its Director <strong>in</strong> 1841 revitalized the gardens <strong>and</strong><br />
herbarium... Hooker published tirelessly, particularly<br />
<strong>in</strong> the journals which he edited, Botanical Miscellany<br />
<strong>and</strong> The Journal of Botany. He was succeeded by his<br />
son, Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911).<br />
In a letter to Hooker (1861) Charles Darw<strong>in</strong> referred<br />
to his passion for <strong>orchids</strong>: “What frightful trouble you<br />
have taken about Vanilla; you really must not take an<br />
atom more; for the <strong>orchids</strong> are more play than real<br />
work”.<br />
Karl Theodor Hartweg (1812-1871) (Fig. 29A),<br />
German by birth, was one of the first collectors hired by<br />
the Royal Horticultural Society to explore the l<strong>and</strong>s of<br />
Mexico <strong>and</strong> Central America. He traveled to Mexico <strong>in</strong><br />
1836. “The pr<strong>in</strong>cipal object of his journey was to collect<br />
<strong>and</strong> transmit liv<strong>in</strong>g specimens or seeds of ornamental<br />
plants <strong>and</strong> trees; but he also made large collections of<br />
dried plants, the numerous novelties of which were<br />
published by the late Mr. Ge<strong>org</strong>e Bentham [who was<br />
the President of the Royal Society] between 1839 <strong>and</strong><br />
1842 under the title Plantae Hartwegianae 20 ”. “[He] was<br />
told <strong>in</strong> his <strong>in</strong>structions most clearly to conf<strong>in</strong>e himself<br />
as much as possible to mounta<strong>in</strong>ous districts, where<br />
plants would be found that would not necessarily require<br />
stove treatment” (Cox, 1955: 265). The contract signed<br />
September 21, 1836, between Hartweg <strong>and</strong> John L<strong>in</strong>dley<br />
read: “... the greatest object of your mission is to procure<br />
... plants that are likely to be capable of endur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
open air <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> that these objects will be more<br />
completely atta<strong>in</strong>ed the more you avoid what is called<br />
the Tierra caliente <strong>and</strong> keep to the Tierra fría or the<br />
upper limits of the Tierra templada” (Yearsley, 2008: 1).<br />
In Mexico he met Sartorius, <strong>in</strong> whose estate (El<br />
Mirador) he made important collections. A few months<br />
after his visit there, he met L<strong>in</strong>den <strong>in</strong> Chiapas, around<br />
1839-1840. “In a way rem<strong>in</strong>iscent of Stanley’s later<br />
encounter with Liv<strong>in</strong>gstone <strong>in</strong> the Congo, the two<br />
explorers met at a bend on the trail lead<strong>in</strong>g to Comitán<br />
[...], respectively exclaim<strong>in</strong>g ‘Hartweg!’ <strong>and</strong> ‘L<strong>in</strong>den!´<br />
though they had never seen each other before. Their<br />
paths had nearly crossed several times dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
previous few years <strong>and</strong> each knew the other by<br />
reputation - but chance never brought them together.<br />
They were to meet aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Colombia <strong>in</strong> 1842...”<br />
(Ceulemans et al., 2006: 55).<br />
20 Bentham, G., 1838-57, Plantae Hartwegianae imprimis Mexicanas adjectis nonnullis Grahamianis enumerat novasque describit.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
69
70<br />
At the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of 1839 he received <strong>in</strong>structions to<br />
travel to Guatemala <strong>and</strong>, on L<strong>in</strong>dley’s recommendation,<br />
made contact with Sk<strong>in</strong>ner. The political situation<br />
<strong>in</strong> Guatemala was dangerous, <strong>and</strong> Hartweg wrote to<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner ask<strong>in</strong>g if it was convenient to undertake the<br />
journey. “In a few days the post passes through here for<br />
Guatemala, when I shall write to Mr. Sk<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>and</strong> ask<br />
his op<strong>in</strong>ion on the subject, as well as the present state of<br />
the country” (letter to the Royal Horticultural Society,<br />
March 19, 1839). In a letter to Hooker <strong>in</strong> April of the<br />
same year, Sk<strong>in</strong>ner relates his answer to Hartweg: “He<br />
asks if he should come on. I write him, ‘By all means’,<br />
& have given him letters of <strong>in</strong>troduction to every town<br />
on the route & moreover sent him dried specimens of<br />
Orchidaceae that will br<strong>in</strong>g him on <strong>in</strong> spite of himself.”<br />
Hartweg arrived <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, where he met Sk<strong>in</strong>ner<br />
who jo<strong>in</strong>ed him on many of his collect<strong>in</strong>g trips. “An<br />
<strong>in</strong>trepid <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>defatigable plant hunter, Hartweg<br />
possessed both great good sense <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tuition…<br />
earn<strong>in</strong>g fame as the collector of the greatest number<br />
of orchid species <strong>in</strong> the first half of the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth<br />
century” (Berliocchi, 2000: 75).<br />
Among the numerous new species of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
discovered by Hartweg dur<strong>in</strong>g his five years of<br />
exploration <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>and</strong> Central America one<br />
can mention: Arpophyllum alp<strong>in</strong>um Hartweg<br />
ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Hartweg s.n., Mexico), Arpophyllum<br />
giganteum L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Hartweg s.n., Guatemala),<br />
Barkeria spectabilis Batem. ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Hartweg<br />
s.n., Guatemala), Coelia macrostachya L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Hartweg s.n, Guatemala), Cranichis apiculata<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Hartweg s.n., Guatemala), Cypripedium<br />
molle L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Hartweg s.n., México), Rhyncholaelia<br />
glauca (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Schltr. (Hartweg s.n., Mexico),<br />
Rhynchostele pygmaea (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Rchb. f. (Hartweg<br />
568, Guatemala), Sarcoglottis cer<strong>in</strong>a (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) P. N.<br />
Don (Hartweg s.n., Guatemala), Sarcoglottis rosulata<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>dl.) P. N. Don (Hartweg s.n., Guatemala), <strong>and</strong><br />
Schiedeella tril<strong>in</strong>eata (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Burns-Bal. (Hartweg<br />
s.n., Guatemala). However, his collections from<br />
Guatemala seem scanty (only 107 numbers). This<br />
small harvest leads to the speculation that part<br />
of Hartweg’s material could have been lost. In<br />
Guatemala’s rich flora, 107 numbers could easily be<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> three or four days. Bentham’s account<br />
of Hartweg’s collections <strong>in</strong> Guatemala consists of<br />
only 24 pages (Williams, 1972: 200-201).<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
On January 1 of 1841 he departed for South America<br />
<strong>and</strong> Jamaica, return<strong>in</strong>g f<strong>in</strong>ally <strong>in</strong> 1843 to Engl<strong>and</strong>. The<br />
Royal Horticultural Society was so satisfied with his<br />
work that he was sent on a second mission to Mexico<br />
<strong>and</strong> California. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this f<strong>in</strong>al journey he traveled<br />
together with Heller (Anonymous, 1854: 117). Tired<br />
of travel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> after a bitter dispute with the Royal<br />
Horticultural Society regard<strong>in</strong>g his payment, he<br />
returned to Germany <strong>in</strong> 1848, where he was named<br />
Director of the Gardens of the Great Duke of Baden, <strong>in</strong><br />
Schwetz<strong>in</strong>gen. There he died <strong>in</strong> 1871.<br />
A great number of orchid species were dedicated<br />
to Hartweg, among them: Aa hartwegii Garay,<br />
Anacheilium hartwegii (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Pabst, Mout<strong>in</strong>ho &<br />
P<strong>in</strong>to, Fern<strong>and</strong>ezia hartwegii (Rchb. f.) Garay & Dunst.,<br />
Oncidium hartwegii L<strong>in</strong>dl., Pachyphyllum hartwegii<br />
Rchb. f., Paphiopedilum hartwegii (Rchb. f.) Pfitzer,<br />
Phragmipedium hartwegii (Rchb. f.) L.O. Williams,<br />
Pleurothallis hartwegiaefolia H. Wendl. & Kraenzl.,<br />
Pleurothallis hartwegii L<strong>in</strong>dl., Prosthechea hartwegii<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>dl.) W.E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s, <strong>and</strong> Telipogon hartwegii Rchb.<br />
f. L<strong>in</strong>dley dedicated to him the new genus Hartwegia,<br />
today a synonym of Dom<strong>in</strong>goa Schltr.<br />
“From the moment of the dissolution of the Federal<br />
Republic of Central America <strong>in</strong> 1838, the situation<br />
changed dramatically. On one side, Nicaragua became<br />
conscious of her lack of control over the Caribbean<br />
coast <strong>and</strong> on the other, English policy, now opposed<br />
to the unity of Central America, became more <strong>and</strong><br />
more aggressive. Great Brita<strong>in</strong> ended grant<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Mosquitoes a protectorate <strong>in</strong> 1845, confirm<strong>in</strong>g what<br />
had been affirmed some years before, <strong>in</strong> 1838, when it<br />
was said that this region was <strong>in</strong> fact English territory.<br />
Not contented with this, on January 1 of 1841, the<br />
super<strong>in</strong>tendent of Belize, Alex<strong>and</strong>er MacDonald,<br />
who competed <strong>in</strong> aggressiveness <strong>and</strong> illegitimate<br />
acts with the Charge of Affairs <strong>and</strong> soon General<br />
Consul of Great Brita<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America, Frederick<br />
Chatfield, attacked <strong>and</strong> seized San Juan del Norte.<br />
British supremacy reached its highest po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> 1848,<br />
after declar<strong>in</strong>g that San Juan del Norte belonged to the<br />
Mosquito k<strong>in</strong>gdom <strong>and</strong> renam<strong>in</strong>g it Greytown” (Bell,<br />
1989: 65). “...The Nicaraguans were witnesses, as was<br />
Costa Rica, of the fight among the powers <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
[...] Although by 1860 the British recognized that the<br />
Atlantic coast was Nicaraguan territory (Treaty of<br />
Managua) they did not withdraw from this area until
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
the Altamirano-Harrison Treaty of 1905. [...] English<br />
pressure on Nicaragua, Honduras <strong>and</strong> El Salvador to<br />
secure rights on l<strong>and</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the proximity of the future<br />
canal <strong>and</strong> on the sites which would help to defend<br />
it was enormous; they pretended from Nicaragua<br />
the mouth of the San Juan River <strong>and</strong> the port of San<br />
Juan del Norte; from Honduras the Bay Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>in</strong><br />
the Caribbean <strong>and</strong> the Isl<strong>and</strong> of Tigre <strong>in</strong> the Gulf of<br />
Fonseca <strong>and</strong> to have economical control on all three”<br />
(Obregón Quesada, 1993: 75).<br />
“[In 1840] ....began a decade of relative tranquility<br />
<strong>and</strong> colorless governments, dur<strong>in</strong>g which the most<br />
relevant fact was the arrival <strong>in</strong> San José of the English<br />
seaman William LeLacheur, who harbored <strong>in</strong> Caldera<br />
to repair his ship <strong>and</strong> to f<strong>in</strong>d cargo, s<strong>in</strong>ce he had lost<br />
the load of sk<strong>in</strong>s that he brought from the north dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a storm. A coffee grower, Nicaraguan of Guatemalan<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>, who had established himself <strong>in</strong> San José, called<br />
Mariano Montealegre, entrusted him his harvest, with<br />
<strong>in</strong>structions to try to sell it <strong>in</strong> London, based solely<br />
on LeLacheur’s word of honor. The first shipment of<br />
coffee to Europe passed through Chile [...] <strong>and</strong> then,<br />
via Cape Horn, found its way to London. Over a year<br />
later, the English seaman returned <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong>ed to<br />
Montealegre the hefty product of the sale. The London<br />
market was open” (Cañas, 2000).<br />
The expedition of H.M.S. Sulphur (1836 to 1842),<br />
was the third of a series of voyages <strong>org</strong>anized by<br />
the British Navy for the exploration, ma<strong>in</strong>ly for<br />
cartographic purposes of the American Pacific coast<br />
<strong>and</strong> the isl<strong>and</strong>s of the South Pacific. It was comm<strong>and</strong>ed<br />
by Sir Edward Belcher (1799-1877) <strong>and</strong> had been<br />
preceded <strong>in</strong> 1822 by the H.M.S. Conway <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1827<br />
by the H.M.S. Blossom at the comm<strong>and</strong> of Capta<strong>in</strong><br />
F. W. Beechey, who explored the Mexican Pacific<br />
coast (San Blas, Mazatlán <strong>and</strong> Acapulco, with Lay as<br />
naturalist). The botanists of the expedition, Andrew<br />
S<strong>in</strong>clair (1796-1861), Ge<strong>org</strong>e Barclay <strong>and</strong> Richard<br />
B. H<strong>in</strong>ds (1812-1847), made important collections <strong>in</strong><br />
Panama, Nicoya (Costa Rica), El Realejo (Nicaragua)<br />
(Fig. 28B) <strong>and</strong> the Gulf of Fonseca (Honduras),<br />
whose botanical descriptions where written by Ge<strong>org</strong>e<br />
Bentham. The collections of this expedition are kept <strong>in</strong><br />
London (BM), for <strong>in</strong>stance Oncidium ampliatum L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Barclay 2769, Costa Rica). Botanical collections were<br />
not the priority for the expedition. The orders of the<br />
Sulphur (Belcher, 1843), read, “Great collections of<br />
natural history cannot be expected, but ... the medical<br />
officers must, undoubtedly, be anxious to contribute<br />
their part to the scientific character of the expedition”<br />
(Jörgensen, 2003).<br />
However, H<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>and</strong> Barclay found little to <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
them: “Our visits to the Gulfs of Nicoya <strong>and</strong> Fonseca<br />
were not productive, <strong>in</strong>deed the sameness of an<br />
unbroken but dreary <strong>and</strong> profitless forest was nowhere<br />
more forcibly felt” (H<strong>in</strong>ds, 1844: 62).<br />
At least five specimens collected by the expedition<br />
of the Sulphur were determ<strong>in</strong>ed as new species by<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dley: Epidendrum ch<strong>in</strong>ense (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Ames (H<strong>in</strong>ds<br />
s.n. Guatemala), Ornithocephalus bicornis L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(S<strong>in</strong>clair s.n., Panama), Scaphyglottis fasciculata<br />
Hook. (S<strong>in</strong>clair s.n., Nicaragua), Oncidium stipitatum<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (G.W. Barclay 958, Panama), <strong>and</strong> Encyclia<br />
trachycarpa (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Schltr. Among the collections<br />
by Barclay we f<strong>in</strong>d Catasetum viridiflavum Hook.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Maxillaria acutipetala Hook. with the <strong>in</strong>dication<br />
‘Central America, Pacific side’. “Belcher (1843),<br />
Capta<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g most of the voyage, described the<br />
journey but put little emphasis on the scientific aspects<br />
<strong>and</strong> hardly mentioned the botanists of the expedition.<br />
The last third of Belcher’s second volume (1843) is<br />
an article written by H<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>in</strong> which he resumes The<br />
regions of vegetation” (Jörgensen, 2003: 5).<br />
Ge<strong>org</strong>e Bentham (1800-1884) (Fig. 29B) described<br />
the collections of Hartweg <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>and</strong> Guatemala<br />
<strong>in</strong> Plantae Hartwegianae (1839-1857) <strong>and</strong> also<br />
many of the species of the journey around the world<br />
of H.M.S. Sulphur. In Kew, Bentham ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed a<br />
close relationship with Joseph Hooker, son of the<br />
director <strong>and</strong> also an excellent botanist, with whom he<br />
began the publication of Genera Plantarum, a jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
effort to resume all genera of flower<strong>in</strong>g plants <strong>and</strong><br />
gymnosperms. As an author, Bentham probably wrote<br />
more descriptions of plants – new to science – than any<br />
other person <strong>in</strong> his day.<br />
Another English collector, William Lobb (1809-<br />
1863), traveled through the Caribbean, Panama <strong>and</strong><br />
South America, employed by the firm of Veitch <strong>in</strong><br />
Chelsea. Veitch sent Lobb on a collect<strong>in</strong>g expedition<br />
to South America, <strong>and</strong> he became the first commercial<br />
orchid hunter (Black, 1973: 61). Later, he spent several<br />
months <strong>in</strong> the neighborhood of Panama <strong>and</strong> Chagres,<br />
but accord<strong>in</strong>g to Hemsley, appears to have dried very<br />
few plants (Hemsley, 1887: 134).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
71
72<br />
“The earliest preserved herbarium specimen from<br />
Belize is attributed to the firm of Messrs. Loddiges<br />
of Engl<strong>and</strong>. The specimen, the type of Polystachya<br />
clavata L<strong>in</strong>dl. (1842), is preserved at Kew” (Balick et<br />
al., 2000: 5).<br />
The expedition of H.M.S. Herald (1844-1851) was<br />
the fourth of the already mentioned series of voyages<br />
undertaken by the British Navy to explore the coasts<br />
of the American Pacific. Carl Berthold Seemann<br />
(1825-1871) (Fig. 29C), who from his youth had<br />
had the ardent wish to see foreign countries, devoted<br />
much of his time to the study of the natural sciences,<br />
especially botany <strong>and</strong> anthropology (Anonymous,<br />
1871: 1678). In 1844 he traveled to Kew, to<br />
become a botanist. There he met W. J. Hooker, who<br />
recommended him to succeed Thomas Edmonston,<br />
who had lost his life accidentally <strong>in</strong> Ecuador. In<br />
this way he came to participate <strong>in</strong> the expedition,<br />
which explored, among other regions, the isthmus of<br />
Panama <strong>and</strong> western Mexico. He arrived <strong>in</strong> Panama<br />
the 22 nd of September, 1846 <strong>and</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>ed the crew of<br />
the Herald <strong>in</strong> January of 1847. “Hav<strong>in</strong>g paid a visit<br />
to Acapulco, <strong>and</strong> measured some of the volcanoes<br />
of Guatemala, the vessels sailed for Panama, where<br />
they arrived on the 17 th of January, 1847, <strong>and</strong> were<br />
jo<strong>in</strong>ed by Mr. Berthold Seemann...” (Seemann,<br />
1852-57: 6). In May Seemann was <strong>in</strong> Coiba, the<br />
largest isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Central American Pacific <strong>and</strong><br />
later his favorite place for the collection of plants. In<br />
December of the same year he explored the Darién<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1848 Chiriquí. He traveled through Mexico <strong>in</strong><br />
1848 <strong>and</strong> 1849. “When <strong>in</strong> 1848 Berthold Seemann<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ted out that ‘the isthmus of Panama, this part<br />
of New Granada that, like a bridge, connects the<br />
two great cont<strong>in</strong>ents of America, their flora, fauna<br />
<strong>and</strong> races’, he became perhaps the first scientist<br />
to describe Panama as the biological bridge of the<br />
Americas” (Heckadon-Moreno, 1998: 31).<br />
“About this time, Dr. Seemann’s scientific labours<br />
attracted the attention of the Imperial German<br />
Academy of Naturalists, <strong>and</strong> soon after he was made<br />
a member... ” (Anonymous, 1871: 1678). A short time<br />
later he was elected Vice-president for life.<br />
He returned to Panama <strong>and</strong> met von Warscewicz.<br />
Seemann wrote: “We spent several days <strong>in</strong> Taboga,<br />
the most beautiful isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the bay. A mount rises <strong>in</strong><br />
its center of about 1,000 feet of altitude, cultivated<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
with orchards <strong>and</strong> vegetables almost to its summit.<br />
Small streams run to the valley where, between palms<br />
<strong>and</strong> tamar<strong>in</strong>ds, the huts of the natives lie almost<br />
hidden” (Heckadon Moreno, 1988: 27). He returned<br />
to Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1851, with more than 1,000 specimens<br />
of plants. Between 1852 <strong>and</strong> 1857, Seemann<br />
published his The Botany of the Voyage of H.M.S.<br />
Herald, a book <strong>in</strong> four volumes, one of which is the<br />
Flora of the Isthmus of Panama. It is the first flora of<br />
Central America after Mociño’s Flora de Guatemala<br />
<strong>and</strong> Beurl<strong>in</strong>g’s Primitiae florae portobellensis, <strong>and</strong><br />
Seemann described there 104 species of <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
In 1853 he started the journal Bonpl<strong>and</strong>ia, which,<br />
though published <strong>in</strong> Hannover, he edited <strong>in</strong> London,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to which many of the lead<strong>in</strong>g botanists of all<br />
nations contributed. In 1865 he returned to Central<br />
America, employed by English <strong>in</strong>terests to explore<br />
<strong>and</strong> operate gold m<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, where he<br />
started the operations of the m<strong>in</strong>e of El Javalí, <strong>in</strong><br />
Chontales.<br />
From Nicaragua he traveled frequently to Panama,<br />
<strong>and</strong> although fully occupied with his bus<strong>in</strong>ess affairs,<br />
he always found time for botanical exploration. At some<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t he must have visited Costa Rica, if we believe<br />
Endrés, who <strong>in</strong> 1869 wrote to Capta<strong>in</strong> Dow: “Please do<br />
let me know whether <strong>and</strong> when Dr. Seemann will return”<br />
(letter to Capt. Dow, November 3, 1869). He dreamed<br />
with go<strong>in</strong>g back some day to scientific <strong>in</strong>vestigation, but<br />
died <strong>in</strong> Chontales <strong>in</strong> October of 1871, at the age of fortysix,<br />
another victim of yellow fever.<br />
Among Seemann’s collections are the type<br />
specimens of Pleurothallis perpusilla (Seemann 1565,<br />
Panama) <strong>and</strong> Masdevallia chontalensis (Seemann 180,<br />
Nicaragua), both described by Reichenbach.<br />
Seemann met <strong>in</strong> Chontales the English geologist<br />
<strong>and</strong> naturalist Ralph Tate (1840-1901). “... [Tate] made<br />
a small collection of plants at Chontales…at about the<br />
same date as Seemann, <strong>and</strong> perhaps <strong>in</strong> company with<br />
him, for the numbers are often [...] the same <strong>in</strong> the<br />
two collections” (Hemsley, 1887: 132-133). Among<br />
the collections by Tate are Physurus vag<strong>in</strong>atus Hook.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Isochilus l<strong>in</strong>earis R. Br. Dendrobium seemannii,<br />
L. O. Williams, Taeniophyllum seemannii Rchb. f.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Trigonidium seemannii Rchb. f. were dedicated<br />
to Seemann. The only illustration of Orchidaceae <strong>in</strong><br />
Seemann’s work is that of Cypripedium hartwegii<br />
Rchb. f. (Fig. 29D).
A<br />
B<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 28. A — Vignette by Ge<strong>org</strong>e Cruikshank. From Bateman, 1837-43. B — The Port of El Realejo. In Wells, 1857: 64.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
73
74<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
C D<br />
Figure 29. A — Karl Theodor Hartweg (1812-1871). Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny. B — Ge<strong>org</strong>e Bentham (1800-1884). Courtesy<br />
of Rudolf Jenny. C — Carl Berthold Seemann (1825-1871). From Gardeners’ Chron., 1871. Courtesy of the Hunt Institute<br />
for Botanical Documentation. D — Cypripedium hartwegii Rchb. f. In Seemann, 1852-57: pl. XLIV.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B
The German-Belgian connection<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
“To the comb<strong>in</strong>ed action of forces, to the <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
of <strong>in</strong>animate creation on the animated world of<br />
animals <strong>and</strong> plants, to this harmony will I always<br />
turn my eyes”.<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>er von Humboldt (1769-1859),<br />
<strong>in</strong> the journal of his voyage to America,<br />
June 15 th , 1799<br />
The botanical explorations of Cum<strong>in</strong>g, Sk<strong>in</strong>ner,<br />
Hartweg, H<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>and</strong> Seemann orig<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> the spirit<br />
of imperialist expansion which characterized the<br />
Victorian era. Cum<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Sk<strong>in</strong>ner were true examples<br />
of the English attempts to dom<strong>in</strong>ate world trade.<br />
Hartweg was one of many <strong>in</strong>struments used by the<br />
English upper classes to satisfy their enthusiasm for<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> as decorative subjects <strong>and</strong> H<strong>in</strong>ds <strong>and</strong> Seemann<br />
represented the scientific <strong>in</strong>terests of a Great Brita<strong>in</strong><br />
that had achieved complete control of the oceans.<br />
A current of ‘liberalism’ developed <strong>in</strong> the rest<br />
of Europe after 1830 that <strong>in</strong>tellectually defended<br />
freedom of thought <strong>and</strong> praised technology <strong>and</strong> the<br />
natural sciences. The liberals <strong>in</strong>herited the ideals of<br />
Enlightenment <strong>and</strong> the French Revolution <strong>and</strong> where<br />
therefore often subject to a fierce political repression.<br />
It was so that a very different group of European<br />
adventurers, naturalists <strong>and</strong> scientists began arriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
Central America shortly after <strong>in</strong>dependence. They were<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals whose countries of orig<strong>in</strong> had no practical<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the new republics: merchants, scientists <strong>and</strong><br />
political expatriates who <strong>in</strong> only a few years made great<br />
contributions to the knowledge of the <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central<br />
America. With their English colleagues they had <strong>in</strong><br />
common their ‘Orchidomania’, both <strong>in</strong> the horticultural<br />
<strong>and</strong> the scientific mean<strong>in</strong>g of the word. Why did<br />
Germany, <strong>and</strong> above all Belgium contribute with so<br />
many illustrious names to the history of <strong>orchidology</strong><br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the first half of the XIX century? For Germany<br />
the answer lies perhaps <strong>in</strong> a long botanical tradition<br />
<strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>fluence of Humboldt on the romantic-liberal<br />
movement of the epoch. In the case of the Belgians, it<br />
may have been the nationalistic euphoria after the birth<br />
of Belgium as an <strong>in</strong>dependent nation.<br />
Let us remember that, as a result of the Congress<br />
of Vienna, the Pr<strong>in</strong>ce of Orange had been proclaimed<br />
K<strong>in</strong>g of the United Low Countries <strong>in</strong> 1815. In 1830, the<br />
French speak<strong>in</strong>g regions of the Low Countries ga<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
their <strong>in</strong>dependence, form<strong>in</strong>g the K<strong>in</strong>gdom of Belgium.<br />
K<strong>in</strong>g Leopold I ascended to the Belgian throne <strong>in</strong> July,<br />
1831.<br />
William Bullock (ca. 1773—1849) was en English<br />
traveler, naturalist <strong>and</strong> antiquarian. Bullock began as a<br />
goldsmith <strong>and</strong> jeweler <strong>in</strong> Sheefiled. He used his wealth<br />
to accumulate a large collection of artifacts, antiquities<br />
<strong>and</strong> stuffed animals. In the late 1790s Bullock founded<br />
a Museum of Natural Curiosities <strong>in</strong> the city, which<br />
moved to Liverpool <strong>in</strong> 1801. In 1808 he published<br />
a descriptive catalogue of the works of art, armory,<br />
objects of natural history, <strong>and</strong> other curiosities <strong>in</strong> the<br />
collection, some of which had been brought back<br />
by members of James Cook’s expeditions. In 1809,<br />
Bullock moved to London <strong>and</strong> the collection was<br />
housed <strong>in</strong> the newly built Piccadilly Egyptian Hall.<br />
The collection, which <strong>in</strong>cluded over 32,000 items, was<br />
disposed of by auction <strong>in</strong> 1819.In 1822, Bullock went<br />
to Mexico [becom<strong>in</strong>g so the first European to set foot <strong>in</strong><br />
this country after Thomas Gage <strong>in</strong> 1625] <strong>and</strong> brought<br />
back many artifacts <strong>and</strong> specimens which <strong>in</strong> 1824<br />
formed a new exhibition <strong>in</strong> the Egyptian Hall, entitled<br />
Ancient <strong>and</strong> modern Mexico. This exhibition was the<br />
first exhibit <strong>in</strong> Europe of Mexico’s natural history <strong>and</strong><br />
ancient culture after the country’s <strong>in</strong>dependence from<br />
Spa<strong>in</strong>. Included among the curiosities exhibited by<br />
Bullock were a few birds mounted on artificial palms<br />
<strong>and</strong> cacti, <strong>and</strong> picturesquely arranged around them<br />
some Mexican mammals (Stresemann, 1954: 86).<br />
A second visit to Mexico, <strong>and</strong> to the USA, took place<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1827. Bullock’s publications <strong>in</strong>clude A concise <strong>and</strong><br />
easy method of preserv<strong>in</strong>g subjects of natural history<br />
(1817), Six months residence <strong>and</strong> travels <strong>in</strong> Mexico<br />
(1824), <strong>and</strong> Sketch of a journey through the western<br />
states of North America (1827).<br />
“In Germany, the news of mysterious Mexico<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g become accessible even to the ord<strong>in</strong>ary traveler<br />
excited the curiosity of a wealthy nobleman, the Count<br />
of Sack, chamberla<strong>in</strong> to the K<strong>in</strong>g of Prussia. He had<br />
recently returned from a voyage to Egypt <strong>and</strong> Cyprus<br />
where he had made a small collection of birds <strong>and</strong> he at<br />
once felt <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed to visit Mexico, provided that there<br />
was a collect<strong>in</strong>g naturalist of good reputation to go with<br />
him. A gardener [...] by the name of Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Deppe,<br />
was recommended for this task by Professor H<strong>in</strong>rich<br />
Lichtenste<strong>in</strong>, director of the Zoological Museum of<br />
Berl<strong>in</strong> University (Streseman, 1954: 86).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
75
76<br />
It was so that Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Deppe (1794-1861) came<br />
to Mexico for the first time <strong>in</strong> 1824, <strong>in</strong> the company<br />
of the Count von Sack. However, as soon as they<br />
reached Mexico, the difficult character of the Count<br />
made Deppe go his own way, beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g a series of<br />
travels through the country, collect<strong>in</strong>g birds for the<br />
Zoological Museum <strong>and</strong> plants for the Botanical<br />
Garden of Berl<strong>in</strong>. In 1828 he traveled to Mexico aga<strong>in</strong>,<br />
this time <strong>in</strong> the company of doctor Christian Julius<br />
Wilhelm Schiede (1789-1836), who was a physician<br />
<strong>and</strong> a passionate botanist. “They expected to make a<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Mexico by sell<strong>in</strong>g zoological <strong>and</strong> botanical<br />
specimens to European Museums <strong>and</strong> dealers. [...] But<br />
they were soon disappo<strong>in</strong>ted [...] <strong>and</strong> although part of<br />
the material which the two friends had collected up to<br />
May 7, 1829, had been acquired by the museums of<br />
Berl<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> Vienna, the f<strong>in</strong>ancial result of their efforts<br />
was far from what they had expected” (Streseman,<br />
1954: 88). Both were guests of Sartorius <strong>and</strong> explored<br />
<strong>in</strong> depth the environs of El Mirador <strong>and</strong> the states of<br />
Veracruz <strong>and</strong> Tabasco. Deppe had collected earlier<br />
<strong>in</strong> Guatemala, although no collections by him <strong>in</strong> this<br />
country have been identified.<br />
Despite the short time they spent <strong>in</strong> Mexico, Deppe<br />
<strong>and</strong> Schiede discovered a great number of new orchid<br />
species. Worthy of mention are: Gongora galeata<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Rchb. f. (Deppe s.n ), Lycaste deppei (Lodd.)<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Deppe s.n.), Stanhopea oculata (Lodd.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Deppe s.n.), Vanilla pompona Schiede (Schiede &<br />
Deppe s.n.), Vanilla sativa Schiede (Schiede & Deppe<br />
s.n.), Vanilla sylvestris Schiede (Schiede & Deppe s.n.),<br />
Isochilus major Schltdl. & Cham. (Schiede & Deppe<br />
1046), Vanilla pompona Schiede (Schiede 1043),<br />
Campylocentrum schiedei (Rchb. f.) Benth. & Hemsl.<br />
(Schiede s.n.), Dichaea neglecta Schltr. (Schiede<br />
1053), Pleurothallis schiedei Rchb. f.. (Schiede, W<br />
25687), <strong>and</strong> Lepanthes schiedei Rchb. f. (Schiede s.n.)<br />
Many species were dedicated to them <strong>and</strong> Schiede<br />
was honored with a new genus created by Schlechter:<br />
Schiedeella (Fig. 30A). Aside from their botanical<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests, Deppe <strong>and</strong> Schiede were important<br />
contributors to the study of Mexican fauna <strong>and</strong><br />
collaborated with the German zoologist Wiegmann,<br />
an important <strong>in</strong>vestigator of tropical amphibians <strong>and</strong><br />
reptiles. Schiede made also <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g observations on<br />
general aspects of the vegetation <strong>in</strong> the regions which<br />
21 Lavater was Swiss consul <strong>in</strong> Mexico from 1827 to 1832.<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
he visited (Schiede, 1829-1830). While Deppe returned<br />
to Germany <strong>in</strong> 1829, Schiede settled <strong>in</strong> Mexico, where<br />
he died <strong>in</strong> 1836, a victim of typhus.<br />
Carl Christian Sartorius (1796-1872) was a German<br />
traveler who arrived <strong>in</strong> the region of Veracruz shortly<br />
after the <strong>in</strong>dependence of Mexico. Son of a protestant<br />
priest, he had been <strong>in</strong> jail <strong>and</strong> had lost his position as a<br />
teacher <strong>in</strong> Germany for political reasons, <strong>and</strong> decided<br />
to emigrate to Mexico. The majority of the Spanish<br />
residents <strong>in</strong> the region of Veracruz had emigrated to<br />
Cuba after Mexico’s <strong>in</strong>dependence <strong>and</strong> so Sartorius,<br />
<strong>in</strong> company with the Swiss Carl Lavater 21 , was able<br />
to purchase <strong>in</strong> 1826 a large part of the ‘Hacienda<br />
Amazónica’, an estate that had been the property of<br />
Francisco Arrillaga, with a total area of 12,000 acres.<br />
Sartorius established his residence <strong>in</strong> a place called<br />
‘Paso de los Monos’ (= ‘pass of the monkeys’) , which<br />
he called ‘El Mirador’ (= ‘the look-out po<strong>in</strong>t’). El<br />
Mirador soon became a place of refuge for all naturalists<br />
who visited the area <strong>and</strong> is perhaps the most frequently<br />
cited Mexican locality of collection dur<strong>in</strong>g the whole<br />
XIX century. Sartorius’ political ideals were soon put<br />
<strong>in</strong>to practice <strong>in</strong> Mexico. His “ideal city”, as he called<br />
her, was to be a German city. He built a community<br />
house, a library, <strong>and</strong> rooms for research <strong>and</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
He publicized his project <strong>in</strong> Germany <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> 1833,<br />
the first group of settlers came to Mexico. After one<br />
year, 45 settlers lived <strong>in</strong> Sartorius ‘Monte Libre’ (=<br />
‘free mounta<strong>in</strong>’). But the conditions were very harsh<br />
<strong>and</strong> Sartorius’ was soon left alone with his plans. A<br />
passionate botanist <strong>and</strong> generous host, Sartorius<br />
took <strong>in</strong>to his house many of the travelers, especially<br />
Germans, who explored the Mexican Southeast<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g a good part of the century. Among them were<br />
Karw<strong>in</strong>ski, Schiede, Deppe, Hartweg, Heller, Galeotti,<br />
Leibold, L<strong>in</strong>den, Liebmann <strong>and</strong> Purpus. Many of them,<br />
like Sartorius, had left Europe for political reasons.<br />
Florent<strong>in</strong>, Sartorius’ son, cont<strong>in</strong>ued his father’s<br />
tradition. El Mirador was a meet<strong>in</strong>g place for<br />
naturalists <strong>and</strong> botanists until the first years of the<br />
XX century. Sartorius herbarium is now at the<br />
Smithsonian Institution <strong>and</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>s specimens<br />
collected ma<strong>in</strong>ly at El Mirador, among which we can<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d Epidendrum viridipurpureum L<strong>in</strong>dl., Pleurothallis<br />
tenuissima Rchb. f., Lepanthes pristidis Rchb. f.,<br />
Epidendrum cochleatum L., Epidendrum polybulbon
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Sw. <strong>and</strong> Maxillaria variabilis Batem. A list of species<br />
collected by Sartorius was published by Reichenbach<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1856 under the name of Orchideae Mir<strong>and</strong>olanae<br />
(mexicanae) Sartorianae (Reichenbach, 1856). We<br />
remember El Mirador <strong>in</strong> Cyclopogon miradorensis<br />
Schltr., whose description is based on a collection by J.<br />
A. Purpus 1n 1922 (J. A. Purpus 92, El Mirador). It is<br />
said that dur<strong>in</strong>g his short stay <strong>in</strong> Mexico (1864-1867),<br />
the unfortunate Maximillian of Hapsburg bought an<br />
estate called ‘Jalapilla’, adjacent to ‘El Mirador’, with<br />
the purpose of enlarg<strong>in</strong>g his collections of plants <strong>and</strong><br />
butterflies <strong>and</strong> also to chat <strong>and</strong> exchange scientific<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation with his neighbor. Maximillian had little<br />
time to enjoy the beauties of Mexican nature. He died<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1867, executed by the troops of Benito Juárez.<br />
An <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g book about Mexico, Mexico als<br />
Ziel für Deutsche Ausw<strong>and</strong>erer, was published by<br />
Sartorius <strong>in</strong> 1850. An English translation, Mexico<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Mexicans, was published <strong>in</strong> London <strong>in</strong> 1859.<br />
In this book (version of 1975), Sartorius writes<br />
about the tropical forests: “Each tree is covered by<br />
countless plants, from fungi <strong>in</strong> the roots to <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
its branches” (Sartorius, 1975: 15) (Fig. 30B). Johann<br />
Moritz Rugendas (1802-1858), famous romantic<br />
German pa<strong>in</strong>ter, was a friend of Sartorius <strong>and</strong> spend<br />
three years at El Mirador. The London edition (1859)<br />
of Sartorius’ book was beautifully illustrated with<br />
engrav<strong>in</strong>gs based on Rugendas pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs dur<strong>in</strong>g his<br />
stay <strong>in</strong> Mexico (Fig. 30C).<br />
Although born <strong>in</strong> Hungary, Wilhelm Friedrich<br />
Freiherr von Karw<strong>in</strong>ski von Karw<strong>in</strong> (1780-1855)<br />
came to Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1827 supported by the “Deutsch-<br />
Amerikanischer Bergwerksvere<strong>in</strong> zu Elberfeld” (=<br />
‘German-American M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Company of Elberfeld’) to<br />
explore the possibilities of secur<strong>in</strong>g m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g concessions<br />
<strong>in</strong> the country but also moved by his botanical <strong>in</strong>terests.<br />
“Karw<strong>in</strong>ski was educated <strong>in</strong> Vienna <strong>and</strong> had become a<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g eng<strong>in</strong>eer of some dist<strong>in</strong>ction. After work<strong>in</strong>g more<br />
than a decade <strong>in</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong> he <strong>in</strong>herited some property <strong>in</strong><br />
Bavaria <strong>and</strong> moved there <strong>in</strong> 1815. He became <strong>in</strong>terested<br />
<strong>in</strong> travel<strong>in</strong>g to America, <strong>and</strong> after unsuccessful attempts<br />
to associate himself with the Brazilian expeditions<br />
of Martius… he visited Brazil, apparently at his own<br />
expense, <strong>in</strong> 1821-23” (McVaugh, 1980: 141). Of<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest for our study are Karw<strong>in</strong>ski’s collections near<br />
Oaxaca <strong>and</strong> Tehuantepec dur<strong>in</strong>g his first trip to Mexico<br />
(1827-1832) where he collected, among others, the type<br />
of Habenaria clypeata L<strong>in</strong>dl. <strong>and</strong> Mormodes pard<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Batem. The botanical specimens from Karw<strong>in</strong>ki’s<br />
first trip to Mexico went to the Botanical Garden <strong>in</strong><br />
Munich. “Karw<strong>in</strong>ski’s second trip to Mexico (1841-<br />
1843) was undertaken when he was 60 years old, under<br />
the auspices of five different sponsors <strong>in</strong> St. Petersburg<br />
(now Len<strong>in</strong>grad). By the term of this agreement he was<br />
to look for plants <strong>and</strong> animals, <strong>and</strong> also, primarily, to<br />
search for m<strong>in</strong>erals <strong>in</strong> commercial deposits. His trip<br />
was very successful, botanically speak<strong>in</strong>g. He brought<br />
back more than 2000 gather<strong>in</strong>gs…” (McVaugh, 1980:<br />
144). The specimens from this trip are mostly <strong>in</strong><br />
Len<strong>in</strong>grad. Some of his collections of Orchidaceae<br />
where Cranichis tubulosa L<strong>in</strong>dl. <strong>and</strong> Isochilus cernuus<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl.. Reichenbach dedicated to him his Epidendrum<br />
karw<strong>in</strong>ski Rchb. f., today a synonym of Prosthechea<br />
bicamerata (Rchb. f.) W.E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s, from a specimen<br />
collected by Karw<strong>in</strong>ski <strong>in</strong> Teoxomulco, Oaxaca.<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dley named <strong>in</strong> his honor his Cyrtochilum karw<strong>in</strong>ski<br />
<strong>and</strong> Martius his Cattleya karw<strong>in</strong>ski.<br />
His ma<strong>in</strong> explorations dur<strong>in</strong>g this trip where <strong>in</strong> the<br />
northern lowl<strong>and</strong>s of Veracruz, where, dur<strong>in</strong>g a few<br />
months, he traveled together with the Danish botanist<br />
F. M. Liebmann. As Liebmann wrote on February 21 st ,<br />
1841: “Mexico’s present situation makes it to a certa<strong>in</strong><br />
extent advisable with comb<strong>in</strong>ed strengths to brave<br />
the dangers with which a completely demoralized<br />
population, anarchy <strong>and</strong> lawlessness will each day<br />
confront us…” (McVaugh, 1980: 146).<br />
The exploratory activities of a surpris<strong>in</strong>g group<br />
of botanists <strong>and</strong> collectors from a small country that<br />
had ga<strong>in</strong>ed its political <strong>in</strong>dependence only a few years<br />
earlier, began with the arrival <strong>in</strong> our region of Henri<br />
Guillaume Galeotti (1814-1858), a native of Versailles<br />
but sponsored by the V<strong>and</strong>ermaelen brothers, Belgian<br />
nurserymen. “The two brothers, both passionately<br />
<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> cartography <strong>and</strong> the natural sciences,<br />
were particularly sensitive to the echoes of the voyages<br />
of von Humboldt. [...] Later, from 1835 to 1840, the<br />
V<strong>and</strong>ermalen brothers would f<strong>in</strong>ance the expedition of<br />
botanist <strong>and</strong> geologist Henri Galetotti...” (Ceulemans<br />
et al., 2006: 24).<br />
Galeotti had been born <strong>in</strong> Paris, from an Italian father<br />
<strong>and</strong> a French mother, <strong>and</strong> followed his father when he<br />
established himself <strong>in</strong> Brussels. In 1843 he obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
the Belgian citizenship (Touret & Visser, 2004: 84). In<br />
1835 Galeotti left Hamburg for Mexico, where he spent<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
77
78<br />
five years, collect<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> Veracruz, Mexico <strong>and</strong><br />
Oaxaca. Like many others, he was a guest of Sartorius<br />
<strong>in</strong> El Mirador. He established botanical stations both<br />
there <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Zacualpán. In 1838 he climbed Mount<br />
Orizaba <strong>in</strong> the company of Ghiesbreght, Funck <strong>and</strong><br />
L<strong>in</strong>den (Galeotti, 1861: 271-73). Galeotti’s herbarium<br />
was estimated at 7,000 to 8,000 specimens, conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
many new species, that were later described by himself<br />
<strong>in</strong> conjunction with the French botanist Achille<br />
Richard. In May of 1836 he wrote from Mexico: “I have<br />
gathered already a great number of vegetables, many of<br />
which still lack a scientific denom<strong>in</strong>ation; they will fill<br />
the greenhouses from Messieurs V<strong>and</strong>ermaelen with<br />
<strong>in</strong>f<strong>in</strong>ity of beautiful <strong>and</strong> curious plants” (Diagre, 2004:<br />
36). After his return to Belgium <strong>in</strong> 1840, Galeotti was<br />
elected correspondent of the recently founded ‘Société<br />
Royale d’Horticulture de Belgique’, a position he held<br />
until his death <strong>in</strong> 1858 (Quetelet, 1859: 143). “[Galeotti]<br />
trusted the description of the <strong>orchids</strong> to Achille Richard,<br />
the cacti to Lemaire, the Gram<strong>in</strong>eans to Tr<strong>in</strong>ius <strong>and</strong> the<br />
ferns to Martens” (Crép<strong>in</strong>, 1800-1883: 434) (Fig. 31A).<br />
His herbarium was acquired by the Society <strong>and</strong> rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong> Brussels. “[...] He went <strong>in</strong>to bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> Schaerbeck,<br />
but his efforts failed <strong>in</strong> the wake of the economic crisis<br />
of 1848; he appears to have possessed little commercial<br />
acumen” (Ceulemans et al., 2006: 55).<br />
Some of the species of Orchidaceae collected by<br />
Galeotti <strong>in</strong> Mexico are: Barkeria melanocaulon A.<br />
Rich. & Gal. (Galeotti 5069), Bletia adenocarpa<br />
Rchb. f. (Galeotti 5345), Cyclopogon luteo-albus<br />
(A. Rich. & Gal.) Schltr. (Galeotti s.n.), Cyclopogon<br />
saccatus A. Rich. & Gal. (Galeotti 9124), Epidendrum<br />
galeottianum A. Rich. & Gal. (Galeotti 5194),<br />
Epidendrum longipetalum A. Rich. & Gal. (Galeotti<br />
5238), Epidendrum prop<strong>in</strong>quum A. Rich. & Gal.<br />
(Galeotti 5265), Masdevallia galeottiana A. Rich. &<br />
Gal. (Galeotti 5075), Pleurothallis violacea A. Rich &<br />
Gal. (Galeotti s.n.), Prosthechea chondylobulbon (A.<br />
Rich. & Gal.) W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s (Galeotti s.n.), Schiedeella<br />
violacea (A. Rich. & Gal.) Garay (Galeotti 5120).<br />
Two orchid genera were named <strong>in</strong> honor of Galeotti:<br />
Galeottia (Fig. 31B) by his friend <strong>and</strong> colleague<br />
Richard <strong>and</strong> Galeottiella by Rudolf Schlechter.<br />
Achille Richard (1794-1852) (Fig. 31C) had studied<br />
medic<strong>in</strong>e but his <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed soon towards<br />
Botany, <strong>and</strong> he became one of the most important<br />
botanists of his time. In 1819 he published the first<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
edition of his Eléments de Botanique. The Orchidaceae<br />
were his favorite family, <strong>and</strong> his first important work<br />
<strong>in</strong> systematic botany was the Monographie des<br />
Orchidées des îles de France et de Bourbon, <strong>in</strong> 1828.<br />
When Galeotti returned from Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1841, Richard<br />
took charge of the study <strong>and</strong> description of the new<br />
species of Orchidaceae plann<strong>in</strong>g to publish, together<br />
with the former, a monograph of the Mexican species<br />
of this family. The first part was published <strong>in</strong> 1845.<br />
Richard’s death <strong>in</strong> 1852 <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ancial problems made<br />
the publication of the rest of this monograph an<br />
impossible task (Veyret, 1997: 17).<br />
The Austrian Carl Bartholomäus Heller (1824-<br />
1880), professor at the famous ‘Theresianum’<br />
academy <strong>in</strong> Vienna, left Engl<strong>and</strong> on October 2, 1845<br />
<strong>in</strong> the company of Hartweg (Anonymous, 1854: 117),<br />
<strong>and</strong> collected <strong>in</strong> Mexico between 1845 <strong>and</strong> 1848,<br />
becom<strong>in</strong>g one of the many guests of Sartorius at El<br />
Mirador. In 1846 he sent 14 boxes of <strong>orchids</strong> to Vienna<br />
(Anonymous, 1846: 216). Among his collections we<br />
can f<strong>in</strong>d the types of Govenia deliciosa Rchb. f. (Heller,<br />
El Mirador, W-Rchb. 42259), Mormolyca l<strong>in</strong>eolata<br />
Fenzl. (Heller s.n., El Mirador) <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum helleri<br />
Fenzl. ex Hemsl. (Heller s.n). Heller’s accounts of his<br />
travels through Mexico are of great <strong>in</strong>terest, especially<br />
the phytogeographical description of the region around<br />
the Orizaba volcano (Heller, 1847). Before travel<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
Mexico with Hartweg, Heller had tried to <strong>org</strong>anize an<br />
expedition on his own, for which he had chosen young<br />
Benedikt Roezl as his assistant, but the project failed<br />
due to the lack of f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g (Block, 1985: 1201-1202).<br />
A native of Luxembourg, Jean Jules L<strong>in</strong>den (1817-<br />
1898) (Fig. 31D) moved as a young man to Belgium,<br />
where he became one of the first students of the<br />
recently founded University of Brussels. At the age of<br />
n<strong>in</strong>eteen he was entrusted by the Belgian government<br />
(at the suggestion of Barthélemi Du Mortier, botanist<br />
<strong>and</strong> man of state) with his first scientific mission that<br />
would take him to South America (L<strong>in</strong>den, 1894: 117).<br />
Between 1835 <strong>and</strong> 1837, he explored the Brazilian<br />
prov<strong>in</strong>ces of Rio de Janeiro, Spiritu-Santo, M<strong>in</strong>as<br />
Gerais <strong>and</strong> Sao Paulo. “Unlike many plant hunters<br />
who went to work purely for commercial reasons, Jean<br />
L<strong>in</strong>den had a botanical <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> many species, not<br />
just the orchid. It is thanks to him that we have so many<br />
varieties of fern, palm, begonia, bromeliad, <strong>and</strong> so on”<br />
(Ceulemans et al., 2006: 7).
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
His second expedition, <strong>in</strong> the company of his<br />
countrymen Funck <strong>and</strong> Ghiesbreght (who took part as<br />
a zoologist), departed for Havana <strong>in</strong> October of 1837<br />
<strong>and</strong> went on to Mexico, rest<strong>in</strong>g at El Mirador of Carl<br />
Sartorius. Here he met Galeotti, who had arrived <strong>in</strong><br />
Mexico three years earlier. They proceeded to the east:<br />
“L<strong>in</strong>den first went to Yucatan, <strong>and</strong> thence to the States<br />
of Chiapas <strong>and</strong> Tabasco; visit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> explor<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
districts of Ciudad Real, Cacaté, San Bartolo Titotoli,<br />
Santiago de Tabasco, Teapa, Puyapatengo, etc. where<br />
he formed by far the largest collection we have seen<br />
from those parts of Mexico” (Hemsley, 1887: 126). He<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ued from there to northern Guatemala return<strong>in</strong>g<br />
then to the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. “In 1839-40,<br />
a disaster threw the smooth runn<strong>in</strong>g of the expedition<br />
<strong>in</strong>to turmoil. Jean L<strong>in</strong>den fell seriously ill, stricken by<br />
a violent attack of the vómito negro, which Europeans<br />
call yellow fever. [...] A natural haemorrhage saved his<br />
life, but it took a pa<strong>in</strong>ful three-month recovery before<br />
he could return to his collect<strong>in</strong>g” (Ceulemans et al.,<br />
2006: 57). Funck <strong>and</strong> Ghiesbreght re-embarked for<br />
Brussels <strong>in</strong> September 1840. L<strong>in</strong>den was left on the<br />
American cont<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>and</strong> eventually returned home via<br />
Havana <strong>and</strong> the United States.<br />
A third <strong>and</strong> last expedition, between 1841 <strong>and</strong> 1844,<br />
would take him to Venezuela <strong>and</strong> Colombia (where he<br />
would meet aga<strong>in</strong> with Hartweg), <strong>in</strong> the company of<br />
Joseph Schlim <strong>and</strong> Funck. “No later than October 1845<br />
- he had been home barely 11 months - he entrusted<br />
his old travel<strong>in</strong>g companions, Nicholas Funck <strong>and</strong><br />
Louis-Joseph Schlim, with a mission to Venezuela <strong>and</strong><br />
Colombia”.<br />
“[...] L<strong>in</strong>den did not leap bl<strong>in</strong>dly <strong>in</strong>to the horticultural<br />
trade but viewed his careers as a long-term proposition.<br />
He began with an audacious <strong>and</strong> clever stroke that<br />
proved vital <strong>in</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g himself to public attention. He<br />
wrote to em<strong>in</strong>ent English botanist, John L<strong>in</strong>dley, ask<strong>in</strong>g<br />
him to draw up a scientific description of the <strong>orchids</strong><br />
discovered on his recent travels. [L<strong>in</strong>dley] accepted<br />
L<strong>in</strong>den’s proposal <strong>and</strong> began his work of taxonomy<br />
which resulted <strong>in</strong> the publication of Orchidaceae<br />
L<strong>in</strong>denianae, or Notes upon a collection of Orchids<br />
Formed <strong>in</strong> Colombia <strong>and</strong> Cuba by Mr. J. L<strong>in</strong>den<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>dley, 1846). [...] L<strong>in</strong>den’s maneuver was brilliant.<br />
[...] This scientific recognition ga<strong>in</strong>ed him entrance<br />
to the world of professional botanists as well as<br />
w<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g the confidence of growers <strong>and</strong> orchid lovers”<br />
(Ceulemans et al., 2006: 105-106). After start<strong>in</strong>g<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> Luxembourg, he established himself <strong>in</strong><br />
Brussels <strong>in</strong> 1851, where he found greater possibilities<br />
to commercialize his plants <strong>and</strong> where he found clients<br />
who where will<strong>in</strong>g to pay considerable sums for new<br />
species, especially <strong>orchids</strong>. From 1851 to 1861 he was<br />
the director of the Royal Zoological <strong>and</strong> Botanical<br />
Gardens at Leopold Park <strong>in</strong> Brussels. In addition to<br />
the great number of species he <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong>to Europe,<br />
L<strong>in</strong>den had the merit of study<strong>in</strong>g closely the conditions<br />
<strong>in</strong> which the <strong>orchids</strong> grew <strong>in</strong> nature <strong>and</strong> to adapt the<br />
cultural methods <strong>in</strong> Europe to these conditions, thus<br />
creat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> his greenhouses ‘real’ microclimates for<br />
the plants he imported. L<strong>in</strong>den, who ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed close<br />
relations with English horticulturists, quickly adopted<br />
the new techniques of the Industrial Revolution <strong>and</strong><br />
built greenhouses of gigantic proportions <strong>in</strong> Ghent <strong>and</strong><br />
Brussels, becom<strong>in</strong>g soon the favorite supplier of the<br />
members of the upper classes. Among his clients he<br />
even counted the Czar of Russia.<br />
The L<strong>in</strong>den name is associated with a number<br />
of important publications: L’Illustration horticole<br />
(1854-1896), <strong>and</strong> above all Pescatorea (1860) <strong>and</strong><br />
L<strong>in</strong>denia (1885-1906), cont<strong>in</strong>ued by his son Lucien),<br />
commonly ranked amongst the most magnificent<br />
<strong>and</strong> outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g works <strong>in</strong> orchid literature. Some<br />
of the species the types of which were collected by<br />
L<strong>in</strong>den <strong>and</strong> deserve to be mentioned are: Brachystele<br />
m<strong>in</strong>utiflora (A. Rich. & Gal.) Burns-Bal. (L<strong>in</strong>den<br />
1237), Gongora truncata L<strong>in</strong>dl. (L<strong>in</strong>den s.n.), Notylia<br />
orbicularis A. Rich. & Gal. (L<strong>in</strong>den 216), Oncidium<br />
l<strong>in</strong>denii Brongn. (L<strong>in</strong>den s.n.), Prosthechea panthera<br />
(Rchb. f.) W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s (L<strong>in</strong>den 1236), Sarcoglottis<br />
corymbosa Garay (L<strong>in</strong>den 1232), Stelis ciliaris L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>den 203), <strong>and</strong> Stelis purpurascens A. Rich. &<br />
Gal. (L<strong>in</strong>den 211).<br />
L<strong>in</strong>den had an enormous <strong>in</strong>fluence on European<br />
<strong>orchidology</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g the last two thirds of the XIX<br />
century. His nurseries, managed by his son Lucien<br />
after his death, survived until World War I. “It can be<br />
said of Jean L<strong>in</strong>den that, <strong>in</strong> addition to his scientific<br />
merits, he also had outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g commercial talents.<br />
In him, moreover, scientific discipl<strong>in</strong>e, a feel<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
new discoveries, a love for botanical science <strong>and</strong> an<br />
aesthetic sense were harmoniously comb<strong>in</strong>ed. It is<br />
these qualities that have made L<strong>in</strong>den an important<br />
historical figure” (Ceulemans et al., 2006: 7).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
79
80<br />
The Belgian Auguste Boniface Ghiesbreght (1819-<br />
1893) <strong>and</strong> the Luxembourgian Nicholas Funck (1816-<br />
1896) explored Mexico (especially the states Tabasco<br />
<strong>and</strong> Chiapas) together with L<strong>in</strong>den. While Funck later<br />
jo<strong>in</strong>ed L<strong>in</strong>den <strong>in</strong> his third expedition to South America,<br />
Ghiesbreght returned to Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1840, where<br />
he formed important collections. “He <strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
many f<strong>in</strong>e plants to the nurseries of Van Houtten <strong>and</strong><br />
Verschaffelt” (Anonymous, 1893: 634). Ghiesbreght<br />
had been hired as the zoologist of the expedition, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> 1842 sold <strong>in</strong>sects to the Paris Museum, for 30 francs<br />
per hundred specimens (Papavero & Ibáñez-Barnal,<br />
2001: 83). Dur<strong>in</strong>g the years of 1850-1855 he made<br />
his third voyage to Mexico <strong>and</strong> his second to Chiapas,<br />
f<strong>org</strong>ett<strong>in</strong>g the dangers he had encountered before <strong>and</strong><br />
which had almost cost him his life. He died <strong>in</strong> Mexico,<br />
at San Cristóbal de las Casas, <strong>in</strong> February of 1893<br />
(Anonymous, 1893: 634). Ghiesbreght was perhaps<br />
the botanist with the greatest knowledge of the flora of<br />
northern Meso<strong>america</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g the first half of the XIX<br />
century. Although his collections were primarily of<br />
plants from other families, he discovered an important<br />
number of new species of Orchidaceae that were<br />
described by Richard <strong>and</strong> Galeotti <strong>in</strong> the Annales des<br />
sciences naturelles, a journal whose publication had<br />
begun some years earlier <strong>in</strong> Paris, edited by Adolphe<br />
Théodore Brongniart. Ghiesbreght would become<br />
L<strong>in</strong>den’s lifelong friend <strong>and</strong> collaborator. “Captivated<br />
by the novelties of a tropical flora, his earliest <strong>and</strong> latest<br />
field of research, <strong>and</strong> apparently his favorite one, was<br />
the south-eastern-most part of Mexico, compris<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
states of Tabasco <strong>and</strong> Chiapas” (Anonymous, 1889:<br />
585).<br />
Funck (Fig. 32A), who was L<strong>in</strong>den’s favorite<br />
illustrator, also made important contributions to the<br />
knowledge of the <strong>orchids</strong> of Central America. “He is<br />
[...] <strong>in</strong>extricably l<strong>in</strong>ked with the life of Jean L<strong>in</strong>den. [...]<br />
His name is also to be found amongst the adm<strong>in</strong>istrators<br />
of the L<strong>in</strong>den companies [...] The friendship between<br />
the two men was further strengthened when Funck<br />
<strong>and</strong> L<strong>in</strong>den married two Luxembourg sisters,<br />
Cather<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> Anna Reuter, on 9 April 1849 <strong>and</strong> 13<br />
October 1845 respectively” (Ceulemans et al., 2006:<br />
27). Among the types collected by Ghiesbreght<br />
<strong>and</strong> Funck, or dedicated to them, are the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
Brachystele sarcoglossa (A. Rich. & Gal.) Burns-<br />
Bal. (Ghiesbreght s.n.), Calanthe calanthoides (A.<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Rich. & Gal.) Hamer & Garay (Ghiesbreght s.n.) (Fig.<br />
32B), Encyclia ghiesbreghtiana (A. Rich. & Gal.)<br />
Dressler (Ghiesbreght 6, Oncidium ghiesbreghtianum<br />
A. Rich. & Gal. (Ghiesbreght W 27024), Spiranthes<br />
c<strong>in</strong>nabar<strong>in</strong>us Hemsl. (Ghiesbreght s.n.), Epidendrum<br />
funckianum A. Rich. & Gal. (Funck s.n.), <strong>and</strong> Pelexia<br />
funckiana (A. Rich. & Galeotti) Schltr. (H. Galeotti<br />
5171). Richard <strong>and</strong> Galeotti dedicated the genus<br />
Ghiesbreghtia <strong>and</strong> Schlechter the genus Funckiella to<br />
these two great Belgian botanists.<br />
The German Friedrich Ernst Leibold (1804-1864)<br />
arrived <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1839. As one of many guests<br />
of Sartorius, he collected ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> Zacuapán, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
neighborhood of El Mirador. Reichenbach named after<br />
him Leochilus leiboldi <strong>and</strong> Hemsley mentions many of<br />
his collections, such as: Epidendrum seriatum L<strong>in</strong>dl.,<br />
Sobralia macrantha L<strong>in</strong>dl., Govenia mutica Rchb. f.,<br />
Maxillaria pumila Hook. <strong>and</strong> the types of Brassavola<br />
(=Homalopetalum) pumilio Rchb. f. <strong>and</strong> Lepanthes<br />
pristidis Rchb. f. Reichenbach described many of the<br />
species collected by Leibold <strong>in</strong> Klotzsch’s “Beiträge<br />
zu e<strong>in</strong>er Aequ<strong>in</strong>octialflora Amerika’s”(1849).<br />
Emmanuel Ritter von Friedrichsthal (1809-1842)<br />
was born <strong>in</strong> Bohemia <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1839 traveled through<br />
Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica, cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g to Panama,<br />
Guatemala <strong>and</strong> Yucatán. “He disembarked <strong>in</strong> San<br />
Juan del Norte, <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, at the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
1839, hav<strong>in</strong>g been before <strong>in</strong> the Antilles, <strong>and</strong> after<br />
explor<strong>in</strong>g the Pacific coast of the other Central<br />
American countries, arrived <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, possibly<br />
via Puntarenas” (León, 2002: 132). Friedrichsthal drew<br />
maps, took barometric measurements, <strong>in</strong>vestigated the<br />
conditions of the natural history <strong>and</strong> ethnography <strong>and</strong><br />
sent reports to his government about the technology,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>and</strong> commerce of the countries he visited<br />
(Wurzbach, 1858: 360). “He botanized extensively<br />
<strong>in</strong> Costa Rica between 1839 <strong>and</strong> 1842, along the Río<br />
San Juan <strong>and</strong> from Guanacaste to Cartago” (Grayum<br />
et al, 2004: 2). However, all of his collections at Kew<br />
are labeled ‘Guatemala’. Friedrichsthal, like many<br />
others before him, applied the name Guatemala to<br />
Central America as a whole, probably keep<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
the customs of colonial times of call<strong>in</strong>g the region<br />
‘Capta<strong>in</strong>cy General of Guatemala’ or ‘K<strong>in</strong>gdom of<br />
Guatemala’. The confusion is clear <strong>in</strong> the description<br />
of one of the new species of Orchidaceae known from<br />
Friedrichsthal’s collections: Maxillaria friedrichsthallii
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
Figure 30. A — Schieedella cobanensis Schltr. Draw<strong>in</strong>g by R. Schlechter. In Schlechter,1931, plate 9, illustration 35.<br />
B — Frontispiece of Sartorius’ work, Mexico <strong>and</strong> the Mexicans, 1850. C — J. M. Rugendas: The Mirador look<strong>in</strong>g towards<br />
the Gulf . In Sartorius, 1975: 8.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
81
82<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
Figure 31. A — Odontoglossum caerulescens A. Rich & Gal. A draw<strong>in</strong>g by Galeotti with the determ<strong>in</strong>ation by Richard. In<br />
Veyret, 1997: 16. B — Galeottia gr<strong>and</strong>iflora A. Rich. & Gal. Illustration by A. Goosens <strong>in</strong> Cogniaux & Goosens, 1896-<br />
1907. C — Achille Richard (1794-1852). In Veyret, 1997: 5. D — Jean Jules L<strong>in</strong>den (1817-1898). From Gardeners’<br />
Chronicle, courtesy of the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
D
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C D<br />
Figure 32. A — Nicholas Funck (1816-1896). Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny. B — Calanthe calanthoides (A. Rich. & Gal.) Hamer<br />
& Garay. Illustration by Pilar Casasa. C — Maxillaria friedrichsthalii Rchb.f. Illustration by Blanche Ames, courtesy of the<br />
Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium, Harvard University. D — Josef Ritter von Rawiez Warscewicz (1812-1866). Courtesy of<br />
the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
83
84<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
B C<br />
Figure 33. A — Map of the Belgian colony <strong>in</strong> Santo Tomás, Guatemala. In Wagner, 2001: 42. B — Warczewiczella discolor<br />
Rchb.f. Xenia Orchidacea I, Plate 93. C — Michael Frederik Liebmann (1813-1856). Courtesy of the Botanical Garden &<br />
Museum, Copenhagen.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Rchb. f., (Friedrichsthal, AMES 25856) (Fig. 32C). In<br />
Reichenbach’s description, the locality of collection is<br />
referred to as: Guatemala, Chontales, <strong>in</strong> Monte Aragua,<br />
although it is well known that Chontales is <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua.<br />
Other collections by Friedrichsthal <strong>in</strong>clude the type of<br />
Ornithocephalus <strong>in</strong>flexus L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Guatemala, am Fluss<br />
Torre), Gongora qu<strong>in</strong>quenervis Ruiz y Pav. (Guatemala,<br />
San Juan River (!)) <strong>and</strong> Schomburgkia tibic<strong>in</strong>is Batem.<br />
(Río de Mico, Petén). “Friedrichsthal is considered one<br />
of the pioneers of expedition photography. Already<br />
<strong>in</strong> the year after Daguerre‘s technique was publicized<br />
[1837], he employed this new technique to depict Maya<br />
ru<strong>in</strong>s. In 1840, he was the first European to describe<br />
Chichén Itzá”.<br />
He must have met Sk<strong>in</strong>ner, who <strong>in</strong> one of his letters<br />
to Alex<strong>and</strong>er Mac Donald <strong>in</strong> Belize asks: “Did le<br />
Chevalier Frederickstal [sic] f<strong>in</strong>d much up the river?”<br />
(Letter from Sk<strong>in</strong>ner to Mac Donald, Feb. 26 th , 1841).<br />
It was, by the way, Mac Donald’s wife who <strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
from Belize <strong>in</strong>to Engl<strong>and</strong> the type specimen of<br />
Brassavola (=Rhyncholaelia) digbyana L<strong>in</strong>dl., today<br />
the national flower of Honduras 22 . A different version<br />
states that the plant was sent by Governor Digby, <strong>and</strong><br />
named <strong>in</strong> honor of his k<strong>in</strong>sman, Lord Digby; it had been<br />
collected by employees of Messrs. Brown, Ponder, <strong>and</strong><br />
Co., of Belize, who dealt <strong>in</strong> mahagony <strong>and</strong> logwood<br />
(Boyle, 1901: 151). A large part of his collection <strong>and</strong><br />
equipment was stolen dur<strong>in</strong>g a robbery <strong>in</strong> the prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
of Yucatan, at the southern end of the pen<strong>in</strong>sula of the<br />
same name. At the end of October 1841 he reached<br />
Vienna, badly suffer<strong>in</strong>g from the serious illness he had<br />
caught <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> America <strong>and</strong> that was to lead to his<br />
death a few months later.<br />
“Last Monday Ge<strong>org</strong>e brought here a Pole – a great<br />
traveller & one of the first botanists <strong>in</strong> the world. His<br />
name is Warscewicz.... He talks a mixture of Spanish<br />
<strong>and</strong> Polish, & wears a beard, <strong>in</strong> fact, is all hair, from<br />
his nose downwards!”. Mrs. Sk<strong>in</strong>ner, <strong>in</strong> a letter to her<br />
friend Juliana Raymond dated April 15, 1850, described<br />
with these words her first encounter with Josef Ritter<br />
von Rawiez Warscewicz (1812-1866) (Fig. 32D).<br />
Warscewicz was born <strong>in</strong> Lithuania, of Polish ancestors,<br />
mostly military (Lückel, 1982: 125), <strong>and</strong> “received his<br />
<strong>in</strong>itial tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Botany at Rumzill’s [really Jundzill]<br />
Botanical Gardens <strong>in</strong> Pol<strong>and</strong> [actually <strong>in</strong> Vilnius,<br />
Lithuania] <strong>and</strong> at the Berl<strong>in</strong> Botanic Gardens, <strong>and</strong> then<br />
jo<strong>in</strong>ed a Belgian cont<strong>in</strong>gent of settlers [<strong>in</strong> Guatemala]<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1845 to collect plants for the nurseryman Van Houtte<br />
of Ghent, Belgium” (Milligan & Banks, 1999: 22).<br />
Van Houtte owned a large garden <strong>in</strong> Santo Tomás, now<br />
Matías de Gálvez, Guatemala (Savage, 1970: 275). The<br />
colonization program <strong>in</strong> Santo Tomás had started <strong>in</strong> 1834,<br />
when the Guatemalan Congress passed a law promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the development of the Departments of Verapaz,<br />
Liv<strong>in</strong>ston <strong>and</strong> Santo Tomás. Colonization began <strong>in</strong> 1836<br />
by the British ‘Commercial <strong>and</strong> Agricultural Company<br />
of the Eastern Coast of Central America’ but <strong>in</strong> 1841 the<br />
British <strong>in</strong>terests were sold to the Belgian Colonization<br />
Company (Wagner, 2007: 17-22) (Fig. 33A).<br />
But the new Belgian colony <strong>in</strong> Santo Tomás,<br />
Guatemala, was a complete failure. “They sold him<br />
the idea that he would f<strong>in</strong>d a prosperous town full of<br />
rich settlers. When he arrived, <strong>in</strong> February of 1845,<br />
Warscewicz found that <strong>in</strong>stead of the promised city<br />
there was only a hamlet of straw huts. Instead of<br />
rich <strong>and</strong> active settlers he found immigrants so sick<br />
that they looked like corpses raised from the dead.<br />
From the 32 healthy <strong>and</strong> strong <strong>in</strong>dividuals who<br />
arrived with Warscewicz from Europe to jo<strong>in</strong> the<br />
colony, only our botanist <strong>and</strong> the group’s physician<br />
survived” (Heckadon-Moreno, 1998 62). The Belgian<br />
Colony was officially dissolved by the Guatemalan<br />
government <strong>in</strong> 1853 (Wagner, 2007: 33). Thanks<br />
to Humboldt’s recommendation [Humboldt had<br />
previously recommended him to the Botanical Garden<br />
<strong>in</strong> Hamburg], Warscewicz <strong>in</strong>itiated correspondence<br />
with Sk<strong>in</strong>ner, with whom he did not start off well,<br />
possibly because they did not meet personally until<br />
1850 (Sk<strong>in</strong>ner was at the time <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong>). “I have<br />
had enough of him... (Letter from Sk<strong>in</strong>ner to Hooker,<br />
15.09.1846)”. “...And I am disgusted with Warscewicz<br />
<strong>and</strong> almost feel <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ed to have noth<strong>in</strong>g more to do with<br />
him” (Letter from Sk<strong>in</strong>ner to Hooker, 15.12.1846). But<br />
the relations would improve, until Sk<strong>in</strong>ner became an<br />
admirer of the extravagant Pole.<br />
“From Guatemala, Warscewicz traveled to El<br />
Salvador, where, due to extensive deforestation,<br />
he found only few plants. He went on to Nicaragua<br />
<strong>and</strong> met there Dr. Oersted, who <strong>in</strong>formed him of the<br />
best regions for botanical exploration. Together they<br />
22 The name honors Edward St. V<strong>in</strong>cent Digby, an orchid grower from M<strong>in</strong>terne, Dorsetshire, who first received the plant from<br />
Mrs. Mac Donald.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
85
86<br />
explored the forests of Nueva Segovia, collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
2,000 specimens of <strong>orchids</strong>”. His next dest<strong>in</strong>ation was<br />
Costa Rica, where he arrived <strong>in</strong> 1848 <strong>and</strong> then Panama,<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g later <strong>in</strong> several countries of South America.<br />
From a letter from Warscewicz dated March 15,<br />
1848 (unknown recipient) we can see how difficult<br />
his travels were <strong>and</strong> underst<strong>and</strong> the hardships he<br />
went through: “My journey by l<strong>and</strong> (<strong>500</strong> leagues)<br />
from Guatemala to Costa Rica was very hard; hunger,<br />
thirst <strong>and</strong> other contrarieties bothered me all the time;<br />
only the wonderful <strong>and</strong> exuberant vegetation helped<br />
me endure so critical a situation; this vegetation was<br />
my constant companion along the way [...] Presently<br />
I am travel<strong>in</strong>g to Panama <strong>and</strong> Veraguas... I need<br />
money to travel <strong>and</strong> collect with profit - I have been<br />
wait<strong>in</strong>g for it <strong>in</strong> va<strong>in</strong> for already a long time, s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
what I received from my friends <strong>and</strong> sympathizers <strong>in</strong><br />
Germany <strong>in</strong> exchange for the considerable shipment<br />
of seeds, plants <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> which I sent last year<br />
from Guatemala was barely enough to ship the plants<br />
<strong>and</strong> return the expenses” (Méndez & Monge-Nájera,<br />
2003: 205). In 1850 he passed aga<strong>in</strong> through Costa<br />
Rica <strong>and</strong> Panama, return<strong>in</strong>g to Europe after a bad<br />
attack of yellow fever. There he f<strong>in</strong>ally met Sk<strong>in</strong>ner,<br />
who took him <strong>in</strong>to his house because of Warscewicz’s<br />
ru<strong>in</strong>ous f<strong>in</strong>ancial situation (“poor fellow, I am afraid<br />
he will f<strong>in</strong>d it difficult to recover his expenses”; Letter<br />
from Sk<strong>in</strong>ner to Hooker, 03.04.1850). After he met<br />
him, Sk<strong>in</strong>ner wrote enthusiastically to Lord Derby:<br />
“He is strong as iron <strong>in</strong> constitution, fearless as a<br />
lion of dangers & enthusiastic beyond description”<br />
(27.04.1850).<br />
He spent several months <strong>in</strong> Berl<strong>in</strong> as assistant<br />
to Reichenbach, describ<strong>in</strong>g over 300 species of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>. In those days he published a list of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
brought by him from Central America, which he<br />
offered for sale (Warscewicz, 1850). Not used to<br />
sedentary work, he embarked for America aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
1851 <strong>and</strong> passed a last time through Panama. At the<br />
end of the year he was <strong>in</strong> Guayaquil, where he was<br />
robbed <strong>and</strong> lost his money <strong>and</strong> equipment, return<strong>in</strong>g<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ally to Europe <strong>in</strong> 1853 (Anonymous, 1854a: 96).<br />
He was offered the position of supervisor at the<br />
Botanical Gardens of Krakow that he held until his<br />
death <strong>in</strong> 1866. “Together with the director Ignacy<br />
Rafel Czerwiakowski he published Catalogus<br />
Plantarum (Cracoviae 1864), list<strong>in</strong>g 8,911 taxa<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
cultivated <strong>in</strong> the garden, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g some 300 species<br />
of Orchidaceae” (Yearsley, 2004: 159).<br />
It was undoubtedly <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Panama<br />
where he collected the greatest number of <strong>orchids</strong>. In<br />
Costa Rica he explored chiefly the <strong>central</strong> region of the<br />
country <strong>and</strong> climbed the Barba <strong>and</strong> Irazú volcanoes.<br />
In Panama, his favorite collect<strong>in</strong>g sites where the<br />
highl<strong>and</strong>s of Chiriquí, which he came to consider as<br />
an orchidological paradise. It is aga<strong>in</strong> Sk<strong>in</strong>ner, <strong>in</strong> one<br />
of his many letters to Hooker, who tells us about the<br />
newly discovered beauties: “Mr. Warscewicz has sent<br />
me some 20 boxes of <strong>orchids</strong>... He is now <strong>in</strong> Veraguas<br />
on his way south, but so rich do I observe Costa Rica<br />
to be, I will persuade him to return <strong>and</strong> w<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>in</strong><br />
Veraguas <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica... They are splendid examples<br />
of the richest orchid country <strong>in</strong> the world” (Letter from<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner to Hooker, 11.07.1848).<br />
Reichenbach described his collections <strong>in</strong> 1854<br />
Orchideae Warscewiczianae Recentiores <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1866<br />
under the title of Orchideae Warscewiczianae <strong>and</strong> wrote:<br />
“the name of Von Warscewicz sh<strong>in</strong>es among those who<br />
have enlarged <strong>in</strong> a very considerable form the knowledge<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong> (Reichenbach, 1866; 4).” Some of the types<br />
collected by Warscewicz are: Epidendrum <strong>in</strong>comptum<br />
Rchb. f. (Warscewicz s.n., Panama), Elleanthus<br />
hymenophorus (Rchb. f.) Rchb. f. (Warscewicz s.n.,<br />
Panama), Lacaena spectabilis (Klotzsch) Rchb. f.<br />
(Warscewicz W-Rchb. 44742), Maxillaria aciantha<br />
Rchb. f. (Warscewicz s.n., Costa Rica), Maxillaria<br />
atrata Rchb. f. (Warscewicz s.n., Guatemala), Maxillaria<br />
r<strong>in</strong>gens Rchb. f. (Warscewicz s.n., Guatemala),<br />
Mesosp<strong>in</strong>idium warscewiczii Rchb. f. (Warscewicz s.n.),<br />
Oerstedella centropetala (Rchb. f.) Rchb. f. (Warscewicz<br />
s.n., Panama), Oncidium warscewiczii Rchb. f.<br />
(Warscewicz s.n., Costa Rica y Panama), Prosthechea<br />
brassavolae (Rchb. f.) W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s (Warscewicz<br />
W-Rchb. 64, Panama), <strong>and</strong> Sobralia warscewiczii Rchb.<br />
f. (Warscewicz s.n., Panama). Reichenbach named after<br />
him the genus Warscewiczella <strong>and</strong> a great number of<br />
species (Fig. 33B).<br />
While collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Tropical America, Warscewicz<br />
sent to the Botanical Garden <strong>in</strong> Krakow a number of<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> that unfortunately were lost dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a severe w<strong>in</strong>ter. Those <strong>orchids</strong> that were rescued,<br />
were used by Franck, Governor of occupied Pol<strong>and</strong><br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g World War II, as a decoration of his residence<br />
<strong>in</strong> Krakow... <strong>and</strong> were never returned to the Botanical
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Garden (Sampol<strong>in</strong>ski, 1963: 214). Warscewicz had<br />
also <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> humm<strong>in</strong>gbirds, “certa<strong>in</strong>ly a choice<br />
of <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> which he was to be envied” (St<strong>and</strong>ley,<br />
1925: 354).<br />
Augustus Fendler (1813-1883) was born <strong>in</strong><br />
Gumb<strong>in</strong>nen, Prussia, <strong>and</strong> came to the United States <strong>in</strong><br />
1836 to work variously at a tanyard <strong>in</strong> Philadelphia,<br />
a lamp factory <strong>in</strong> New York, <strong>and</strong> a gas works <strong>in</strong> St.<br />
Louis, until he discovered that a market existed for<br />
dry plants. Ge<strong>org</strong>e Engelmann, of St. Louis, Missouri,<br />
tra<strong>in</strong>ed him as a collector. Fendler began his travels <strong>in</strong><br />
the southwestern United States <strong>and</strong> collected later <strong>in</strong><br />
Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama <strong>and</strong> Venezuela. In 1846<br />
he was <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, where he made a small collection<br />
of plants near Greytown (San Juan del Norte). He went<br />
on to Panama, <strong>in</strong> 1850, <strong>and</strong> his collections of this area<br />
are preserved at Kew <strong>and</strong> Missouri. In Panama he<br />
collected, among others: Oncidium ampliatum L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Fendler 331), Dimer<strong>and</strong>ra emarg<strong>in</strong>ata (G. Mey.)<br />
Hoehne (Fendler 332), Dichaea panamensis L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Fendler 333) <strong>and</strong> Polystachya foliosa (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Rchb.<br />
f. (Fendler 334). Only three new types of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
are known among Fendler’s collections, although<br />
all appear to be from Venezuela: Cranichis fendleri<br />
Schltr., Liparis fendleri Schltr. <strong>and</strong> Stelis fendleri L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
He returned to Germany <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the eighteen sixties we<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d him aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the United States, where he worked<br />
as an assistant to the great botanist Asa Gray. He<br />
then took up what Gray <strong>in</strong> dismay called “speculative<br />
physics”, publish<strong>in</strong>g a th<strong>in</strong> book, The Mechanism of<br />
the Universe (1874). Perhaps disappo<strong>in</strong>ted with its<br />
reception, Fendler spent the rest of his days on the<br />
isl<strong>and</strong> of Tr<strong>in</strong>idad, where he died <strong>in</strong> 1883.<br />
The Sc<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>avians<br />
“Our Genus is Homo <strong>and</strong> our species is sapiens,<br />
<strong>and</strong> L<strong>in</strong>naeus gave us our name. Thus we write<br />
our name Homo sapiens L.”<br />
Anonymous<br />
Carl von L<strong>in</strong>né (1707-1778) is called, with justice,<br />
“the father of taxonomy”. In his famous Species<br />
Plantarum of 1753, he set the foundations for modern<br />
botanical nomenclature. L<strong>in</strong>né was not only the greatest<br />
botanist of his century, but also founded a school of<br />
scientists whose names had enormous relevance <strong>in</strong> the<br />
second half of the XVIII <strong>and</strong> all of the XIX century.<br />
Among his disciples <strong>and</strong> followers we f<strong>in</strong>d Pehr<br />
Kalm (1716–1779), who traveled dur<strong>in</strong>g three years<br />
study<strong>in</strong>g the plants of the North American colonies;<br />
the unfortunate Pehr Löfl<strong>in</strong>g (1729–1756), who<br />
participated <strong>in</strong> the Spanish expedition to the Or<strong>in</strong>oco<br />
<strong>and</strong> Daniel Sol<strong>and</strong>er (1733–1782), who was Cook’s<br />
naturalist dur<strong>in</strong>g his first voyage around the world<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduced to Europe the first collections of plants<br />
from Australia <strong>and</strong> the South Pacific, <strong>and</strong> was also <strong>in</strong><br />
Sur<strong>in</strong>am (Steele, 1964: 13).<br />
In tropical America one must mention the Dane<br />
Julius von Roth (1737-1793), who was <strong>in</strong> Jamaica,<br />
Puerto Rico <strong>and</strong> the Lesser Antilles between 1757<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1791 <strong>and</strong> above all the great Swede Olof Swartz<br />
(1760-1818) who explored Jamaica, Cuba <strong>and</strong> Haiti<br />
from 1784 to 1786, later publish<strong>in</strong>g his Flora Indiae<br />
Occidentalis (1797-1806), where he described many<br />
new species of <strong>orchids</strong>. And, although no <strong>orchids</strong> are<br />
known among his collections, it is important to name<br />
here Johann Emmanuel Billberg (1798-1845), a young<br />
Swedish physician who visited Portobello <strong>in</strong> Panama<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1826 <strong>and</strong> made there an important collection of<br />
plants. Nearly 30 years later, after Billberg’s death,<br />
Beurl<strong>in</strong>g published his Primitiae florae portobellensis,<br />
the first formal list of Panama plants, based upon this<br />
collection” (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1928: 42).<br />
Two descendants of L<strong>in</strong>né’s great school, both<br />
Danes, were protagonists <strong>in</strong> the history of our <strong>orchids</strong><br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the first half of the XIX century:<br />
Michael Frederik Liebmann (1813-1856) (Fig.<br />
33C), studied <strong>in</strong> Copenhagen under the great Danish<br />
botanist Frederik Schouw <strong>and</strong> departed <strong>in</strong> 1840 to<br />
Mexico, thanks to a grant from the K<strong>in</strong>g of Denmark,<br />
to form botanical <strong>and</strong> zoological collections. In the<br />
company of a gardener, he soon established himself<br />
<strong>in</strong> the region of Veracruz <strong>and</strong> was one more of the<br />
numerous guests of Carl Sartorius <strong>in</strong> his estate<br />
El Mirador. He seems to have collected also <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala 23 . The <strong>orchids</strong> collected by Liebmann<br />
were later studied by Kraenzl<strong>in</strong> (1920) <strong>and</strong> Louis<br />
O. Williams (1938-39). He collected <strong>in</strong> the area<br />
until 1843, when he returned to Denmark, with<br />
a herbarium of 40,000 plants <strong>and</strong> considerable<br />
zoological collections. In 1845 he was appo<strong>in</strong>ted<br />
professor of botany at the University of Copenhagen<br />
23 Ames <strong>and</strong> Correll, 1985: 475, mention a collection of Epidanthus paranthicus (Rchb. f.) L.O. Wms. by Liebmann <strong>in</strong> Guatemala.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
87
88<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1849 director of the botanical Gardens. Alone<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> conjunction with other botanists he published<br />
many new species, but his death at a relatively young<br />
age meant that many of the natural orders were left<br />
untouched. One of his most important works, Chênes<br />
de l’Amerique Tropical (= Oaks of tropical America)<br />
was unf<strong>in</strong>ished <strong>and</strong> was later completed by Oersted.<br />
Some of the specimens collected by Liebmann<br />
became the types for new species: Dichaea liebmanni<br />
Rchb. f. (Liebmann s.n., El Mirador), Jacqu<strong>in</strong>iella<br />
leucomelana (Rchb. f.) Schltr. (Liebmann s.n.,<br />
Mexico), Odontoglossum beloglossum Rchb. f.<br />
(Liebmann, W-Rchb. 43391, Mexico), <strong>and</strong> Ponthieva<br />
campestris (Liebm.) Garay (Liebmann 313, Veracruz).<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Hemsley, for almost all we know of<br />
the botany of Costa Rica we are <strong>in</strong>debted to Anders<br />
S<strong>and</strong>oe Oersted (1816-1872) (Fig. 34A), who explored<br />
this country <strong>and</strong> Nicaragua between 1846 <strong>and</strong> 1848<br />
(Hemsley, 1887: 130). He was born at Rudkjob<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
June 21, 1816 <strong>in</strong> a family which boasted important<br />
names <strong>in</strong> sciences <strong>and</strong> politics (L<strong>in</strong>d, 1913: 17).<br />
“... After several years of teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>vestigation<br />
<strong>in</strong> Denmark, he started <strong>in</strong> 1845 a scientific expedition<br />
to the Dutch isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the Caribbean <strong>and</strong> Jamaica<br />
(Poulsen, 1848: 876-877). From there he went to<br />
Nicaragua at the end of 1846, where he arrived first<br />
at Bluefields <strong>and</strong> went then to San Juan del Norte.<br />
It seems that he entered the country [Costa Rica]<br />
through Puntarenas” (León, 2002: 133). He collected<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensively <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Nicaragua, especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> the great volcanic cha<strong>in</strong> that <strong>in</strong>cludes the Irazú,<br />
Barba <strong>and</strong> el Viejo volcanoes, form<strong>in</strong>g a collection<br />
of more than 900 species of superior plants, among<br />
them some 80 Orchidaceae that were later described<br />
by Reichenbach <strong>in</strong> his Orchideae Oerstedianae, that<br />
form part of his great work on the <strong>orchids</strong> of Central<br />
America of 1866.<br />
He established his headquarters <strong>in</strong> San Antonio de<br />
Belén, to the west of the capital (Calvert & Calvert,<br />
1917: 19-20). In February of 1848 he went to the region<br />
of Guanacaste. “The purpose of this trip, promoted<br />
by the government of Costa Rica, was to study the<br />
possibility of open<strong>in</strong>g a canal that would communicate<br />
the bay of Sal<strong>in</strong>as with the lake of Nicaragua. Oersted<br />
presented a plan for the construction of the canal<br />
(Oersted, 1851), but no further attention was paid to<br />
the project”.<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Oersted describes the two exist<strong>in</strong>g roads of that time<br />
to the Atlantic Ocean: the almost ab<strong>and</strong>oned road from<br />
Cartago to Mat<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Moín, where he notes that <strong>in</strong><br />
the pla<strong>in</strong>s of Turrialba the vanillas dom<strong>in</strong>ate among the<br />
forest vegetation <strong>and</strong> the road of Sarapiquí, by which<br />
he returns to San Juan del Norte <strong>and</strong> from there to<br />
Europe (Oersted, 1863: 3-5) (Fig. 35A).<br />
He returned to Denmark <strong>in</strong> 1848 <strong>and</strong> was later<br />
appo<strong>in</strong>ted professor of botany, succeed<strong>in</strong>g Liebmann<br />
<strong>in</strong> this position (Brown, 1872-1873: 4).<br />
Oersted was a great naturalist <strong>and</strong> a first class<br />
observer, who left vivid descriptions of the l<strong>and</strong>scape of<br />
the different regions of his travels. En 1863 he published<br />
his work on Central America: L’Amerique Centrale,<br />
recherches sur sa flore et sa geographie physique<br />
(=Central America, studies about its flora <strong>and</strong> physical<br />
geography). “A posthumous work, ‘Praecursores<br />
Florae Centro<strong>america</strong>na’ published <strong>in</strong> Copenhagen<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1873, conta<strong>in</strong>s fragments of articles by Oersted <strong>and</strong><br />
contributions of other authors about his collections of<br />
mosses, Araceae <strong>and</strong> others” (León, 2002: 136).<br />
Among the many species discovered by Oersted,<br />
all described by Reichenbach, are the follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
Beloglottis costaricensis (Rchb. f.) Schltr. (Oersted<br />
s.n., Costa Rica), Bulbophyllum aristatum Rchb.<br />
f. (Oersted s.n., Central America), Bolbophyllaria<br />
oerstedii Rchb. f. (Oersted 6746, Nicaragua) (Fig.<br />
34B), Catasetum oerstedii (= maculatum) Rchb.f.<br />
(Oersted s.n., Nicaragua), Dichaea oerstedii<br />
(= glauca) Rchb. f. (Oersted s.n., Nicaragua),<br />
Epidendrum oerstedii Rchb. f. (Oersted s.n., Costa<br />
Rica), Habenaria oerstedii Rchb. f. (Oersted s.n.,<br />
Nicaragua), Lockhartia oerstedii Rchb. f. (Oersted<br />
W-Rchb. 44337, Costa Rica), Oncidium oerstedii<br />
Rchb. f. (Oersted s.n., Nicaragua), Pleurothallis<br />
segoviensis Rchb. f. (Oersted s.n., Nicaragua),<br />
Polystachya masayensis Rchb. f. (Oersted s.n.,<br />
Nicaragua), <strong>and</strong> Odontoglossum (= ticoglossum)<br />
oerstedii Rchb. f. (Oersted s.n., Costa Rica).<br />
Reichenbach honored him <strong>in</strong> his description of the<br />
genus Oerstedella.<br />
So ends the history of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America <strong>in</strong><br />
the first half of the XIX century. Some 25 collectors,<br />
all of them Europeans (with the exception of the<br />
Mexicans Lexarza <strong>and</strong> La Llave), discovered <strong>in</strong> the<br />
three decades after the <strong>in</strong>dependence more than 300<br />
species of Orchidaceae new to science.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
‘manIfesT desTIny’<br />
“We may confidently assume that our country is<br />
dest<strong>in</strong>ed to be the great nation of futurity”<br />
John L. O’Sullivan, about<br />
‘Manifest Dest<strong>in</strong>y’, 1839<br />
No nation ever existed without some sense of<br />
national dest<strong>in</strong>y or purpose. Manifest Dest<strong>in</strong>y -- a<br />
phrase used by leaders <strong>and</strong> politicians <strong>in</strong> the 1840s<br />
to expla<strong>in</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ental expansion by the United States<br />
-- revitalized a sense of “mission” or national dest<strong>in</strong>y<br />
for many Americans. As Sullivan wrote: “This country<br />
will conquest or annex all l<strong>and</strong>s. It is its Manifest<br />
Dest<strong>in</strong>y” (Quesada, 2007). Expansionists were also<br />
motivated by more immediate, practical considerations.<br />
Southerners eager to enlarge the slave empire were<br />
among the most ardent champions of the crusade for<br />
more territory. Wash<strong>in</strong>gton policy-makers, anxious<br />
to compete with Great Brita<strong>in</strong> for the Asia trade, had<br />
long been conv<strong>in</strong>ced of the strategic <strong>and</strong> commercial<br />
advantages of San Francisco <strong>and</strong> other ports on the<br />
Pacific coastl<strong>in</strong>e of Mexican-owned California.<br />
The Mexican-American war <strong>and</strong> the decl<strong>in</strong>e of<br />
British hegemony<br />
“Remember The Alamo!” 26<br />
Battle of San Jac<strong>in</strong>to, April 21, 1836<br />
As soon as Houston’s long awaited order to advance<br />
was given, the Texans did not hesitate. The shouts of<br />
“Remember the Alamo” rang along the entire l<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> a short time, 700 Mexicans were sla<strong>in</strong>, with<br />
another 730 taken as prisoners. The battle for Texas was<br />
won. The <strong>in</strong>dependence of Texas from Mexico led to<br />
annexation <strong>and</strong> to the Mexican-American war of 1846-<br />
1848, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the acquisition by the United States<br />
of the States of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada,<br />
California, Utah, <strong>and</strong> parts of Colorado, Wyom<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
Kansas <strong>and</strong> Oklahoma. Almost one third of the present<br />
area of the United States, nearly a million square miles<br />
of territory, changed sovereignty.<br />
Several botanists were <strong>in</strong> the expedition that<br />
was later sent out to survey the Mexican-American<br />
border, <strong>in</strong> order to def<strong>in</strong>e the limits between both<br />
countries. Among them was Charles Wright, who<br />
would afterwards explore Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> the Antilles.<br />
However, the true importance of the Mexican-<br />
American war consisted <strong>in</strong> the fact that it represented<br />
the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the end of British hegemony <strong>in</strong> our<br />
region. “By mid-century, Americans were compet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with the British for <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> eastern Nicaragua.<br />
After the 1849 gold rush <strong>in</strong> California, <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong><br />
build<strong>in</strong>g a transoceanic canal across Nicaragua was<br />
<strong>in</strong>tense. The British were seen as adversaries, <strong>and</strong> a<br />
series of confrontations took place along the coast,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>cident <strong>in</strong> which an American warship<br />
bombarded <strong>and</strong> destroyed Greytown (Bell, 1989: vi).”<br />
Thus the United States took the first steps of its<br />
‘manifest dest<strong>in</strong>y’ as a world empire that some fifty<br />
years later would become the sole arbiter of the fate<br />
of the Central American countries. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the second<br />
half of the XIX century, the expansionist ambition of<br />
the United States would focus <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly on Central<br />
America <strong>and</strong> the Caribbean. With the turn of the<br />
century, the Spanish-American war, the <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />
of Panama from Colombia (enforced by the United<br />
States) <strong>and</strong> the occupation of Nicaragua by the Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Infantry <strong>in</strong> 1912 converted the Caribbean <strong>in</strong> a true<br />
Mare Nostrum of the American navy (Pérez Brignoli,<br />
2000: 22).<br />
Political, economical <strong>and</strong> social life of Central<br />
America, although still strongly <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the<br />
ideas of European liberalism, gravitated each day<br />
more strongly <strong>in</strong>to the United States orbit. The most<br />
important political decisions <strong>in</strong> the life of the Banana<br />
republics dur<strong>in</strong>g the second half of the XIX century<br />
were made <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the headquarters of<br />
the mult<strong>in</strong>ational companies <strong>in</strong> New York <strong>and</strong> Chicago.<br />
The history of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America was not<br />
immune to these developments. The European<br />
monopoly of botanical exploration <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
started to fade. The Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew had<br />
become, dur<strong>in</strong>g the first half of the XIX century, the<br />
<strong>in</strong>disputable center of world <strong>orchidology</strong>. Although<br />
Kew has reta<strong>in</strong>ed, until the present days, a preem<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
role, its attention began to focus more <strong>and</strong> more<br />
on the colonies of the grow<strong>in</strong>g British Empire <strong>in</strong><br />
Africa <strong>and</strong> Asia, <strong>and</strong> on South America, where North<br />
American <strong>in</strong>fluence was not yet strong. The list of the<br />
collectors <strong>in</strong> Panama between 1700 <strong>and</strong> 1923 <strong>and</strong> their<br />
nationalities published by Dwyer leaves no doubt about<br />
24 The Alamo fell to the Mexican troops of General Santa Ana on March 6, 1836. All survivors were put to the sword.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
89
90<br />
the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g American hegemony (D’Arcy & Correa,<br />
1985: 180 (Fig. 34C)). A gentlemen’s agreement seems<br />
to have been established, where Monroe’s expression<br />
‘America for the Americans’ had its counterpart <strong>in</strong> a<br />
thought that was never set <strong>in</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g: ‘the British<br />
Empire for the British’.<br />
Two <strong>in</strong>stitutions were founded <strong>in</strong> the United States<br />
that <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g decades would be leaders <strong>in</strong> the<br />
exploration of the Central American territories <strong>and</strong><br />
would have an enormous <strong>in</strong>fluence on the scientific<br />
life of the region. Ironically, both were created by<br />
British citizens. In 1846 an act of Congress was<br />
approved to carry out the terms of the will of James<br />
Smithson (1756-1829), a prom<strong>in</strong>ent English scientist<br />
who, strangely enough, had never visited America.<br />
Smithson bequeathed his entire estate to the United<br />
States of America “to found at Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, under the<br />
name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment<br />
for the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>and</strong> diffusion of knowledge...”<br />
Henry Shaw (1800-1889) (Fig. 34D), a native of<br />
Sheffield, Engl<strong>and</strong>, moved to Sa<strong>in</strong>t Louis, Missouri, <strong>in</strong><br />
1819. He had such success <strong>in</strong> his bus<strong>in</strong>ess that he was<br />
able to retire at the age of 40. On a trip back to Engl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
he was <strong>in</strong>spired by the grounds of Chatsworth, the<br />
most magnificent private residence <strong>in</strong> Europe. When<br />
he returned to the U.S., he decided to beg<strong>in</strong> his own<br />
botanical garden. Shaw opened his garden to the<br />
public <strong>in</strong> 1859. It grew <strong>in</strong> the European tradition of<br />
horticultural display comb<strong>in</strong>ed with education <strong>and</strong><br />
the search for new knowledge. This <strong>in</strong>stitution, now<br />
known as the Missouri Botanical Garden, is acclaimed<br />
today as be<strong>in</strong>g a leader <strong>in</strong> botanical <strong>in</strong>vestigation, with<br />
projects <strong>in</strong> the five cont<strong>in</strong>ents.<br />
To the aforementioned <strong>in</strong>stitutions we must add the<br />
important accomplishments <strong>in</strong> Central America of the<br />
New York Botanical Garden, created <strong>in</strong> 1891 by the<br />
botanist Nathaniel Lord Britton, the foundation <strong>in</strong> 1893<br />
of the ‘Columbian Museum of Chicago’, known today<br />
as Field Museum of Natural History, fundamental to<br />
the history of the <strong>orchids</strong> of Central America <strong>in</strong> the XX<br />
Century, <strong>and</strong> the creation <strong>in</strong> 1894 of the United States<br />
National Herbarium.<br />
While Mexico struggled <strong>in</strong> never end<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ternal<br />
fights for power after the disaster of the Mexican-<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
American war 25 , <strong>in</strong> which Mexico had lost two fifths of<br />
its territory, botanical exploration cont<strong>in</strong>ued. In 1850<br />
the Royal Horticultural Society sent the Dalmatian<br />
Mateo Botteri (1808-1877) to collect <strong>in</strong> Mexico.<br />
After the f<strong>in</strong>ancial resources of the Society failed,<br />
Botteri stayed collect<strong>in</strong>g on his own <strong>and</strong> sell<strong>in</strong>g his<br />
specimens <strong>in</strong> London. “His collections of plants were<br />
very f<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> extensive, <strong>and</strong> there is a full set <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Kew Herbarium, chiefly from the neighborhood of<br />
Orizaba...” (Hemsley, 1887: 133). Botteri settled <strong>in</strong><br />
Mexico <strong>and</strong> died <strong>in</strong> the vic<strong>in</strong>ity of Veracruz. Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to Schlechter (1918: 323), there were many <strong>orchids</strong><br />
among his specimens, although most of them were<br />
described from collections by others.One of them was<br />
Cranichis cochleata, common <strong>in</strong> Veracruz, Chiapas<br />
<strong>and</strong> Guatemala, <strong>and</strong> described years later by Dressler<br />
as a new species from a collection by M.C. Carlson.<br />
Frederick Mueller ( - ca. 1855), a native of Alsace,<br />
came to Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1853, to collect for the firm of<br />
Schlumberger <strong>in</strong> Mulhouse. Hemsley mentions<br />
several collections by Mueller, all from the region<br />
of Veracruz, based on a complete set that is at Kew.<br />
Worthy to mention are Cattleya citr<strong>in</strong>a L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Müller<br />
s.n.), Hartwegia purpurea L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Müller 1414),<br />
Odontoglossum cordatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Müller 488),<br />
Spiranthes orchioides Hemsl. (Müller 810), Stanhopea<br />
bucephalus L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Müller 503) <strong>and</strong> Stanhopea tigr<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Batem. ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Müller 976), as well as the type of<br />
Lepanthes orizabensis R. E. Schult. & G. W. Dillon<br />
(Müller s.n., Orizaba, Veracruz). He died <strong>in</strong> strange<br />
circumstances. “It is supposed that he was murdered<br />
<strong>and</strong> concealed, as he disappeared <strong>and</strong> was never heard<br />
of afterwards” (Hemsley, 1887: 134).<br />
The German dentist Wilhelm Schaffner (1830-<br />
1882), whom we remember <strong>in</strong> Cranichis schaffneri<br />
Rchb. f., settled <strong>in</strong> Mexico around 1856. Although his<br />
collections are of great importance, they were made<br />
outside of the limits of<br />
Another German, Karl Theodor Mohr (1824-1901),<br />
better known for his Plant Life of Alabama (1901)<br />
emigrated from his native country to the United States<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1848 <strong>and</strong> traveled to Panama <strong>and</strong> Mexico (1857)<br />
before he established himself as a druggist <strong>in</strong> Mobile,<br />
Alabama, where he rema<strong>in</strong>ed for the rest of his life<br />
25 General Santa Ana, who had comm<strong>and</strong>ed the Mexican troops dur<strong>in</strong>g the war, had to go <strong>in</strong>to exile. He returned to power <strong>in</strong> 1853<br />
until <strong>in</strong> 1855 he was overthrown by Benito Juárez, who governed until 1872 <strong>and</strong> would have to face, dur<strong>in</strong>g his period, the French<br />
<strong>in</strong>vasion.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
Figure 34. A — Anders S<strong>and</strong>oe Oersted (1816-1872). Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny. B — Bulbophyllum oerstedii (A. Rich. )<br />
Griseb. Illustration by Pilar Casasa. C — Collectors <strong>in</strong> Panama 1700-1923, <strong>and</strong> their nationalities. In D’Arcy & Correa,<br />
1985: 180. D — Henry Shaw (1800-1889). Sketch <strong>in</strong> a postcard from MLB’s postcard series, courtesy of the Hunt Institute<br />
for Botanical Documentation.<br />
D<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
91
92<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 35. A — Oersted: altitude profile of the road to Sarapiquí. Plate 1, Oersted, 1863. B — Alligators <strong>in</strong> San Juan River. In<br />
Belt, 1874: 9.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
(Wunderl<strong>in</strong> et al., 2000: 64). Little is known of Mohr’s<br />
collections <strong>in</strong> Meso<strong>america</strong>, except for one specimen<br />
of Epidendrum prop<strong>in</strong>quum A. Rich. & Gal. (Mohr<br />
570, Veracruz).<br />
The California gold rush <strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>teroceanic canal<br />
“Boys, by God, I believe I have found a gold m<strong>in</strong>e!”<br />
James Wilson Marshall, January 12, 1848<br />
The discovery of gold <strong>in</strong> California was the spark<br />
that started the most massive human migration <strong>in</strong> the<br />
history of America. Over 90,000 persons traveled to<br />
California <strong>in</strong> the two years that followed Marshall’s<br />
discovery, <strong>and</strong> over 300,000 <strong>in</strong> 1854. The gold fever<br />
<strong>in</strong> California led to the exploration of shorter routes<br />
between both oceans. The San Juan River <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Isthmus of Panama became the passages for<br />
fast travel from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. One<br />
must consider that the journey by l<strong>and</strong> from the East<br />
Coast of the United States to California took five<br />
months: a truly pa<strong>in</strong>ful prowess (Guier, 1971: 82).<br />
Thous<strong>and</strong>s of adventurers (<strong>in</strong>itially North Americans<br />
<strong>and</strong> later from all over the world) came to Central<br />
America, a f<strong>org</strong>otten region that suddenly became one<br />
of the areas of greatest traffic <strong>in</strong> passengers <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the<br />
focus po<strong>in</strong>t of world attention.<br />
“We arrived <strong>in</strong> Panama on January 19, 1849, after<br />
an absence of almost n<strong>in</strong>e months. The stories of the<br />
recently discovered Californian m<strong>in</strong>es… brought such<br />
a number of adventurous emigrants that the usual<br />
facilities of food <strong>and</strong> lodg<strong>in</strong>g collapsed completely”<br />
(Berthold Seemann, cited <strong>in</strong> Heckadon-Moreno, 1998:<br />
27). The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, although<br />
permitt<strong>in</strong>g Engl<strong>and</strong> to reta<strong>in</strong> her positions <strong>in</strong> Belize,<br />
the Mosquito Coast <strong>and</strong> the Bay Isl<strong>and</strong>s, accepted for<br />
the first time the U. S. pretensions to control the future<br />
<strong>in</strong>teroceanic canal. “In this way Great Brita<strong>in</strong>, although<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g all her possessions <strong>in</strong> Central America <strong>and</strong><br />
still reta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g much power dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1850’s, began<br />
ced<strong>in</strong>g ground <strong>in</strong> favor of the United States” (Obregón-<br />
Quesada, 1993: 115). As the Nicaraguan historian<br />
José Dolores Gámez wrote <strong>in</strong>genuously several years<br />
later, “the American government, hav<strong>in</strong>g noticed the<br />
conduct of the British towards us, came generously to<br />
our help” (Gámez, 1888).<br />
Effective control of the area by the United States<br />
had begun <strong>in</strong> 1847, with the foundation of the ‘Panama<br />
Railroad Company’, with the purpose of build<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
railroad between Colón <strong>and</strong> Panama City. Two years<br />
later, <strong>in</strong> 1849, the North American tycoon Cornelius<br />
V<strong>and</strong>erbilt founded the ‘American Atlantic Pacific<br />
Ship Canal Company’, with the <strong>in</strong>tention of build<strong>in</strong>g<br />
an <strong>in</strong>teroceanic canal <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua. The San Juan<br />
River <strong>and</strong> the Lake of Nicaragua were <strong>in</strong>itially used<br />
for this passage. V<strong>and</strong>erbilt’s first steamers navigated<br />
the San Juan River <strong>in</strong> 1851, while the first tra<strong>in</strong><br />
crossed the isthmus of Panama on January 28, 1855.<br />
The competition between both routes was strong, but<br />
as soon as the railroad was built, Panama began to be<br />
preferred, be<strong>in</strong>g much more comfortable <strong>and</strong> secure<br />
than the tortuous passage of the San Juan River, full<br />
of obstacles <strong>and</strong> immersed, s<strong>in</strong>ce 1855, <strong>in</strong> the war<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st Walker (Fig. 35B). Wells (1854) mentions a<br />
third route, which consisted <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>teroceanic railroad<br />
<strong>in</strong> Honduras, from the Atlantic coast to the Gulf of<br />
Fonseca. However, this plan never became reality,<br />
due to geographic <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ancial difficulties (Wells,<br />
1982: 117). The Panama route decl<strong>in</strong>ed aga<strong>in</strong> after the<br />
completion of the construction of the railroad between<br />
San Francisco <strong>and</strong> the Eastern States <strong>in</strong> 1869 (Reclus,<br />
1881: 55-56).<br />
Among the foreign adventurers <strong>and</strong> the employees<br />
of the North American companies we f<strong>in</strong>d numerous<br />
names that are relevant to the history of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Central America. Botanical exploration of the region<br />
entered a new era, facilitated by improved routes<br />
of communication <strong>and</strong> by the grow<strong>in</strong>g commercial<br />
relations between the Central American republics,<br />
Europe <strong>and</strong> the United States. Referr<strong>in</strong>g to Costa Rica,<br />
Evans wrote: “Two events outside [of C. R.]… reversed<br />
the scientific community’s dis<strong>in</strong>terest… <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
dem<strong>and</strong> for coffee <strong>and</strong> speculation of a trans-isthmus<br />
canal <strong>in</strong> lower Central America” (Evans, 1999: 16).<br />
Hans Hermann Behr (1818-1904) (Fig. 36A),<br />
German botanist <strong>and</strong> entomologist, poet <strong>and</strong> novelist,<br />
was born at Colthen <strong>in</strong> East Germany. After graduat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> medic<strong>in</strong>e at Wurzburg, he was encouraged by<br />
his mentors, Karl Ritter <strong>and</strong> the famous German<br />
explorer, Alex<strong>and</strong>er von Humboldt, to visit Australia<br />
(Kraehenbuehl, 2002: 1). Behr visited Australia <strong>in</strong> 1844<br />
<strong>and</strong> settled <strong>in</strong> 1862 <strong>in</strong> California, where he was named<br />
curator of entomology of the California Academy of<br />
Science. He was responsible, through his contacts <strong>in</strong><br />
Australia, where he had worked with the prestigious<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
93
94<br />
botanist Baron von Mueller, for the <strong>in</strong>troduction<br />
of Eucalyptus <strong>in</strong>to California. From his Australian<br />
collections, Schlechtendahl (1847) described as new<br />
species of Orchidaceae Caladenia behrii y Diuris<br />
behrii. In 1888, Behr published his Flora of the Vic<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
of San Francisco. Behr had visited Central America<br />
around 1849 <strong>and</strong> collected several specimens of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> the region of Chagres, Panama, among them<br />
the type specimen of Scaphyglottis behrii Rchb. f. ex<br />
Hemsl. (Behr s.n., Chagres, Panama). “As a physician<br />
he was second to none <strong>in</strong> medical knowledge <strong>and</strong><br />
kept well posted on the progress <strong>in</strong> medical science.<br />
It cannot be said that he loved his profession. Still less<br />
did he underst<strong>and</strong> the art, so highly developed among<br />
modern physicians, of mak<strong>in</strong>g it pay” (Essig, 1965:<br />
555).<br />
The English sailor John Melmoth Dow (1827-1892)<br />
(Fig. 36B) was already <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> the previous<br />
chapter. Until 1850 he had transported passengers<br />
across the isthmus by the Nicaragua route. As capta<strong>in</strong> of<br />
the steamers Columbus <strong>and</strong> Golden Age, he <strong>in</strong>augurated<br />
the Central American service of the ‘Panama Railroad<br />
Company Steamship L<strong>in</strong>e’, travel<strong>in</strong>g from Panama<br />
to San Francisco, along the western coast of Central<br />
American. He developed a strong friendship with<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>and</strong> Salv<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> was responsible for the safe<br />
transportation of many live orchid plants from Central<br />
America to Engl<strong>and</strong>. Of him writes Bovallius: “... s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
long time known for his generosity <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>defatigable<br />
good will towards the researchers of the nature of<br />
these regions” (Bovallius, 1974: 99). Bateman honored<br />
Dow with the dedication of his Cattleya dowiana <strong>and</strong><br />
Endrés <strong>and</strong> Reichenbach did the same with Lycaste<br />
dowiana. Dow was also <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fauna<br />
<strong>and</strong> sent important collections to the Smithsonian<br />
Institution <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton. In his navigation diary, on<br />
October 16, 1854, he wrote: “The health of the Isthmus<br />
is good, <strong>and</strong> the railroad is progress<strong>in</strong>g with great<br />
rapidity...”. However, the health cannot been as good<br />
as Dow thought, if we believe a popular say<strong>in</strong>g cited<br />
by Bovallius <strong>in</strong> his book, <strong>in</strong> that “under each crosstie of<br />
the rails lies the body of a Ch<strong>in</strong>ese or a white man…”<br />
(Bovallius, 1974: 34).<br />
Edouard Placide Duchassa<strong>in</strong>g de Fontbress<strong>in</strong><br />
(1819-1873), a French citizen, was born <strong>in</strong> the isl<strong>and</strong><br />
of Guadeloupe <strong>and</strong> took a medical degree <strong>in</strong> Paris. He<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
26 The stems of Selenipedium chica reach often a height of 5 meters.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
returned to practice medic<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> that isl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> at St.<br />
Thomas, he made natural history collections from 1844<br />
to 1848. Because of the revolution <strong>in</strong> the latter year he<br />
moved to Panama, where he collected between 1849<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1851. “Dur<strong>in</strong>g these years he had a sanitarium at<br />
Panama, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> his leisure time collected plants <strong>in</strong> the<br />
neighborhood of the city <strong>and</strong> on Taboga Isl<strong>and</strong>” (St<strong>and</strong>ley,<br />
1928: 44-45). Although he did not collect many <strong>orchids</strong>,<br />
he is famous for hav<strong>in</strong>g discovered the largest terrestrial<br />
orchid <strong>in</strong> Central America: Selenipedium chica Rchb.<br />
f. (Duchassa<strong>in</strong>g s.n., Panama) 26 (Fig. 36C). The plants<br />
collected by Duchassa<strong>in</strong>g where twelve to fifteen feet<br />
high <strong>and</strong> had been bought by him from an Indian chief<br />
(Anonymous, 1923: 69). Duchassa<strong>in</strong>g reported that the<br />
fruits of S. chica produced a fragrant substance similar to<br />
that of vanilla. For this reason they were called <strong>in</strong> Panama<br />
‘va<strong>in</strong>illa de árbol’ (= ‘tree vanilla’). The specimens<br />
collected by Duchassa<strong>in</strong>g were sent to Walpers, from<br />
whom they were purchased by Grisebach. They were<br />
the base for Grisebach’s Novitiae flora panamensis<br />
(Bonpl<strong>and</strong>ia 6: 2-12, 1858), where some new species are<br />
described. Of great importance were also Duchassa<strong>in</strong>g’s<br />
contributions to the <strong>in</strong>vestigation of mar<strong>in</strong>e fauna, of<br />
which he made important collections <strong>in</strong> Panama.<br />
Moritz Wagner (1813-1887) (Fig. 36D) <strong>and</strong> Carl<br />
Ritter von Scherzer (1821-1903), the former German<br />
<strong>and</strong> the latter Austrian, traveled <strong>in</strong> 1852 through the<br />
United States, <strong>and</strong> embarked for Central America <strong>in</strong><br />
the first months of 1853 (Wolkenhauer, 188: 92).<br />
Wagner, the more important of the two for our story,<br />
was an experienced traveler, <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the ideas<br />
of Humboldt <strong>and</strong> Darw<strong>in</strong>. He received his education<br />
at the University of Augsburg, worked later as a clerk<br />
<strong>in</strong> a trad<strong>in</strong>g company <strong>in</strong> Marseille <strong>and</strong> went <strong>in</strong> 1834 to<br />
Paris, Erlangen <strong>and</strong> Munich to study natural sciences.<br />
He visited Algeria <strong>in</strong> 1836-38, studied geology <strong>in</strong><br />
Goett<strong>in</strong>gen from 1838 to 1842 <strong>and</strong> explored the<br />
Caucasus <strong>and</strong> Armenia <strong>in</strong> 1842-46. Italy followed <strong>in</strong><br />
1846-49 <strong>and</strong> Asia M<strong>in</strong>or, Persia <strong>and</strong> the Kurdistan <strong>in</strong><br />
1850-51. Wagner & Scherzer arrived at San Juan del<br />
Norte <strong>in</strong> April of that year <strong>and</strong> traveled to Costa Rica<br />
by way of the rivers San Juan <strong>and</strong> Sarapiquí.<br />
The first notice of this route dates back to 1620,<br />
when Diego de Mercado, at the request of the Spanish<br />
authorities, who were <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g a way<br />
between the Atlantic <strong>and</strong> the Pacific because of the
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
<strong>in</strong>salubrity of Panama, submitted a report to the<br />
government <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>in</strong> which he stated that he had<br />
found the desired communication along two different<br />
routes. “The first one navigat<strong>in</strong>g upstream along the<br />
‘Desaguadero’ [= the Dra<strong>in</strong>age = the San Juan River]<br />
to the mouth of the Sarapiquí, then upstream for more<br />
than twenty leagues <strong>and</strong> from that po<strong>in</strong>t to the Royal<br />
Embarkment (the mouth of the Tempisque River on the<br />
Gulf of Nicoya). The road was of ‘hard earth <strong>and</strong> not<br />
marshy’ <strong>and</strong> only 15 leagues long...”. The other route<br />
consisted <strong>in</strong> what was later known as the Nicaragua<br />
Canal, sail<strong>in</strong>g the San Juan River upstream to the Lake<br />
of Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g from there a canal to the<br />
Pacific Coast (Secretaría de Gobierno, 1924: 330-331).<br />
This road of Sarapiquí was the only communication<br />
between the <strong>central</strong> valley of Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Atlantic port of Greytown, <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, from where<br />
the ships sailed to the United States <strong>and</strong> Europe, <strong>and</strong><br />
was of great importance <strong>in</strong> the history of the botanical<br />
exploration of the country, until it was replaced by<br />
the route Puntarenas-Balboa-Colón, after the railroad<br />
across the isthmus of Panama was built (<strong>in</strong>augurated<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1855). Steamships sailed from Greytown to<br />
Southampton (Royal West Indian Mail Steamers) <strong>and</strong> to<br />
New York (Atlantic <strong>and</strong> Pacific Ship Canal Company)<br />
twice a month. The journey to New York took 7 days,<br />
to Southampton 32 days. (Mol<strong>in</strong>a, 1851: 41). The old<br />
road to Sarapiquí was replaced <strong>in</strong> 1880 by the ‘road<br />
of Carrillo’ 27 , which communicated San José with the<br />
Sucio River <strong>and</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>ed there the new railroad to Port<br />
Limón. . F<strong>in</strong>ally, the railroad between San José <strong>and</strong><br />
Port Limón was completed <strong>in</strong> 1890. From the builder<br />
of both routes, M<strong>in</strong>or C. Keith (1848-1922), who<br />
traveled frequently to the Costa Rican Atlantic region,<br />
we have this description of the tropical ra<strong>in</strong> forest:<br />
“Their trunks were covered by climb<strong>in</strong>g plants <strong>and</strong><br />
parasites of reddish colors <strong>and</strong> various shades of green,<br />
by lichens, fungi, bromeliads, <strong>and</strong> the most beautiful<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>” (Salazar Navarrete, 2004: 126).<br />
After be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, Wagner <strong>and</strong> Scherzer<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador <strong>and</strong><br />
Guatemala, “although very few species were described<br />
based on specimens collected by Wagner <strong>and</strong> Scherzer.<br />
The reason for this could be the loss of the botanical<br />
collections dur<strong>in</strong>g the earthquake of El Salvador <strong>in</strong> 1854,<br />
when Wagner almost lost his life” (León, 2002: 139).<br />
Wagner returned to Europe <strong>and</strong> shortly thereafter, <strong>in</strong> 1857,<br />
sponsored by K<strong>in</strong>g Maximilian II of Bavaria, returned<br />
to Panama <strong>and</strong> Ecuador. He dedicated considerable time<br />
to the study of the possibility of connect<strong>in</strong>g the two<br />
oceans, a subject on which he published several articles.<br />
Moritz Wagner <strong>and</strong> Carl Scherzer wrote <strong>in</strong> 1856 The<br />
Republic of Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> Central America, published<br />
<strong>in</strong> German. Their descriptions of the flora, fauna <strong>and</strong><br />
culture are still very <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g. “No other foreign<br />
author has described with more sympathy the t<strong>in</strong>y state<br />
called by them the most gentle <strong>and</strong> peaceful among the<br />
fraternity of the republics of Spanish America, a country<br />
blessed by Heaven, where nature displays <strong>in</strong> the slopes<br />
of the mounta<strong>in</strong>s the most wonderful variety of climates<br />
<strong>and</strong> products” (Pittier, 1908: 19).<br />
Descriptions of <strong>orchids</strong> are frequently found <strong>in</strong> the<br />
pages of this book: “Parasitic plants […] climbers,<br />
v<strong>in</strong>es, pendent vegetables <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchids</strong>, which group<br />
themselves often <strong>in</strong> the branches <strong>in</strong> the forms of<br />
c<strong>and</strong>elabrums, of bouquets or also of stars…” “Higher<br />
up [on the trunks] beg<strong>in</strong> the till<strong>and</strong>sias, ipomeas,<br />
loranthaceae, agaves, cacti, dendrobiums [sic] […]”<br />
“The begonias <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> on the trees […] were here<br />
of a particular magnificence”. “[…] The ostentatious<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>, which -for their rare forms- resemble butterflies<br />
or humm<strong>in</strong>g-birds with extended w<strong>in</strong>gs, grow on many<br />
live or dead trunks” (Wagner & Scherzer, 1856: 122,<br />
136, 137, 168). Wagner discovered the type of Triphora<br />
wagneri Schltr. (M. Wagner 1778, Panama) <strong>and</strong> several<br />
species were dedicated to him, such as Bulbophyllum<br />
wagneri Schltr. <strong>and</strong> Stelis wagneri (Schltr.) Pridgeon &<br />
M. W. Chase.<br />
Scherzer would write later his Travels <strong>in</strong> the free<br />
states of Central America: Nicaragua, Honduras <strong>and</strong><br />
San Salvador <strong>and</strong> ga<strong>in</strong>ed worldwide fame through his<br />
discovery <strong>in</strong> 1854 <strong>in</strong> Guatemala of the manuscript of<br />
the Popol Vuh by Friar Francisco Ximénez, which he<br />
published for the first time <strong>in</strong> Vienna, <strong>in</strong> 1861 28 . In 1863<br />
Wagner wrote The prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Chiriquí <strong>in</strong> Central<br />
America. No orchid collections by Scherzer are known,<br />
27 So named <strong>in</strong> remembrance of Braulio Carrillo (1800-1845), President of Costa Rica between 1835 <strong>and</strong> 1837 <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> between<br />
1838 <strong>and</strong> 1842, who first thought of a road to the Atlantic along this route.<br />
28 Although Scherzer’s publication came first, it was Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg who gave the manuscript the name of<br />
Popol Vuh, Le Livre Sacré et les mythes de l’antiquité américa<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>and</strong> who made it known worldwide.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
95
96<br />
but his discovery of Anthurium scherzerianum Schott<br />
(Scherzer s.n., Guatemala) was of high importance for<br />
European horticulture, of great value as breed<strong>in</strong>g stock<br />
for numerous ornamental hybrids (León, 2002: 139).<br />
If you travel to the Mexican village of Santecomapán<br />
(Veracruz), you will f<strong>in</strong>d a street called ‘Calle Don<br />
Benito’ (=‘Street of Mr. Benito’). Beh<strong>in</strong>d this name we<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d one of the less scrupulous orchid hunters <strong>in</strong> history,<br />
who dur<strong>in</strong>g 20 years ransacked the forests of Mexico,<br />
Central <strong>and</strong> South America with a passionate mixture<br />
of ambition <strong>and</strong> madness: Benedict Roezl (1824-1885)<br />
(Fig. 37A). Born <strong>in</strong> Horomerice (Bohemia), he worked<br />
as a gardener <strong>in</strong> various European countries. He came<br />
to Belgium <strong>and</strong> became head gardener for the Belgian<br />
Government’s School of Agriculture, after work<strong>in</strong>g<br />
for five years for Louis van Houtte, proprietor of the<br />
Royal Nurseries <strong>in</strong> Ghent, where he was <strong>in</strong> charge of<br />
the orchid section Yearsley, 1996: 357). “[...] Roezl’s<br />
first attempt <strong>in</strong> the horticultural bus<strong>in</strong>ess had failed.<br />
He then turned his h<strong>and</strong> to the dem<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g task of<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g, work<strong>in</strong>g for himself <strong>and</strong> for the Londonbased<br />
S<strong>and</strong>er” (Ceulemans et al., 2006: 149). He<br />
emigrated to Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1854, found<strong>in</strong>g a garden<strong>in</strong>g<br />
establishment <strong>in</strong> the capital of the country, associated<br />
with the German Besserer (Regel, 1885: 330). In 1861<br />
he established a nursery with European fruit trees <strong>in</strong><br />
Santecomapán, with a French partner, a Monsieur<br />
Chabé (Block, 1985: 1204). “Nature has emptied here<br />
its Cornucopia; all illusions of those Europeans who<br />
come to tropical countries, often destroyed by reality -<br />
here they become true” (Otto, 1862: 59).<br />
“When fight<strong>in</strong>g sharpened between the Mexicans<br />
headed by President Benito Juarez <strong>and</strong> the forces of<br />
Emperor Maximilian of Hapsburg, Roezl jo<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />
ranks of Juarez <strong>and</strong> <strong>org</strong>anized the defense of the city<br />
<strong>and</strong> port [of Santecomapán]. Because it was anticipated<br />
that the French allies of Maximilian would l<strong>and</strong> their<br />
soldiers on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico… Juarez<br />
sent 200 men from his army to help Roezl. He proved<br />
to be a good comm<strong>and</strong>er. To frighten the superior<br />
forces of the French <strong>and</strong> deter them from l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g, he<br />
constructed along the mall an odd defense. On carriage<br />
wheels he mounted long poles. From a distance, they<br />
looked like huge cannons. The ruse worked. The<br />
French … observed this ‘heavily armed’ port <strong>and</strong> gave<br />
up the idea of l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g there” (Block, 1985: 1205).<br />
An untir<strong>in</strong>g traveler, Roezl went from Mexico to<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Cuba <strong>and</strong> then to California. In 1868 <strong>in</strong> Cuba, dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the demonstration of an agricultural mach<strong>in</strong>e that<br />
he had <strong>in</strong>vented for the production of ramie threads,<br />
he had lost his left h<strong>and</strong> that was replaced by an iron<br />
hook. This gave him great notoriety for the rest of his<br />
life. The Cubans gave him afterwards the nickname<br />
‘El Moche’ (= ‘the cripple’). “He established ramie<br />
plantations <strong>in</strong> Cuba <strong>and</strong> built factories for the production<br />
of threads <strong>and</strong> fabric from the fibre [...] Roezl was<br />
named an honorary member of the Havana Academy of<br />
Science. His portrait was hung <strong>in</strong> the auditorium of the<br />
academy, <strong>and</strong> his orig<strong>in</strong>al ramie process<strong>in</strong>g mach<strong>in</strong>ery<br />
was exhibited at the Havana Museum” (Block, 1985:<br />
1206). Boyle amuses us with the story of the collection<br />
by Roezl of Cattleya sk<strong>in</strong>neri alba. In 1870, Roezl was<br />
<strong>in</strong> the neighborhood of Tetonicapan, Guatemala, <strong>and</strong><br />
was ambushed by b<strong>and</strong>its who held him for ransom <strong>in</strong><br />
a small village. F<strong>in</strong>ally he was set free, <strong>and</strong> the priest<br />
of the village <strong>in</strong>vited him to his house. “It stood beside<br />
the church, hardly less primitive. Roezl glanced at the<br />
roof of this structure <strong>in</strong> pass<strong>in</strong>g. It has been mentioned<br />
that the Indians have a pleasant custom of remov<strong>in</strong>g<br />
any orchid they f<strong>in</strong>d, notable for size <strong>and</strong> beauty, to<br />
set on the church roof or on trees around it. [...] It was<br />
with curiosity rather than hope, therefore, that Roezl<br />
scrut<strong>in</strong>ised the airy garden. [...] In one big clump he saw<br />
someth<strong>in</strong>g white — looked more closely — paused.<br />
The plant was Cattleya sk<strong>in</strong>neri certa<strong>in</strong>ly. How should<br />
a white flower be there? All other collectors, perhaps,<br />
at that time, would have passed on, tak<strong>in</strong>g it for granted<br />
that some weed had rooted amid the clump. But for<br />
many years Roezl had been preach<strong>in</strong>g that all Cattleyas<br />
of red or violent t<strong>in</strong>t, so to class them roughly, must<br />
make alb<strong>in</strong>o ‘sports’. [...] A wondrous <strong>in</strong>st<strong>in</strong>ct guided<br />
him. [...] The end is foreseen. Roezl carried on his White<br />
Cattleya <strong>and</strong> sold it to Mr. Ge<strong>org</strong>e Hardy of Manchester<br />
for 280 gu<strong>in</strong>eas” (Boyle, 1901: 59-66).<br />
Roezl did not return to Santecomapán <strong>and</strong> donated<br />
his gardens there to his nephews Frank <strong>and</strong> Eduard<br />
Klaboch. He went afterwards to Panama, Colombia<br />
<strong>and</strong> Venezuela. From Boyle (1983: 139) we have the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g anecdote: “The railway fare [from Panama]<br />
to Colón was sixty dollars at that time, <strong>and</strong> [Roezl]<br />
grudged the money. Sett<strong>in</strong>g his wits to work, Roezl<br />
discovered that the company issued tickets from station<br />
to station at a very low price for the convenience of<br />
its employees. Tak<strong>in</strong>g advantage of that system, he
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
crossed the isthmus for five dollars...!”. He passed<br />
aga<strong>in</strong> through Panama <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> went on<br />
San Francisco. After be<strong>in</strong>g once more <strong>in</strong> Colombia he<br />
returned to Europe. In 1872 he came back to America.<br />
He arrived <strong>in</strong> Colorado <strong>and</strong> traveled aga<strong>in</strong> to Mexico.<br />
He cont<strong>in</strong>ued to Panama <strong>and</strong> Venezuela. From there<br />
to Cuba <strong>and</strong> once aga<strong>in</strong> to Veracruz. Aga<strong>in</strong> to Panama<br />
<strong>and</strong> on to Lima, Bolivia <strong>and</strong> Ecuador. One last time to<br />
Colombia, where he collected dur<strong>in</strong>g six months for<br />
the L<strong>in</strong>den nurseries <strong>in</strong> Gant <strong>and</strong> Brussels, <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
back to Europe. His return was however delayed<br />
by eight months at the request of the new Mexican<br />
president, Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada. “The president<br />
wanted to create <strong>in</strong> Mexico City the most beautiful<br />
capital <strong>in</strong> the world. Tejada envisioned parks, wide<br />
avenues bordered by Eucalyptus trees, <strong>and</strong> broad<br />
plazas with impressive greenery. ‘Don Benito’ Roezl<br />
was appo<strong>in</strong>ted as architect for the project, <strong>and</strong> his<br />
success was overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g” (Block, 1985: 1208).<br />
He was possibly one of the collectors who caused<br />
more destruction, who plundered large regions <strong>and</strong><br />
sent to Europe tons of <strong>orchids</strong>. It is believed that Roezl<br />
sent approximately one million plants to Europe,<br />
about two thirds of them <strong>orchids</strong>. As Roezl himself<br />
later admitted, he collected 3,<strong>500</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Sierra<br />
Madre, 8 tons <strong>in</strong> Panama <strong>and</strong> Venezuela, <strong>and</strong> 27,000<br />
plants <strong>in</strong> Colombia. On February 10, 1873, Roezl<br />
wrote from Caracas: “... the first th<strong>in</strong>g I did was to<br />
ask for the ‘Flor de Mayo’ (= ‘flower of May’)..., as<br />
they call here Cattleya mossiae... The answers were<br />
negative. I was told that it was ext<strong>in</strong>guished <strong>in</strong> the<br />
neighborhood of La Guaira, as a result of the massive<br />
exports to Europe...” (Regel, 1874: 73-74). In 1884<br />
he visited as an expert the International Garden<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Exhibition <strong>in</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t Petersburg <strong>and</strong> was awarded the<br />
Imperial Russian Order of Stanislaus, for his lifelong<br />
achievements. F<strong>in</strong>ally, he returned to Smichow,<br />
near Prague, where he died <strong>in</strong> 1885 <strong>and</strong> was buried<br />
<strong>in</strong> Prague. Many important people attended his<br />
funeral <strong>and</strong> even the Kaiser was there. The pr<strong>in</strong>cipal<br />
horticultural periodicals of Europe applauded the idea<br />
of an <strong>in</strong>ternational committee to erect a monument to<br />
this <strong>in</strong>defatigable explorer. The monument erected <strong>in</strong><br />
Prague was constructed by Professor Myslbak, a wellknown<br />
sculptor <strong>in</strong> that city (Fig. 37B). Among those<br />
who contributed to the monument were the largest<br />
European orchid nurseries of that time: Veitch, S<strong>and</strong>ers<br />
<strong>and</strong> L<strong>in</strong>den, who had benefited mostly from his<br />
collections (Anonymous, 1890; 3). Strangely enough,<br />
although Roezl had lost his left h<strong>and</strong>, the statue shows<br />
him with both h<strong>and</strong>s!<br />
Numerous species were described based on his<br />
collections, most of them by Reichenbach who<br />
published <strong>in</strong> 1877 his Orchideae Roezlianae nova seu<br />
criticae. Among the species that he discovered <strong>and</strong><br />
those dedicated to him, we f<strong>in</strong>d: Bletia roezlii Rchb.f.<br />
, Cattleya roezlii Rchb.f., Dracula benedictii (Rchb.f.)<br />
Luer, Dracula roezlii (Rchb.f.) Luer, Lepanthes<br />
roezliana Luer & R. Escobar, Masdevallia benedictii<br />
Rchb.f., Maxillaria roezlii Rchb. f. ex L<strong>in</strong>den,<br />
Miltoniopsis roezlii (Rchb.f.) God. Leb. (Fig. 37C),<br />
Paphiopedilum roezlii (Rchb.f.) Pfitzer, Pescatoria<br />
roezlii Rchb.f., Phragmipedium roezlii (Rchb.f.) L.A.<br />
Garay, Pleurothallis roezlii Rchb.f.., Sobralia roezlii<br />
Rchb.f., Telipogon benedictii Rchb.f., Telipogon roezlii<br />
Rchb.f., <strong>and</strong> Zygopetalum roezlii Rchb.f.<br />
If anybody wanted to blame <strong>orchidology</strong> for be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
one of the causes of the destruction of nature, he<br />
would have <strong>in</strong> collectors like Roezl his best argument.<br />
We must however take <strong>in</strong>to account that what today<br />
is considered a crime, was seen as a prowess dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the XIX century. Boyle gives a terrify<strong>in</strong>g account of<br />
the methods by which <strong>orchids</strong> were collected dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
those years: “[The collector] hires natives, twenty or<br />
fifty or a hundred, as circumstances advise, <strong>and</strong> sends<br />
them out to cut down trees, build<strong>in</strong>g meantime a<br />
wooden stage of sufficient length to bear the plunder<br />
expected. This is used for clean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> dry<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
plants brought <strong>in</strong>. Afterwards, if he be prudent, he<br />
follows his lumbermen, to see that their <strong>in</strong>dolence<br />
does not shirk the big trunks – which give extra trouble<br />
naturally, though they yield the best <strong>and</strong> largest return.<br />
It is a terribly wasteful process. If we estimate that<br />
a good tree has been felled for every three scraps of<br />
Odontoglossum which are now established <strong>in</strong> Europe<br />
that will be no exaggeration. And for many years past<br />
they have been arriv<strong>in</strong>g by the hundreds or thous<strong>and</strong>s<br />
annually! But there is no alternative. An European<br />
cannot explore the green wilderness overhead; if<br />
he could, his accumulations would be so slow <strong>and</strong><br />
costly as to raise the proceeds to an impossible figure.<br />
The natives will not climb, <strong>and</strong> they would tear the<br />
plants to bits. Timber has not value <strong>in</strong> those parts as<br />
yet, but the day approaches when Government must<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
97
98<br />
<strong>in</strong>terfere” (Boyle, 1983: 71-72). And similar words<br />
from Williams: “...the plants are heedlessly torn from<br />
their natural habitats, which are sometimes ruthlessly<br />
cleared of the beautiful flowers that cannot be replaced<br />
<strong>in</strong> the locality. We are sorry to hear of some of our<br />
collectors hav<strong>in</strong>g so little respect for these treasures<br />
of nature’s production that they gather all they can,<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g no regard for the future, <strong>and</strong> not even leav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a few plants <strong>in</strong> the locality to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>and</strong> multiply<br />
by shedd<strong>in</strong>g their seed to germ<strong>in</strong>ate naturally over<br />
the mounta<strong>in</strong>s, rocks, <strong>and</strong> trees” (Williams, 1885:<br />
13). “[...] Very few of our present day collectors<br />
have reta<strong>in</strong>ed that enthusiasm which allowed their<br />
predecessors to bear all hardships with joy, all their<br />
disappo<strong>in</strong>tments with serenity. Roezl was one of the<br />
last representatives of those glorious few who, <strong>in</strong> all<br />
respects, were characteristic of his time” (Anonymous,<br />
1885: 222).<br />
In 1853, one year before Roezl traveled the first<br />
time to America, James Veitch acquired the Chelsea<br />
nurseries from Messrs. Knight <strong>and</strong> Perry. Veitch’s<br />
second son, Harry James Veitch (1840-1924) made<br />
an apprenticeship at the famous French nursery firm,<br />
Vilmor<strong>in</strong>-Andrieux & Co., <strong>in</strong> Paris, <strong>and</strong> returned <strong>in</strong><br />
1858 to help his father. “His <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>and</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
sense rapidly became apparent, <strong>and</strong> the firm of Messrs.<br />
James Veitch & Sons soon enjoyed the reputation<br />
of be<strong>in</strong>g the foremost nursery bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> the world.<br />
Harry’s <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> the bus<strong>in</strong>ess extended over almost<br />
the whole of his long <strong>and</strong> useful life. “The Veitches<br />
sent numerous plant collectors to the various parts of<br />
the world <strong>and</strong> rendered a great service to botany <strong>and</strong><br />
horticulture by their <strong>in</strong>troduction of new species <strong>and</strong><br />
hybrids” (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 247). Among the Veitch’s<br />
collectors who visited our region we f<strong>in</strong>d Gustav<br />
Wallis, A. R. Endrés, Gottlieb Zahn, Ge<strong>org</strong>e Downton,<br />
Carl Kramer <strong>and</strong> Richard Pearce. A detailed account<br />
of Veitch’s most important publication, the Hortus<br />
Veitchii, published <strong>in</strong> London <strong>in</strong> 1906, is given <strong>in</strong> the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g chapter.<br />
John Dom<strong>in</strong>y (1816-1892), the nurseries’ chief<br />
hybridizer, is credited with rais<strong>in</strong>g (1854) <strong>and</strong> flower<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(1856) the world’s first orchid hybrid (Calanthe ×<br />
Dom<strong>in</strong>ii), which lead to the breed<strong>in</strong>g of hundreds<br />
of new <strong>orchids</strong> as well as the establishment of a new<br />
branch of horticulture. This was a highly controversial<br />
achievement <strong>in</strong> Victorian Brita<strong>in</strong> as it was regarded as<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
tamper<strong>in</strong>g with nature. “Sir Harry Veitch retired from<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> 1914. With his brothers John <strong>and</strong> Arthur<br />
both deceased, there was no successor <strong>in</strong> the family,<br />
<strong>and</strong> rather than los<strong>in</strong>g the recognized reputation which<br />
the firm had acquired, he disposed of the nursery <strong>and</strong><br />
sold the l<strong>and</strong> for redevelopment” (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 249).<br />
Many new orchid species <strong>and</strong> hybrids were dedicated<br />
to the Veitches, among them: Cypripedium veitchianum<br />
C. Lem., Dendrobium veitchianum L<strong>in</strong>dl., Macodes<br />
veitchii Boxall, Masdevallia veitchiana Rchb.f., <strong>and</strong><br />
Phalaenopsis veitchiana Rchb.f.<br />
A word must be said at this po<strong>in</strong>t about Karl<br />
Eduard Ortgies (1829-1916). He was born <strong>in</strong> Bremen,<br />
Germany, <strong>and</strong> chose the career of a gardener. For<br />
many years, he worked <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the gardens<br />
of Chatsworth, Syonhouse <strong>and</strong> Regents Park, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> Belgium, at the Van Houtte establishment. In the<br />
summer of 1855 he was called to become Chief<br />
Gardener at the Botanic Garden <strong>in</strong> Zurich, a call he<br />
obeyed, although he hated to leave the Establissement<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Van Houtte family that had become dear to<br />
him. The Zurich Botanic Garden, weakly donated,<br />
was supposed to raise the necessary funds by sell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
plants <strong>and</strong> seed, without neglect<strong>in</strong>g its scientific duties,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce it had to provide the University of the canton<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Zurich Polytechnikum (only recently founded<br />
at that time) with the necessary plants for lectures.<br />
Ortgies was not only able to achieve the necessary<br />
funds by trade, he also made remarkable profits<br />
that he was able to use for the renovation of the old<br />
conservatories, the build<strong>in</strong>g of new conservatories,<br />
water supply, a rock garden for Alp<strong>in</strong>es, <strong>and</strong> so on.<br />
Consider<strong>in</strong>g his efforts, he received from the High<br />
Government on his 20 year jubilee the title of an<br />
Inspector <strong>and</strong> a considerable raise of his salary. He<br />
was especially <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g new or rare<br />
plants, <strong>and</strong> knew to use his contacts to overseas<br />
countries. All the many deliveries by Roezl arrived<br />
at the market by <strong>in</strong>tercession of Ortgies. From Zurich<br />
he ran a huge import nursery, held many auctions <strong>in</strong><br />
London <strong>and</strong> had bus<strong>in</strong>ess contacts with the lead<strong>in</strong>g<br />
market gardens of Engl<strong>and</strong>, Belgium <strong>and</strong> Germany.<br />
If Roezl was able to f<strong>in</strong>ish his life as a f<strong>in</strong>ancially<br />
comfortable owner of a house <strong>in</strong> tranquility - a fate<br />
that unfortunately only very few plant hunters have -<br />
he owes it all to his diligent <strong>and</strong> true friend Ortgies.<br />
After Roezl, the deserv<strong>in</strong>g traveler Wallis applied for
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
the help of the proven agent Ortgies. Unfortunately<br />
Ortgies was able to help him for just a few years,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce Wallis soon became ill <strong>and</strong> was ail<strong>in</strong>g slowly<br />
until he closed his tired eyes forever at the hospital <strong>in</strong><br />
Cuenca, Ecuador. After Wallis, there were Lehmann<br />
<strong>in</strong> Colombia <strong>and</strong> Pfau <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica; both sent their<br />
most valuable f<strong>in</strong>ds to the Zurich Botanic Garden. In<br />
between there were Fuchs <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, Garnier <strong>in</strong><br />
Cuba, Gaibrois <strong>and</strong> Bruchmüller <strong>in</strong> Colombia, <strong>and</strong><br />
Besserer <strong>in</strong> Mexico who also used the agency of<br />
Ortgies. Several new orchid species were named <strong>in</strong><br />
his honor, among them: Aerides ortgiesiana Rchb.f.,<br />
Anoectochilus ortgiesii Van Geert, Broughtonia<br />
<strong>org</strong>iesiana (Rchb.f.) Dressler, Encyclia ortgiesii<br />
(Regel) Schltr., Masdevallia ortgiesiana Rolfe ex<br />
Rolfe, <strong>and</strong> Microchilus ortgiesii (Rchb. f.) Ormerod.<br />
The Germans Carl Hoffmann (1833-1859) (Fig.<br />
37D) <strong>and</strong> Alex<strong>and</strong>er von Frantzius (1821-1877)<br />
came to Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1853, bear<strong>in</strong>g letters of<br />
recommendation from Nees von Esenbeck, President<br />
of the German Academy <strong>and</strong> from Alex<strong>and</strong>er v.<br />
Humboldt for President Juan Rafael Mora. They<br />
arrived at Greytown (San Juan del Norte) as<br />
passengers of the brig Anto<strong>in</strong>ette, together with<br />
a group of German immigrants, <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ued to<br />
Costa Rica along the road of Sarapiquí (Hilje Quirós,<br />
2007: 71). Frantzius was a reputed professor at the<br />
Physiological Institute <strong>in</strong> Breslau <strong>and</strong> Hoffmann<br />
was well-known for his practical <strong>and</strong> literary works<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the cholera epidemics <strong>in</strong> Berl<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
years of 1848 <strong>and</strong> 1849 (Anonymous, 18153: 233).<br />
Soon they began to explore the country with the<br />
purpose of collect<strong>in</strong>g specimens, ma<strong>in</strong>ly botanical.<br />
Hoffmann was later a physician <strong>in</strong> the Costa Rican<br />
army dur<strong>in</strong>g the war aga<strong>in</strong>st the troops of pro-slavery<br />
activist W. Walker, while Frantzius soon became a<br />
successful bus<strong>in</strong>essman <strong>and</strong> owner of a pharmacy.<br />
“Hoffmann <strong>and</strong> Frantzius spent their leisure times,<br />
the first dedicated to the collection of plants <strong>and</strong><br />
the study of their natural distribution, the second to<br />
similar studies <strong>in</strong> mammals <strong>and</strong> birds” (León, 2002:<br />
139-140).<br />
Hoffmann climbed two of Costa Rica’s most<br />
important volcanoes: on May 5, 1855 the Irazú<br />
volcano near the city of Cartago, from where<br />
he described “a magnificent orchid of the genus<br />
‘epidendron’ with fire-red flowers that did not grow<br />
as a parasite on the trees but between the rocks on<br />
the hill…” (Hoffmann, 1856), <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> August of<br />
the same year the Barva volcano, <strong>in</strong> the prov<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
of Heredia, where it caused him “extraord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
pleasure an extraord<strong>in</strong>arily rare orchid with its lip<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ted upward <strong>in</strong> form of a helmet…” (Hoffmann,<br />
1858). In his narrative about the excursion to the<br />
Barva, Hoffmann counts the number of <strong>orchids</strong> that<br />
he found: “Of <strong>orchids</strong>, on the Barva 8 <strong>and</strong> of those<br />
4 terrestrials <strong>and</strong> 4 parasites, <strong>and</strong> on the Irazú only<br />
two parasites” (Hoffmann, 1858).<br />
The collections of Hoffmann, who sent them to the<br />
herbarium <strong>in</strong> Berl<strong>in</strong>, to the renowned botanist Johann<br />
F. Klotzsch, were described <strong>in</strong> 1866 by Reichenbach<br />
as orChiDeae hoFFMannianae (Reichenbach, 1866:<br />
102). One can f<strong>in</strong>d among them the types for three new<br />
species: Pelexia hoffmannii Rchb. f. (C. Hoffmann<br />
s.n., Barba <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, 1855), Epidendrum<br />
(=Prosthechea) ionophlebium Rchb. f. (C. Hoffmann<br />
s.n., Costa Rica: Curidabad, 1857) <strong>and</strong> Ponera albida<br />
Rchb. f. (C. Hoffmann s.n., Llanos del Carmen, 1857).<br />
Among other activities, Hoffmann also published<br />
a bil<strong>in</strong>gual newspaper, called Costa Rica Deutsche<br />
Zeitung (=Costa Rican German Newspaper). He<br />
published the paper, which circulated on each Sunday<br />
morn<strong>in</strong>g, together with two other Germans by the<br />
names of Kurtze <strong>and</strong> Streber (Hilje Quirós, 2007:<br />
81). He dreamed of writ<strong>in</strong>g a book with the title Flora<br />
<strong>and</strong> Fauna of Costa Rica, but he had to abort this<br />
idea because of the war <strong>and</strong> his illness. After the war<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st Walker, he retired to Puntarenas, where he died<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1859. His mortal rema<strong>in</strong>s were brought to San José<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1929, where they were buried with military honors<br />
(Alfaro, 1963: 51).<br />
Von Frantzius returned to Germany <strong>in</strong> 1865, but<br />
he left a profound impression <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica. His<br />
establishment, managed afterwards by José Cástulo<br />
Zeledón, became the favorite center of reunion for<br />
foreign <strong>and</strong> national naturalists. Some of them formed<br />
a group nicknamed “the drugstore gang” (L.D. Gómez,<br />
pers. comm.), which had extraord<strong>in</strong>ary importance <strong>in</strong><br />
the development of natural sciences <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the last years of the XIX <strong>and</strong> the first decades of<br />
the XX century.<br />
Together with Hoffmann <strong>and</strong> von Frantzius arrived<br />
the gardener Julian Carmiol (1807-1885), <strong>in</strong> the<br />
company of his brothers Franksius y Robert. He<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
99
100<br />
would stay <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica for the rest of his life. His<br />
real name was Julian Carnigohl, a widower whose<br />
wife had died <strong>in</strong> Germany a few months earlier. He<br />
came to Costa Rica with four children, Ana, Berta,<br />
Franz, <strong>and</strong> Julio Carnigohl. When they arrived <strong>in</strong><br />
Costa Rica they changed the name to Carmiol. “A<br />
naturalist by profession, he felt especially attracted<br />
to horticulture <strong>and</strong> ornamental plants, as well as<br />
to wildlife <strong>and</strong> ornithology...” (Carmiol Calvo,<br />
1973: 4). He travelled to the Smithsonian Institute<br />
<strong>and</strong> to Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1867, <strong>and</strong> seems to have had an<br />
arrangement with Osbert Salv<strong>in</strong> (one of the editors of<br />
the Biologia Centrali-Americana), to collect birds <strong>and</strong><br />
butterflies <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica (Letter from Salv<strong>in</strong> to Dow,<br />
November 1, 1867). In a letter to Professor Spencer<br />
F. Baird of the Smithsonian Institute (April 29, 1862)<br />
Capta<strong>in</strong> John M. Dow refers to a collection of birds<br />
from Costa Rica: “The person I bought them from is<br />
a German gardener liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the outskirts of the city”.<br />
“Many of the Costa Rican plants that were adopted by<br />
European floriculturists owe their <strong>in</strong>troduction to this<br />
humble German gardener” (Pitier, 1908: 21). Carmiol<br />
also collected herbarium material <strong>and</strong> birds, which<br />
he sent to American <strong>and</strong> European <strong>in</strong>stitutions. We<br />
know, from letters by Baird <strong>and</strong> Salv<strong>in</strong>, that <strong>in</strong> 1867<br />
he formed a large collection of objects of natural<br />
history which he personally took to Wash<strong>in</strong>gton <strong>and</strong><br />
London. Bovallius tells us about Carmiol <strong>in</strong> his old<br />
years, dur<strong>in</strong>g the Swedish biologist’s visit to Costa<br />
Rica <strong>in</strong> 1882: “I paid several visits to an old German<br />
collector <strong>and</strong> merchant, Carmiol, <strong>and</strong> I never tired to<br />
admire his beautiful orchard, where he had collected<br />
a large amount of rare plants from all regions of Costa<br />
Rica…. For those who study this […] flora <strong>in</strong> the<br />
museums of Berl<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> London, the name of Carmiol<br />
is well known, because many <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g species have<br />
been sent by him to their collections” (Bovallius,<br />
1974: 120).<br />
Among his collections of <strong>orchids</strong> we f<strong>in</strong>d Lycaste<br />
xytriophora L<strong>in</strong>den & Rchb.f. <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum<br />
campylostalix Rchb.f. Helmuth Polakowsky wrote<br />
about another orchid, Vanilla sp., <strong>in</strong> 1876: “I have<br />
never found vanilla <strong>in</strong> the market <strong>and</strong> only <strong>in</strong> the<br />
house of a German gardener [J. Carmiol] did I see<br />
by chance fresh pods, which his people had brought<br />
him from the forests beh<strong>in</strong>d Angostura” (Polakowski,<br />
1940). As Frantzius wrote: “Nobody has exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
so thoroughly the slopes of the Central American<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s” (González, 1921: 87). We remember<br />
Carmiol <strong>in</strong> Phaedranassa carmioli Baker, of the<br />
Amaryllidaceae <strong>and</strong> Crotalaria carmioli Polakows. of<br />
the Legum<strong>in</strong>osae. Besides be<strong>in</strong>g a gardener, Carmiol<br />
owned a restaurant <strong>in</strong> San José.<br />
The Moravian Evangelical Church of Herrenhut <strong>in</strong><br />
Saxony, Germany (known as the “Bruedergeme<strong>in</strong>de”,<br />
or “Community of the Brothers”) began to send<br />
missionaries to the Caribbean <strong>in</strong> the early years of the<br />
XVIII century, found<strong>in</strong>g an establishment <strong>in</strong> Sur<strong>in</strong>ame<br />
(Dutch Guyana) <strong>in</strong> 1735. These missionaries traveled<br />
along the Antilles <strong>and</strong> the Central American coast<br />
<strong>and</strong> much later founded a mission <strong>in</strong> the Mosquito<br />
Coast. “[The missionaries] waged war aga<strong>in</strong>st the<br />
native shamans, or sookia (sukia), [...] <strong>and</strong> today the<br />
rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sukia must practice under considerable<br />
stigma. [...] After liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> local communities for<br />
many years, the missionaries produced the first<br />
grammars <strong>and</strong> dictionaries of the Miskito language<br />
<strong>and</strong> successfully translated the Bible” (Bell, 1989:<br />
vii-viii).<br />
He<strong>in</strong>rich Rudolf Wullschlaegel (1805-1864) came<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1849 to the mission of the “Bruedergeme<strong>in</strong>de”<br />
<strong>in</strong> Sur<strong>in</strong>ame. To communicate with the natives, the<br />
missionaries had to learn their language, a mixture<br />
of English, Dutch, Portuguese <strong>and</strong> African elements,<br />
known today as Sranan. Wullschlaegel created a<br />
“Negro English Grammar” <strong>and</strong> a “German-Negro<br />
English Dictionary” which were published <strong>in</strong> 1856 <strong>and</strong><br />
1865 <strong>in</strong> Germany. Wullschlaegel traveled to Brazil, the<br />
Antilles <strong>and</strong> the Mosquito coast. An amateur botanist,<br />
he made some <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g collections. In Jamaica he<br />
discovered the type of Lepanthes wullschlaegelii<br />
Fawc. & Rendle (Wullschlaegel, s.n.) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Sur<strong>in</strong>ame<br />
Macrocl<strong>in</strong>ium wullschlaegelianum (Focke) Dodson<br />
(Wullschlaegel s.n.). In the Mosquito Coast he<br />
collected four species of <strong>orchids</strong> (all on the same day,<br />
January 5, 1855, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the same locality: ‘Pearlkey<br />
Lagoon’), that were described by Reichenbach<br />
<strong>in</strong> his ORCHIDEAE WULLSCHLÄGELIANAE<br />
(Reichenbach, 1866: 104), among which is the type of<br />
Dichaea trulla Rchb. f. (Wullschlägel s.n.,‘Pearlkey<br />
Lagoon auf Palmen’). Reichenbach dedicated to<br />
him <strong>in</strong> 1863 the genus Wullschlaegelia, from a<br />
plant collected orig<strong>in</strong>ally by Swartz <strong>in</strong> Jamaica <strong>and</strong><br />
described as Cranichis aphylla Sw.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
Figure 36. A — Hans Hermann Behr (1818-1904). Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny. B — John M. Dow (1827-1892). Courtesy of<br />
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. C — Selenipedium chica Rchb.f. Xenia Orchidacea I, Plate 2. D — Moritz Wagner<br />
(1813-1887). Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny.<br />
D<br />
101<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
102<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
Figure 37. A — Benedict Roezl (1824-1885). Contemporary portrait, courtesy of Rudolf Jenny. B — Statue of Roezl <strong>in</strong><br />
Prague, which shows him with an orchid <strong>in</strong> his h<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> an Indian at his feet. Photograph by Pavel K<strong>in</strong>dlmann. C —<br />
Miltoniopsis roezlii (Rchb. f.) God. Leb. Illustration by Pilar Casasa. D — Carl Hoffmann (1833-1859). Photograph by<br />
William Buchanan, courtesy of Silvia Meléndez.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
D
William Walker <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
“The best field to exercise slavery is tropical<br />
America...”<br />
William Walker (Obregón Quesada, 1993: 176)<br />
After the failure of the Central American<br />
Federation, the conservatives dom<strong>in</strong>ated the political<br />
life of Central America, under the notorious leadership<br />
of Rafael Carrera, the Guatemalan dictator. “Several<br />
liberal attempts to restore the Union, articulated<br />
usually as a response to British hostilities, ended<br />
as complete failures” (Pérez Brignoli, 2000: 103).<br />
Carrera, enemy of the Federation, defeated all his<br />
adversaries reestablish<strong>in</strong>g the ‘conservative peace’.<br />
But new <strong>and</strong> serious turbulences appeared, which<br />
threatened the region. In 1854, the Liberal party <strong>in</strong><br />
Nicaragua was fight<strong>in</strong>g the Conservative party for<br />
power <strong>and</strong> los<strong>in</strong>g. In desperation, they sought out<br />
William Walker’s military assistance to help them<br />
topple the Conservatives 29 . In 1855, Walker responded<br />
<strong>and</strong> led them <strong>in</strong> the capture of the city of Granada.<br />
He double-crossed the Liberals, however, <strong>and</strong> made<br />
himself President of Nicaragua <strong>in</strong> 1856 be<strong>in</strong>g quickly<br />
recognized by the United States government as such.<br />
“He was a man with a very concrete plan: to conquer<br />
Nicaragua, then the rest of Central America, to build<br />
the Canal <strong>and</strong> to impose slavery” (Obregón Quesada,<br />
1993: 176). Arrogant as all defenders of the colonial<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests of the United States, Wells wrote <strong>in</strong> 1857:<br />
“From the Mexican highl<strong>and</strong>s to the isthmus of<br />
Panama, the feel<strong>in</strong>g prevails among all <strong>in</strong>habitants<br />
that, although it will mean the ru<strong>in</strong> of the race that until<br />
recently has governed their dest<strong>in</strong>ies, they will soon be<br />
forced to jo<strong>in</strong> the flag of the stripes of the Union, <strong>and</strong><br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue as satellites <strong>in</strong> the orbit of the same planet”<br />
(Wells, 1982: 466). However, Walker’s supporters<br />
appropriated a transit company steamer owned by<br />
the American <strong>in</strong>dustrialist Cornelius V<strong>and</strong>erbilt <strong>and</strong><br />
V<strong>and</strong>erbilt retaliated by f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g the conservative<br />
forces aga<strong>in</strong>st Walker. Walker was overthrown <strong>in</strong> a<br />
battle <strong>in</strong> 1857, <strong>and</strong> despite his attempts to recapture<br />
Nicaragua he never aga<strong>in</strong> rega<strong>in</strong>ed control. The British<br />
captured Walker <strong>in</strong> Honduras <strong>in</strong> 1860 dur<strong>in</strong>g another<br />
takeover attempt <strong>and</strong> he was promptly executed by the<br />
Honduran authorities.<br />
103<br />
But the constant wars <strong>and</strong> political struggles <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region where no apparent obstacles for the travelers<br />
<strong>and</strong> naturalists who cont<strong>in</strong>ued arriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Central<br />
America. Paraphras<strong>in</strong>g what Sk<strong>in</strong>ner had said years<br />
earlier, ‘they cont<strong>in</strong>ued com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> spite of themselves’.<br />
Orchidomania <strong>and</strong> their fasc<strong>in</strong>ation for natural history<br />
were always stronger than any other consideration.<br />
Charles Wright (1811-1865) had taken part as<br />
a botanist <strong>in</strong> the expedition that had surveyed the<br />
Mexican-American borders after the war of 1846-<br />
1848. In 1853, he jo<strong>in</strong>ed the United States North<br />
Pacific Explor<strong>in</strong>g Expedition, also known as the<br />
R<strong>in</strong>ggold <strong>and</strong> Rodgers Expedition for its capta<strong>in</strong>s. This<br />
expedition traveled around the world, stopp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> such<br />
places as Australia, Hong Kong, Japan, <strong>and</strong> the isl<strong>and</strong>s<br />
of the Ber<strong>in</strong>g Straits, before arriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> San Francisco.<br />
Wright spent the w<strong>in</strong>ter <strong>in</strong> California <strong>and</strong> then asked to<br />
leave the expedition, which was due to cont<strong>in</strong>ue south<br />
around Cape Horn <strong>and</strong> then to New York. After leav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the expedition, Wright took a steamer to Nicaragua,<br />
where he arrived <strong>in</strong> February of 1856, collect<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
about eight weeks. He arrived at San Juan del Sur<br />
mid-February, 1856 <strong>and</strong> went to Virg<strong>in</strong> Bay, which<br />
was his base for two months. He made excursions to<br />
the Pacific coast <strong>and</strong> to an isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Lake Nicaragua.<br />
While <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, Wright also discovered another<br />
hazard of fieldwork: political unrest. Wright had to<br />
be careful <strong>in</strong> the content of his letters to Asa Gray, as<br />
negative comments about the government would be<br />
censored. Wright also suspected that more <strong>in</strong>nocent<br />
letters were also seized from the mail. One letter that<br />
did get through to Gray describes the trouble that<br />
Wright had <strong>in</strong> try<strong>in</strong>g to leave Nicaragua. Rumors were<br />
fly<strong>in</strong>g that outward bound transport would soon be<br />
halted, so Wright hastily tried to arrange his journey<br />
to New York. For a time it seemed that no amount of<br />
money could either secure a berth or charter a ship, but<br />
eventually Wright was able to arrange transport back<br />
to the United States.<br />
Among Wright’s collections <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua we f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
some <strong>orchids</strong>, such as Epidendrum imatophyllum<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl., Pleurothallis cardiothallis Rchb. f. <strong>and</strong><br />
Brassavola nodosa L<strong>in</strong>dl. <strong>and</strong> also new types:<br />
Camaridium wrightii Schltr. (Wright s.n., Nicaragua),<br />
Ornithidum paleatum Rchb. f. (Wright s.n., Nicaragua),<br />
29 William Walker was born <strong>in</strong> 1824 <strong>in</strong> Nashville, Tennessee. After graduat<strong>in</strong>g, he worked for a time as a lawyer <strong>and</strong> became f<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
a soldier of fortune, participat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> several political adventures <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>and</strong> California.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
104<br />
<strong>and</strong> Stelis parvula L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Wright 9, Nicaragua). After<br />
spend<strong>in</strong>g some time <strong>in</strong> Wethersfield <strong>and</strong> Cambridge,<br />
Wright went on the first of a series of travels to Cuba,<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the period between 1856 <strong>and</strong> 1867. His work<br />
was described by the botanist August Grisebach <strong>in</strong> his<br />
Plantae Wrightianae e Cuba Orientali, published <strong>in</strong><br />
two parts <strong>in</strong> 1860 <strong>and</strong> 1862.<br />
“The renowned gardens of Herrenhausen, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
vic<strong>in</strong>ity of Hannover, Germany, were created <strong>in</strong> 1866<br />
by the Duke Johann Friedrich von Calenberg. It was<br />
there that the famous Wendl<strong>and</strong> dynasty was born,<br />
a family of gardeners <strong>and</strong> botanists of enormous<br />
prestige. The Wendl<strong>and</strong> dynasty began with Johann<br />
Christoph Wendl<strong>and</strong> (Wendl<strong>and</strong> I) <strong>in</strong> 1778, cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
with his son He<strong>in</strong>rich Wendl<strong>and</strong> (Wendl<strong>and</strong> II) <strong>and</strong><br />
ended with his gr<strong>and</strong>son Hermann Wendl<strong>and</strong> (1825-<br />
1903) (Fig. 38A). It was this Wendl<strong>and</strong> III who<br />
departed from Germany <strong>in</strong> 1856 on an extended<br />
voyage through Central America <strong>and</strong> who returned<br />
to Herrenhausen with a collection of <strong>orchids</strong> that<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>ed 134 different species. A special greenhouse,<br />
called ‘Costa Rica-Haus’ was <strong>in</strong>augurated exclusively<br />
for this collection” (Jenny, 1995: 34). It is curious to<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k of Wendl<strong>and</strong> collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> this country<br />
at the same time that Juan Rafael Mora led the Costa<br />
Ricans <strong>in</strong> the fight aga<strong>in</strong>st the filibusters.<br />
The idea of travel<strong>in</strong>g to Central America was born<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g a visit by Ge<strong>org</strong>e U. Sk<strong>in</strong>ner to Herrenhausen. It<br />
was then when Wendl<strong>and</strong> expressed his wish to travel<br />
to the Tropics. A few weeks later, Sk<strong>in</strong>ner wrote from<br />
London to the Director of Herrenhausen, advis<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to allow Wendl<strong>and</strong> to travel to Central America, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>vit<strong>in</strong>g him to Guatemala. The journey was authorized<br />
<strong>and</strong> Wendl<strong>and</strong> traveled von Hannover to Southampton,<br />
across the Atlantic to Belize <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally to Guatemala,<br />
where he stayed for several weeks, enjoy<strong>in</strong>g Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s<br />
hospitality. In the first weeks of 1857 he traveled to El<br />
Salvador, where he took a ship to Puntarenas (Costa<br />
Rica), arriv<strong>in</strong>g there <strong>in</strong> March 1857. He soon made<br />
the acqua<strong>in</strong>tance of Frantzius <strong>and</strong> Hoffmann, who<br />
were helpful <strong>in</strong> <strong>org</strong>aniz<strong>in</strong>g Wendl<strong>and</strong>’s excursions to<br />
the mounta<strong>in</strong>s surround<strong>in</strong>g San José. He collected also<br />
at the mouth of the Sucio River <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> San Ramón,<br />
<strong>in</strong> addition to his collections on the road to Sarapiquí<br />
(Pittier & Dur<strong>and</strong>, 1893: 137). In August 1857 he<br />
started on his way home, travel<strong>in</strong>g over Sarapiquí <strong>and</strong><br />
the San Juan River to San Juan del Norte (Nicaragua),<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
where he found a ship to Southampton, arriv<strong>in</strong>g back<br />
<strong>in</strong> Hannover on September 20 (Knoll, 2005: 3-4).<br />
Most of the new orchid species discovered by<br />
Wendl<strong>and</strong> were described by Reichenbach <strong>in</strong> his<br />
ORCHIDEAE WENDLANDIANAE (Reichenbach,<br />
1866: 61). The follow<strong>in</strong>g shall be mentioned:<br />
Arpophyllum medium Rchb. f. (Wendl<strong>and</strong> 190,<br />
Guatemala), Cyclopogon prasophyllum (Rchb. f.) Schltr.<br />
(Wendl<strong>and</strong> 297, Guatemala), Epidendrum myodes Rchb.<br />
f. (Wendl<strong>and</strong> 111, Costa Rica), Epidendrum nitens<br />
Rchb. f. (Wendl<strong>and</strong> 324, Guatemala), Epidendrum<br />
nubium Rchb. f. (Wendl<strong>and</strong> 33, Guatemala), Erythrodes<br />
vesicifera (Rchb. f.) Ames (Wendl<strong>and</strong> s.n., Costa Rica),<br />
Malaxis wendl<strong>and</strong>ii (Rchb. f.) L. O. Wms. (Wendl<strong>and</strong><br />
s.n., Costa Rica), Myrmecophila wendl<strong>and</strong>ii (Rchb.f.)<br />
G.C. Kennedy (Wendl<strong>and</strong> s.n., Guatemala), Pelexia<br />
gutturosa (Rchb. f.) Garay (Wendl<strong>and</strong> s.n., El Salvador),<br />
Pleurothallis fuegii Rchb. f. (Wendl<strong>and</strong> s.n., Guatemala),<br />
Sarcoglottis sceptrodes (Rchb. f.) Schltr. (Wendl<strong>and</strong> 388,<br />
Guatemala), <strong>and</strong> Stelis leucopogon Rchb. f. (Wendl<strong>and</strong><br />
895, Costa Rica).In 1887, Reichenbach named <strong>in</strong> his<br />
honor a new species, imported by S<strong>and</strong>er & Co. from<br />
Colombia: Masdevallia wendl<strong>and</strong>iana Rchb. f.<br />
Wendl<strong>and</strong> collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, El Salvador <strong>and</strong><br />
Costa Rica. No collections by him are known from<br />
Nicaragua, a country he probably avoided due to the<br />
war aga<strong>in</strong>st Walker. Wendl<strong>and</strong>’s <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong>,<br />
although responsible for very important discoveries,<br />
was secondary. His ma<strong>in</strong> field of knowledge were the<br />
Palmaceae, a family <strong>in</strong> which he was considered the<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g world expert of his time. He made important<br />
contributions to Oersted dur<strong>in</strong>g the great Danish<br />
scientist’s work on Central America. Oersted wrote :<br />
“I must add that M. H. Wendl<strong>and</strong>, to whom science<br />
owes so much for his beautiful <strong>in</strong>vestigations of the<br />
American palms, has also gathered a considerable<br />
herbarium <strong>in</strong> Central America, part of which he has<br />
been k<strong>in</strong>d enough to put at my disposal for this work...”<br />
(Oersted, 1863).<br />
Born at Park Hatch, Godalm<strong>in</strong>g, Frederick Du Cane<br />
Godman (1834-1919) was a keen student of natural<br />
history from his earliest days. At Cambridge he became<br />
an <strong>in</strong>timate friend of Alfred <strong>and</strong> Edward Newton <strong>and</strong><br />
of Osbert Salv<strong>in</strong> (1835-1898), all enthusiastic students<br />
of bird life. Godman <strong>and</strong> his friend Osbert Salv<strong>in</strong><br />
were enthusiastic followers of Darw<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong> together<br />
they decided to produce a work that should review
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
every form of life <strong>in</strong> a def<strong>in</strong>ite part of the world. They<br />
chose Central America, <strong>and</strong> this became the lifework<br />
of these two friends. It was 1879, 36 years before<br />
the 63 volumes of this vast undertak<strong>in</strong>g, Biologia<br />
Centrali-Americana, were completed. The two friends<br />
were editors, secur<strong>in</strong>g experts to write on their own<br />
branches of knowledge, <strong>and</strong> devot<strong>in</strong>g themselves<br />
to the birds <strong>and</strong> butterflies. They had traveled many<br />
times to Guatemala between 1857 <strong>and</strong> 1874, prepar<strong>in</strong>g<br />
zoological but also botanical collections. “…there<br />
are two separate collections of flower<strong>in</strong>g plants <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Kew Herbarium– one, consist<strong>in</strong>g of about 250 species,<br />
dated 1861, <strong>and</strong> the other, consist<strong>in</strong>g of about 350<br />
species, dated 1873-74, <strong>and</strong> ascribed to Mr. Salv<strong>in</strong><br />
alone” (Hemsley, 1887: 136).<br />
Salv<strong>in</strong> had the fortune of f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> his wife<br />
Carol<strong>in</strong>e a magnificent botanical illustrator. He lived<br />
<strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>and</strong> appreciated its natural beauties, but<br />
never could accept the customs of his adoptive country.<br />
In a letter to his father <strong>in</strong> January, 1858, he wrote: “...<br />
Ge<strong>org</strong>e Sk<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>and</strong> I went to Ocatenango... to collect<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>... the country is very full of resources... The<br />
only th<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st it is the miserable race of Spaniards,<br />
but this evil is by degree be<strong>in</strong>g dim<strong>in</strong>ished by the<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> foreigners”. Among his collections is the<br />
type of Ornithocephalus salv<strong>in</strong>ii Rchb. f. ex Hemsl.<br />
(Salv<strong>in</strong> s.n., Barranca Honda, Guatemala) <strong>and</strong> many<br />
specimens of the genus Lepanthes.<br />
The German Carl Kramer had been sent to Japan<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1857 <strong>and</strong> arrived <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1866, via<br />
Panama, to search for Cattleya dowiana, which had<br />
become Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s obsession. Kramer discovered<br />
the type of Ticoglossum krameri (Rchb.f.) R.<br />
Rodríguez ex Halb<strong>in</strong>ger, but this seems to have<br />
been his only success <strong>in</strong> Central America. In the<br />
words of Veitch, he resulted “... unsuitable for the<br />
work” (Veitch, 1906: 55). Odontoglossum krameri<br />
Rchb. f., Leptorchis krameri Kuntze <strong>and</strong> Liparis<br />
krameri Franch. & Sav. were dedicated to him.<br />
However, Oncidium kramerianum Rchb. f., as many<br />
wrongly assume, was not dedicated to him but to<br />
his father, gardener of Herr Jenisch at Flotbeck<br />
Park near Hamburg, where it first flowered <strong>in</strong> 1854<br />
(Veitch, 1963: 47). He lived later for long years<br />
<strong>in</strong> Manaos, Brazil, where he was <strong>in</strong> charge of the<br />
botanical tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g of young Erich Bungeroth, who<br />
would become famous for his collections <strong>in</strong> Brazil,<br />
105<br />
Venezuela <strong>and</strong> Colombia (Blossfeld, 1965: 113).<br />
Richard William Pearce (1838-1867) had collected<br />
for Veitch <strong>in</strong> South America, <strong>and</strong> had visited Chile,<br />
Peru <strong>and</strong> Ecuador. In Peru he collected the type<br />
specimens of Masdevallia veitchiana Rchb. f.,<br />
Phragmipedium pearcei (Rchb. f.) Rauh & Senghas<br />
<strong>and</strong> Chloraea pearcei Phil. Pearce traveled <strong>in</strong> 1867 to<br />
Peru, <strong>in</strong> search for another shipment of Masdevallia<br />
veitchiana. “Unhappily -for us as well as for himself-<br />
he was deta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Panama. Somewhere <strong>in</strong> those<br />
parts there is a magnificent Cypripedium with which<br />
we are acqua<strong>in</strong>ted only by the dried <strong>in</strong>florescence,<br />
named planifolium. The poor fellow could not resist<br />
this temptation. They told him at Panama that no white<br />
man had returned from the spot, but he went on. The<br />
Indians brought him back, some days or weeks later,<br />
without the prize; <strong>and</strong> he died on arrival” (Boyle,<br />
1983: 87). He was only 29 years old <strong>and</strong> died a victim<br />
of yellow fever.<br />
The physician Carl Gustav Bernoulli (1834-<br />
1878) was born <strong>in</strong> Basel, Switzerl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong>to a family<br />
whose ancestors had been famous physicists <strong>and</strong><br />
mathematicians. The family had its orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Antwerp,<br />
Belgium, hav<strong>in</strong>g to flee to Frankfurt <strong>in</strong> the XVI century<br />
from the persecutions of the Duke of Alba, <strong>and</strong> mov<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1622 to Basel (Meyer-Holdampf, 1997:21). After<br />
graduat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> medic<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> 1857, <strong>and</strong> strongly <strong>in</strong>fluenced<br />
by the ideas of Alex<strong>and</strong>er von Humboldt, Bernoulli<br />
traveled <strong>in</strong> 1858 to Guatemala. He lived most of the<br />
time <strong>in</strong> Retalhuleu, where he had a coffee plantation<br />
<strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed at the same time his medical cl<strong>in</strong>ic <strong>and</strong> a<br />
pharmacy (Fig. 38B). Anticlerical by nature, he blamed<br />
the church for the backwardness of Guatemala <strong>in</strong> those<br />
days. In 1868 he traveled for a short period of time to<br />
Europe. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this time he visited the herbariums of<br />
the botanical gardens of Berl<strong>in</strong>, Hamburg, Amsterdam,<br />
London <strong>and</strong> Paris, always moved by his desire to write<br />
a flora of Guatemala. In 1872 he sent 5 boxes with his<br />
botanical collections <strong>and</strong> other objects of natural history<br />
to Europe, <strong>in</strong>tended among others for Hooker, Kuhn,<br />
De C<strong>and</strong>olle <strong>and</strong> Reichenbach (Meyer-Holdampf,<br />
1997: 72, 85).<br />
After meet<strong>in</strong>g Baron von Tuerckheim, he started<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1877 on his last excursion, for which he tried to<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> Europe a young botanist to travel with him.<br />
With the help of professor August He<strong>in</strong>rich Rudolf<br />
Grisebach he paid all expenses for the arrival of the<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
106<br />
German botanist Oscar Richard Cario (1856-?), who<br />
became the companion of his last voyage (Müller,<br />
1878: 720). He visited the ru<strong>in</strong>s of Palenque <strong>and</strong><br />
took part <strong>in</strong> the excavation of the temples of Tikal.<br />
Bernoulli found the temples completely covered by<br />
vegetation. Impressed by the quality of the wooden<br />
l<strong>in</strong>tels of the doors of Temple IV, he took them out<br />
“with permission of the government” (so says the<br />
Museum of Cultures, <strong>in</strong> Basel, where the doors arrived<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1878, a few months after his death). An important<br />
number of new species of Orchidaceae were found<br />
among Bernoulli’s <strong>and</strong> Cario’s collections. They were<br />
described chiefly by Schlechter. The follow<strong>in</strong>g shall<br />
be mentioned: Deiregyne nelsonii (Greenm.) Burns-<br />
Bal. (Bernoulli & Cario 644, Guatemala), Erythrodes<br />
lunifera (Schltr.) Ames (Bernoulli & Cario 669,<br />
Guatemala), Habenaria tetranema Schltr. (Bernoulli<br />
325, Guatemala), Lemboglossum majale (Rchb. f.)<br />
Halb. (Bernoulli 338, Central America), Oncidium<br />
bernoullianum Kraenzl. (Bernoulli 339, Guatemala),<br />
Ornithocephalus tripterus Schltr. (Bernoulli & Cario<br />
667, Guatemala), Pleurothallis bernoullii Schltr.<br />
(Bernoulli & Cario 499, Guatemala), Ponthieva<br />
pulchella Schltr. (Bernoulli & Cario 487, Guatemala),<br />
Stelis cleistogama Schltr. (Bernoulli & Cario 344,<br />
Guatemala), Stelis ovatilabia Schltr. (Bernoulli & Cario<br />
s.n., Guatemala), Stelis oxypetala Schltr. (Bernoulli &<br />
Cario 624, Guatemala), <strong>and</strong> Stelis tenuissima Schltr.<br />
(Bernoulli & Cario 590, Guatemala). He kept close<br />
relationships with the lead<strong>in</strong>g American botanists<br />
of his time. In one of his letters to Joseph Henry,<br />
Director of the Smithsonian Institution, he claimed: “I<br />
possess valuable collections of this country... so that<br />
I can offer to American botanists collections that may<br />
be <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to them...”. Asa Gray, Director of the<br />
Botanical Garden of Harvard University mentioned <strong>in</strong><br />
February, 1848: “Dr. Bernoulli is right say<strong>in</strong>g that the<br />
Botany of Guatemala is very little known, <strong>and</strong> that his<br />
collection will be full of <strong>in</strong>terest” (Meyer-Holdampf,<br />
1997: 142). Bernoulli died on May 18, 1878 <strong>in</strong> San<br />
Francisco, dur<strong>in</strong>g his return travel to Switzerl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
from a tropical illness he had contracted <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region of Petén. Years later, <strong>in</strong> 1897, the Bryologia<br />
guatemalensis ex collectionibus Dom<strong>in</strong>. Bernoulli<br />
& Cario (1866-1878) was published <strong>in</strong> the Bullet<strong>in</strong><br />
de l’Herbier Boissier, based on the herbarium of<br />
Bernoulli <strong>and</strong> Cario. Schlechter dedicated to Cario<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Pleurothallis carioi Schltr. (Bernoulli & Cario<br />
496) <strong>and</strong> Stelis carioi Schltr. (Bernoulli & Cario<br />
s.n.) (Fig. 38C). Bernoulli’s herbarium was sent to<br />
Donnell Smith <strong>in</strong> Baltimore for revision. However,<br />
Donnell Smith returned it untouched s<strong>in</strong>ce he could<br />
not dedicate himself to this task due to ill health. The<br />
herbarium returned to Basel, where it was donated to<br />
the University by a brother of Bernoulli.<br />
Sutton Hayes (?-1863), was a doctor <strong>and</strong> naturalist<br />
with the El Paso <strong>and</strong> Fort Yuma Wagon Road<br />
Expedition <strong>in</strong> 1857-1858. Born <strong>in</strong> Columbia County,<br />
New York, he apparently graduated <strong>in</strong> medic<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> New<br />
York City. He studied botany for several years dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a period of liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Paris, France. After leav<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Wagon Road Expedition, he developed tuberculosis<br />
<strong>and</strong> went to what is now Colon <strong>in</strong> Panama, collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
there extensively until his death <strong>in</strong> 1863. When he<br />
stopped <strong>in</strong> Puntarenas on his way to Panama <strong>in</strong> 1860,<br />
Hayes became perhaps the first North American to<br />
botanize <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica (Grayum et al., 2004: 7). On<br />
April 18, 1860, Capta<strong>in</strong> Dow wrote to Professor Baird,<br />
of the Smithsonian Institute: “Dr. Sutton Hayes, who<br />
brought me a letter of <strong>in</strong>troduction from you I have<br />
met twice... He is an <strong>in</strong>defatigable laborer <strong>in</strong> his efforts<br />
to illustrate the botany of the Isthmus, where he has<br />
located himself ever s<strong>in</strong>ce the failure of the Darién<br />
expedition, to which he was attached.” Hayes also<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> El Salvador <strong>and</strong> Guatemala. Aga<strong>in</strong> Dow to<br />
Baird (June 6, 1860): “Dr. Hayes is now <strong>in</strong> Guatemala,<br />
pursu<strong>in</strong>g his <strong>in</strong>vestigations. He came on board at a port<br />
<strong>in</strong> Salvador on my last voyage. He looks bad, <strong>and</strong> I<br />
very much question whether he will live to aga<strong>in</strong> visit<br />
this coast”.<br />
Among his Panamanian specimens we f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
Brassavola nodosa L<strong>in</strong>dl., Trichopilia sp.,<br />
Lockhartia pallida Rchb. f. (Hayes 106), Cyclopogon<br />
prasophyllum Schltr. (Hayes 138), Sobralia fenzliana<br />
Rchb. f. (Hayes 493) <strong>and</strong> the type of Campylocentrum<br />
panamense Ames (Hayes 1389). In 1860 he spent<br />
several months <strong>in</strong> El Salvador <strong>and</strong> Guatemala, from<br />
where his collections of Sobralia macrantha L<strong>in</strong>dl<br />
(Hayes s.n., Guatemala), Spiranthes aurantiaca<br />
(Llave & Lex.) Hemsl. (Hayes s.n., Guatemala) <strong>and</strong><br />
Spiranthes rosulata (W. Baxt.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Hayes s.n.,<br />
Guatemala) are preserved. Hayes contributed <strong>in</strong> great<br />
measure to complete the list of plants of Panama that<br />
had been published some years earlier by Seemann.
The Mexican Empire of Maximilian of Hapsburg<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
“The government of the republic will fulfill<br />
its duty to defend its <strong>in</strong>dependence, to repel<br />
foreign aggression, <strong>and</strong> accept the struggle to<br />
which it has been provoked, count<strong>in</strong>g on the<br />
unanimous spirit of the Mexicans <strong>and</strong> on the<br />
fact that sooner or later the cause of rights<br />
<strong>and</strong> justice will triumph”.<br />
Benito Juárez, President of México, 1862<br />
In 1859, a group of Mexican conservatives<br />
approached Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Maximilian Joseph,<br />
Archduke of Austria, Pr<strong>in</strong>ce of Hungary <strong>and</strong><br />
Bohemia (1832-1867), offer<strong>in</strong>g him the throne of<br />
Mexico. Although he <strong>in</strong>itially refused, the French<br />
occupation of the Mexican capital <strong>and</strong> the pressures<br />
of Napoleon III conv<strong>in</strong>ced him, <strong>and</strong> he was crowned<br />
as the Emperor of Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1864. A passionate<br />
lover of nature, he <strong>org</strong>anized dur<strong>in</strong>g his short reign<br />
a scientific commission that was sent out to explore<br />
the flora <strong>and</strong> fauna of Mexico. Among the members<br />
of this commission Eugene Bourgeau (1813-1877) 30<br />
had a prom<strong>in</strong>ent place. He prepared extensive<br />
collections of plants that are today at the Natural<br />
History Museum of Paris. Among his specimens are<br />
numerous species of Orchidaceae, some of which<br />
were new to science: Bletia greenmaniana L. O.<br />
Wms. (Bourgeau 2812), Epidendrum bourgeavii<br />
Schltr. (Bourgeau 3104), Malaxis lepidota (F<strong>in</strong>et)<br />
Ames (Bourgeau 3008), <strong>and</strong> Pleurothallis bourgeaui<br />
Kraenzl. (Bourgeau 2469).<br />
Pierre Marie Arthur Morelet (1809-1892) was a<br />
French naturalist, born <strong>in</strong> Lays. Morelet had been<br />
a member of the commission to Algeria (1841),<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ly as a natural artist, draw<strong>in</strong>g any natural<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs. He took particular <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> mollusks,<br />
which he published many works on, particularly<br />
the species of Africa. Morelet was appo<strong>in</strong>ted as a<br />
correspond<strong>in</strong>g member of the Mexican scientific<br />
commission, ma<strong>in</strong>ly because he had traveled<br />
between 1846 <strong>and</strong> 1848 through southeastern<br />
Mexico <strong>and</strong> Guatemala. After visit<strong>in</strong>g Yucatan,<br />
Morelet came <strong>in</strong>to Guatemala through the Mexican<br />
state of Tabasco <strong>and</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g the course of the<br />
Usumac<strong>in</strong>ta River. He traveled through Petén<br />
107<br />
<strong>and</strong> all the way to the highl<strong>and</strong>s of Cobán. After<br />
visit<strong>in</strong>g the capital of Guatemala he returned to<br />
Europe. Morelet wrote an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g account of his<br />
travels (Morelet, 1876), with beautiful illustrations<br />
<strong>and</strong> several references about <strong>orchids</strong>. Travel<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with his companion, the faithful seaman Mor<strong>in</strong>,<br />
Morelet wonders <strong>in</strong> the neighborhood of Palenque<br />
about “onion-shaped plants” which cover the tree<br />
trunks <strong>and</strong> delights <strong>in</strong> the aroma of Vanilla. In<br />
Dolores he notes the “myriads of parasites” <strong>in</strong> the<br />
shadow of the forests, among which he mentions<br />
an orchid species [Stanhopea sp.] white as a lily<br />
<strong>and</strong> with a strong benzene aroma which attracts<br />
swarms of butterflies of the most beautiful species.<br />
In Lanqu<strong>in</strong>, were he was the guest of the local<br />
priest, he f<strong>in</strong>ds aga<strong>in</strong> Vanilla which he became as<br />
a gift <strong>and</strong> which he f<strong>in</strong>ds commonly <strong>in</strong> cultivation<br />
<strong>and</strong> sees aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Cobán (Morelet, 1876: 194, 222,<br />
284). As a tribute by Gabriel Bibron <strong>and</strong> Auguste<br />
Duméril, Morelet had a species of crocodile named<br />
after himself: Morelet’s Crocodile or, Crocodylus<br />
moreletii Bibron & Duméril. Morelet had found<br />
this crocodile <strong>in</strong> the swamps of Yucatan. Morelet<br />
died of natural causes <strong>in</strong> 1892, <strong>in</strong> Dijon.<br />
Ludwig Hahn (?-1873) lived <strong>in</strong> Mexico from<br />
1855 <strong>and</strong> years later formed part of the scientific<br />
expedition of which Bourgeau was part. Hahn was<br />
a botanist, <strong>and</strong> his mission was to study Mexican<br />
plants, collect them <strong>and</strong> send them to Europe. This he<br />
did, but he fell <strong>in</strong> love with Mexico <strong>and</strong> never went<br />
back. He changed his name from Ludwig to Luis <strong>and</strong><br />
became a Mexican citizen. He died <strong>in</strong> Mexico, we<br />
believe, <strong>in</strong> 1873. Luis Hahn was not only a botanist<br />
but an accomplished musician. He played the piano,<br />
sang <strong>and</strong> composed. He wrote a series of pieces<br />
for piano that he called ‘Recuerdos de México’ (=<br />
‘Remembrances of Mexico’). Among his collections<br />
are several <strong>orchids</strong>, such as Epidendrum equitans<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl., Epidendrum rigidum Jacq., <strong>and</strong> Habenaria<br />
lactiflora A. Rich. & Gal.<br />
After several years of fight<strong>in</strong>g aga<strong>in</strong>st French<br />
occupation, the troops of Benito Juárez f<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
captured Maximilian <strong>in</strong> Querétaro. On June 19,<br />
1867, he died <strong>in</strong> front of a fir<strong>in</strong>g squad, at the side of<br />
his generals Miramón <strong>and</strong> Mejía.<br />
30 Bourgeau had previously been a botanical collector <strong>in</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong>, North Africa <strong>and</strong> the Canary Isl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
108<br />
The Spanish Scientific Commission to the Pacific<br />
1863-1866. The Scientific Commission to the Pacific<br />
was the most important scientific enterprise of 19th<br />
century Spa<strong>in</strong>. In the spr<strong>in</strong>g of 1862, the M<strong>in</strong>istry of<br />
Development decided to add a scientific team to a naval<br />
squadron that the government of General O’Donnell<br />
sent to America as part of its Pan-Hispanic politics.<br />
The group of naturalist travelers was formed by six<br />
professors of the Natural Science Museum of Madrid<br />
<strong>and</strong> two assistants: a taxidermist <strong>and</strong> an illustrator, <strong>and</strong><br />
photographer. Their mission was to form scientific<br />
collections that would enrich the Spanish museums <strong>and</strong><br />
contribute to develop the program of acclimatization<br />
of exotic plants <strong>and</strong> animals that would be useful for<br />
the Spanish economy. The expedition visited Brazil,<br />
Uruguay <strong>and</strong> Chile, before turn<strong>in</strong>g northwards towards<br />
Ecuador, Central America <strong>and</strong> California, return<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to Spa<strong>in</strong> at the end of 1865. Only a small part of the<br />
collections of the Commission have been studied <strong>and</strong><br />
we cannot confirm the collection of orchid specimens<br />
by its members. The herbarium of Juan Isern y Batlló<br />
(1821-1866), the Commission’s botanist, was studied<br />
<strong>in</strong> part by José Cuatrecasas <strong>and</strong> awaits further research<br />
at the Royal Botanical Garden <strong>in</strong> Madrid.<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dley <strong>and</strong> Reichenbach: change of the guard<br />
“Central America has, accord<strong>in</strong>g to our<br />
present knowledge, one of the richest orchid<br />
floras. Fortune not only smiled at me br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>to my h<strong>and</strong>s many of the best collections of<br />
this region, richer than L<strong>in</strong>dley ever obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
them, but I can trust <strong>in</strong> ... many more shipments<br />
from there.”<br />
H. G. Reichenbach (1866, <strong>in</strong>troduction)<br />
“[...] The British horticulturist <strong>and</strong> botanist John<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dley (1799-1865) is the perfect example of high<br />
society’s passion for botany <strong>in</strong> the 1800s” (Ceulemans<br />
et al., 2006: 107). L<strong>in</strong>dley was the most important<br />
orchidologist <strong>in</strong> the first half of the XIX century <strong>and</strong><br />
described the majority of <strong>orchids</strong> that were discovered<br />
<strong>in</strong> Central America. His close relation with the<br />
Botanical Gardens at Kew, dur<strong>in</strong>g a time when British<br />
power dom<strong>in</strong>ated the five cont<strong>in</strong>ents, brought <strong>in</strong>to his<br />
h<strong>and</strong>s, for identification, new species from all over the<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
world. However, dur<strong>in</strong>g the first years of the second<br />
half of the century, a new star arose <strong>in</strong> the name of<br />
He<strong>in</strong>rich Gustav Reichenbach (1824-1889) (Fig.<br />
38D), who had published <strong>in</strong> 1852 his dissertation<br />
on the structure of the pollen masses <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
had started, <strong>in</strong> 1854, the publication of his Xenia<br />
Orchidaceae, which he would complete <strong>in</strong> 1883.<br />
Son of the famous botanist He<strong>in</strong>rich Gottlieb<br />
Reichenbach, Reichenbach filius soon began to<br />
be recognized as L<strong>in</strong>dley’s protégé, be<strong>in</strong>g first his<br />
assistant <strong>and</strong> later his competitor <strong>in</strong> the identification<br />
of new species. Nonetheless, they were bound by<br />
a close friendship that lasted until L<strong>in</strong>dley’s death.<br />
Reichenbach’s evolution as an orchid expert is evident<br />
if we observe chronologically the collections which<br />
were studied between 1830 <strong>and</strong> 1860 31 .The majority of<br />
the Central American specimens of Loddiges, Cum<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner, Hartweg, H<strong>in</strong>ds, S<strong>in</strong>clair <strong>and</strong> Barclay were<br />
identified by L<strong>in</strong>dley.<br />
The descriptions of the new species discovered<br />
by Schiede, Deppe <strong>and</strong> L<strong>in</strong>den are divided between<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dley <strong>and</strong> Reichenbach. However, beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with Seemann, <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g with Friedrichsthal,<br />
Warscewicz, Liebmann, Oersted, Behr, Duchassa<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
Roezl, Hoffmann <strong>and</strong> Wendl<strong>and</strong>, it is almost exclusively<br />
Reichenbach who studied <strong>and</strong> identified the Central<br />
American collections. Many of the new species were<br />
described by Reichenbach <strong>in</strong> his Contributions to the<br />
<strong>orchidology</strong> of Central America, published <strong>in</strong> Hamburg<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1866. When L<strong>in</strong>dley died <strong>in</strong> 1865, Reichenbach<br />
became the virtual dictator of <strong>orchidology</strong>, although he<br />
was not immune from criticism. The botanist Ge<strong>org</strong>e<br />
Bentham criticized his determ<strong>in</strong>ations for ignor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
structural characteristics other than those of the flower<br />
<strong>and</strong> an obituary <strong>in</strong> the Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs of the L<strong>in</strong>nean Society<br />
later referred to the ‘many puzzles <strong>in</strong> his descriptions,<br />
which of late years had assumed an esoteric character’<br />
(Elliot, 1994: 441). When Reichenbach died <strong>in</strong> 1889, he<br />
left his enormous herbarium, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g all the material<br />
that had been contributed by other botanists dur<strong>in</strong>g his<br />
life, to the Imperial Museum of Vienna. It conta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
more than 700,000 specimens, of which some 52,000<br />
where <strong>orchids</strong>. The sheets usually showed very rude<br />
but very characteristic draw<strong>in</strong>gs. Reichenbach’s will<br />
read textually: “My herbarium <strong>and</strong> my botanical library,<br />
31 For chronological comparisons one must take <strong>in</strong>to account that study <strong>and</strong> identification of species often took place two or three<br />
years after the date of collection, due to the length of the expeditions <strong>and</strong> the difficult conditions of travel.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
Figure 38. A — Hermann Wendl<strong>and</strong> (1825-1903). Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny. B — Carl Gustav Bernoulli (1834-1878).<br />
Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny. C — Stelis carioi Schltr. Illustration by Blanche Ames, courtesy of the Oakes Ames Orchid<br />
Herbarium, Harvard University. D — He<strong>in</strong>rich Gustav Reichenbach (1824-1889), at age 38. Courtesy of the Hunt Institute<br />
for Botanical Documentation.<br />
D<br />
109<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
110<br />
A<br />
B<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 39. A — Masdevallia reichenbachiana Endrés ex Rchb.f. Illustration by Pilar Casasa. B — Dichaea viridula Pupul<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Draw<strong>in</strong>g by A.R. Endrés.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
my <strong>in</strong>struments, collections of seeds, I accrue to the<br />
Imperial Hof Museum <strong>in</strong> Vienna, under the condition<br />
that the preserved Orchids <strong>and</strong> draw<strong>in</strong>gs of Orchids<br />
shall not be exhibited before twenty-five years from the<br />
date of my death have elapsed...” (Elliot, 1994: 440).<br />
The immediate stimulus for the mak<strong>in</strong>g of the will was<br />
no doubt the <strong>in</strong>corporation, <strong>in</strong> 1879, of Robert A. Rolfe<br />
to the scientific staff of Kew, who with<strong>in</strong> a few years<br />
had become responsible for the <strong>orchids</strong> at the herbarium.<br />
Once Kew realized that it had a competent <strong>in</strong>-house<br />
specialist, it ceased to send its <strong>orchids</strong> to Reichenbach for<br />
identification. “Seldom has anyone’s reputation suffered<br />
a reversal so quickly” (Elliot, 1994: 440). The loss of<br />
all of Reichenbach’s material was a terrible blow for<br />
science. To aggravate this, the First World War began <strong>in</strong><br />
1914, when the twenty five years stipulated <strong>in</strong> the will<br />
had just elapsed. This delayed until the twenties the study<br />
of the materials that the controversial German botanist<br />
had accumulated dur<strong>in</strong>g his life. Oakes Ames had harsh<br />
words for Reichenbach: “Reichenbach, as I see the<br />
situation now, rose to em<strong>in</strong>ence as an orchidologist simply<br />
because of unexampled opportunity. When I review the<br />
sensations stimulated by his famous herbarium preserved<br />
at Vienna, I f<strong>in</strong>d them far from flatter<strong>in</strong>g. The lack of data,<br />
the <strong>in</strong>decipherable h<strong>and</strong>writ<strong>in</strong>g, the scrappy specimens<br />
[…], <strong>and</strong> the odd bits of paper that bear meager <strong>and</strong> often<br />
<strong>in</strong>adequate <strong>in</strong>formation, give rise to disgust…. If we<br />
compare Reichenbach with L<strong>in</strong>dley, the former suffers<br />
prodigiously!… Yet, the Reichenbach herbarium has<br />
been an almost <strong>in</strong>superable obstacle to the progress of<br />
<strong>orchidology</strong> for over twenty years, because its founder<br />
violated the very spirit of science” (<strong>in</strong> a letter to Charles<br />
H. Lankester, Oct. 18, 1922).<br />
Respected as one of the greatest orchidologists of the<br />
XIX century <strong>and</strong> hated for be<strong>in</strong>g responsible for 25 years of<br />
obscurantist <strong>in</strong>terregnum, Reichenbach will nevertheless<br />
always have a preem<strong>in</strong>ent place <strong>in</strong> the history of the <strong>orchids</strong><br />
of Central America. A new genus, Reichenbachanthus<br />
Barb. Rodr., <strong>and</strong> a great number of species were dedicated<br />
to Reichenbach: Barbosella reichenbachiana (Endrés<br />
ex Rchb.f.) Schltr., Chondrorhyncha reichenbachiana<br />
Schltr., Elleanthus reichenbachianus Garay, Epidendrum<br />
reichenbachianum Schltr., Habenaria reichenbachiana<br />
Barb. Rodr., Laelia reichenbachiana Wendl. &<br />
Kraenzl., Lycaste reichenbachii Gireoud ex Rchb.f.,<br />
Malaxis reichenbachiana (Schltr.) L.O. Williams,<br />
Masdevallia reichenbachiana Endrés ex Rchb. f. (Fig.<br />
111<br />
39A), Odontoglossum reichenbachianum F. C. Lehm.,<br />
Pleurothallis reichenbachiana Schltr., Sievek<strong>in</strong>gia<br />
reichenbachiana Rolfe, <strong>and</strong> Stanhopea reichenbachiana<br />
Roezl ex Rchb.f.<br />
‘Señor’ Endrés<br />
“... one of those collectors who cared more for<br />
science than for sovereigns”.<br />
H. G. Reichenbach (1883)<br />
Little is known about the orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> life of Augustus<br />
R. Endrés ( 1838-1875). “His last name is Spanish, yet he<br />
wrote his notes <strong>in</strong> English. He was referred to as a ‘halfcaste’<br />
(Veitch, J. H., Hortus Veitchii, 1906), a label that<br />
may <strong>in</strong>dicate parentage of a North American or European<br />
<strong>and</strong> a Lat<strong>in</strong> American” (Atwood & Mora de Retana,<br />
1999). Gómez (pers. comm.) tells us that Endrés was<br />
Austrian <strong>and</strong> that his last name is more or less common <strong>in</strong><br />
Austria <strong>and</strong> Switzerl<strong>and</strong>. Bateman, while compla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
about the lack of new Odontoglossum from Costa Rica,<br />
changes the spell<strong>in</strong>g of his name: “In Mexico, from<br />
which much novelty was expected, little has been added<br />
to the number of Odontoglossum previously known, <strong>and</strong><br />
the same may be said of Costa Rica, notwithst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />
vigorous exertions of Mr. Endries” (Bateman, 1874).<br />
Now we have reasons to believe that he was French,<br />
from the region of Alsace, but much of his life rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
a mystery. The quality <strong>and</strong> precision of the botanical<br />
descriptions <strong>and</strong> illustrations (most of them <strong>in</strong> pencil) that<br />
were attached to his herbarium specimens is astound<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
which leads to the assumption that he had a solid academic<br />
tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, which he probably received <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong>. His<br />
use of the English language, precise <strong>and</strong> cultivated,<br />
po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong> the same direction (Fig. 39B). He came to<br />
Central America <strong>in</strong> 1866, recommended by Sk<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>and</strong><br />
employed by Bateman to collect <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
<strong>and</strong> Costa Rica (Anonymous, 1913: 341). It is possible<br />
that Sk<strong>in</strong>ner recommended him after the disappo<strong>in</strong>tment<br />
he suffered with Enrique Arce, a Guatemalan collector<br />
who had not met Sk<strong>in</strong>ner’s expectations <strong>in</strong> the search for<br />
Cattleya dowiana. Endrés came the first time to Costa<br />
Rica <strong>in</strong> 1866, <strong>and</strong> rema<strong>in</strong>ed for several months <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Atlantic lowl<strong>and</strong>s, until he arrived at San José <strong>in</strong> May of<br />
1867. He had disembarked <strong>in</strong> Greytown <strong>and</strong> came to San<br />
José follow<strong>in</strong>g the route of Sarapiquí.<br />
While Endrés was <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, Gottlieb Zahn<br />
traveled <strong>in</strong> Central America, 1869-1870. The ma<strong>in</strong><br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
112<br />
object of his journey was the <strong>in</strong>troduction of the rare<br />
Miltonia endresii, discovered by Warscewicz about<br />
1849, but that had previously resisted all attempts at<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduction. Zahn was equally unsuccessful with this<br />
plant. In 1869 he was proceed<strong>in</strong>g to Costa Rica, when<br />
he perished by drown<strong>in</strong>g” (Anonymous, 1913: 263).<br />
We remember him <strong>in</strong> a bromeliad, Guzmania zahnii<br />
(Hook. f.) Mez. Endrés was hired <strong>in</strong> 1871 by the firm of<br />
Veitch to replace Zahn <strong>and</strong> collected Miltonia endresii,<br />
Cattleya dowiana, Masdevallia reichenbachiana <strong>and</strong><br />
others, then considered of little horticultural value. For<br />
some reason, Veitch did not consider Endrés a successful<br />
collector. “The mission, which term<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> April 1873,<br />
was expensive <strong>and</strong> scarcely a success” (Veitch, 1906:<br />
61). Endrés lived <strong>in</strong> San José <strong>and</strong> San Ramón, <strong>and</strong><br />
collected <strong>in</strong> all accessible regions of Costa Rica, from<br />
Ojo de Agua to the mounta<strong>in</strong>s of Talamanca, the region<br />
of Dota, hills of C<strong>and</strong>elaria <strong>and</strong> Aguacate, San Ramón,<br />
Sarapiquí, etc. (Fig. 40A). He sent a great amount of<br />
materials to Reichenbach. “The rich collections prepared<br />
by Endrés have rema<strong>in</strong>ed unstudied <strong>and</strong> wait for their<br />
identification <strong>in</strong> Reichenbach’s herbarium” (Schlechter,<br />
1918: 351). Dur<strong>in</strong>g these years, Endrés collected <strong>in</strong> the<br />
company of Ge<strong>org</strong>e Downton (?-1895), a British citizen<br />
who came to Central America <strong>in</strong> 1871, also hired by<br />
Veitch. Downton traveled to Engl<strong>and</strong> escort<strong>in</strong>g the first<br />
shipments of Endrés. After travel<strong>in</strong>g to Chile <strong>in</strong> October<br />
of 1871, he term<strong>in</strong>ated his contract <strong>in</strong> 1873 <strong>and</strong> settled<br />
<strong>in</strong> Central America, where he jo<strong>in</strong>ed a firm of coffee<br />
planters <strong>and</strong> died <strong>in</strong> 1895 (Anonymous, 1913: 263).<br />
Among the many new species discovered by Endrés<br />
we f<strong>in</strong>d the types of Barbosella prorepens (Rchb.<br />
f.) Schltr. (Endrés 271, Costa Rica), Pleurothallis<br />
endotrachys Rchb. f. (Endrés s.n., Costa Rica) <strong>and</strong><br />
Stelis endresii Rchb. f. (Endres W 18468, Costa<br />
Rica). The follow<strong>in</strong>g species were dedicated to<br />
him: Anathallis endresii (Luer) Pridgeon & M. W.<br />
Chase, Chondroscaphe endresii (Schltr.) Dressler,<br />
Epidendrum endresii Rchb.f. (Fig. 40B), Habenaria<br />
endresiana Schltr., Keferste<strong>in</strong>ia endresii Pupul<strong>in</strong>,<br />
Lepanthes endresii Luer, Maxillaria endresii Rchb.f.,<br />
Mesosp<strong>in</strong>idium endresii (Kraenzl.) Garay, Miltonia<br />
endresii Nichols., Telipogon endresianum Kraenzl.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Zootrophion endresianum (Kraenzl.) Luer. Rudolf<br />
Schlechter dedicated to him the genus Endresiella,<br />
today a synonym of Trevoria. From at least one of<br />
his specimens, we know that he collected also <strong>in</strong><br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Panama. A specimen of Rodriguezia leochil<strong>in</strong>a Rchb.<br />
f. (Goniochilus leochil<strong>in</strong>us (Rchb. f.) M. W. Chase)<br />
<strong>in</strong> Vienna bears a label <strong>in</strong> Reichenbach’s h<strong>and</strong>writ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
which says: “Rodriguezia? - Panama - Endres”.<br />
Besides collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong>, Endrés at some po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
collected birds. A collection was received <strong>in</strong> 1867 at<br />
the Smithsonian Institution of which Lawrence wrote:<br />
“A small but important collection of humm<strong>in</strong>gbirds has<br />
been received this summer, collected by A. R. Endrés <strong>in</strong><br />
Costa Rica” (Lawrence, 1882: 308). Another mystery is<br />
a series of specimens allegedly collected by Endrés <strong>in</strong><br />
Peru <strong>and</strong> Brazil. There is no <strong>in</strong>formation about travels<br />
by Endrés to these countries, but <strong>in</strong> the collection of<br />
Orchidaceae at the Natural History Museum <strong>in</strong> London<br />
we f<strong>in</strong>d 19 specimens apparently collected by Endrés <strong>in</strong><br />
Peru <strong>and</strong> one <strong>in</strong> Brazil. In the database of the herbaria<br />
of Harvard University Endrés is also mentioned as a<br />
collector <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Peru. ¿Did Endrés visit these<br />
countries, or did he receive plants from there (from other<br />
collectors) while he was <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica?<br />
To underst<strong>and</strong> the enigma of A. R. Endrés <strong>in</strong> the<br />
history of the <strong>orchids</strong> of Central America, the attempt<br />
must be made some day to research his life, start<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with all the material that is kept at Vienna. This will<br />
help <strong>in</strong> underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g the relations between Endrés<br />
<strong>and</strong> Reichenbach, probably not always fortunate if<br />
we consider the difficult character <strong>and</strong> egotism of the<br />
great German orchidologist. Curiously, Reichenbach<br />
ignored dur<strong>in</strong>g his life many of the specimens which he<br />
received from Endrés, which <strong>in</strong> many cases proved to<br />
be new genera or species. The material kept at Vienna<br />
was studied later, among others, by Ames, Schlechter,<br />
Kränzl<strong>in</strong>, Garay, Luer, Dressler, Dodson <strong>and</strong> Pupul<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Perhaps it was all a deference of Reichenbach to Endrés,<br />
who, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Luer, “judg<strong>in</strong>g from the numerous<br />
notes <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g figures, <strong>in</strong>tended pages <strong>and</strong> volumes,<br />
[...] was apparently prepar<strong>in</strong>g a publication” (Luer, 1995:<br />
133). Endrés collected <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica until 1874 or 1875.<br />
This same year he traveled to Colombia, where he was<br />
murdered <strong>in</strong> Riohacha (Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 123). Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to J<strong>org</strong>e Munera, Endrés, whom he calls ‘one of the<br />
greatest collectors’, was shot to death <strong>in</strong> a street of this<br />
small town on the Caribbean coast of Colombia (Munera,<br />
2005). Reichenbach never kept the promise expressed <strong>in</strong><br />
the Gardener’s Chronicle obituary (Fig. 40C). Life <strong>and</strong><br />
death of A. R. Endrés rema<strong>in</strong> as one of the best guarded<br />
secrets <strong>in</strong> the history of Central American <strong>orchids</strong>.
Other travelers <strong>in</strong> Central America (I): 1839-1870<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Put everyth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to your pocket!<br />
Baron Hügel’s advice to botanists<br />
There are several very <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g accounts of travels<br />
through Central America, written by persons who came<br />
for various motives (never primarily as botanists), but<br />
which conta<strong>in</strong> some <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g descriptions, which<br />
shall be commented hereafter.<br />
John Lloyd Stephens (1805-1852), born <strong>in</strong><br />
Shrewsbury, New Jersey, traveled <strong>in</strong> 1834 through<br />
Europe, Palest<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> Egypt, <strong>in</strong> the company of<br />
Frederick Catherwood, an Englishman who would<br />
illustrate most of his travel journals. In 1839, Stephens<br />
<strong>and</strong> Catherwood decided to explore Central America.<br />
United States President Van Buren, <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
support the expedition, gave Stephens a diplomatic<br />
commission. He visited Belize, Guatemala, Honduras,<br />
Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> dedicated his ma<strong>in</strong><br />
efforts to the explorations of the Mayan ru<strong>in</strong>s of<br />
Copán (Honduras), where Catherwood made beautiful<br />
illustrations. In Guatemala, he made the acqua<strong>in</strong>tance<br />
of Ge<strong>org</strong>e U. Sk<strong>in</strong>ner: “[...] I went to the house of<br />
Mr. Zebadous ... There I met Mr. Chatfield, General<br />
Consul of Her British Majesty, <strong>and</strong> Mr. Sk<strong>in</strong>ner, who<br />
had arrived dur<strong>in</strong>g my absence”. In another chapter he<br />
mentions the firm of Klee <strong>and</strong> Sk<strong>in</strong>ner, who “where<br />
the most important foreign merchants <strong>in</strong> Guatemala”<br />
(Stephens, 1971: 277, 222). Stephens became later<br />
one of the directors of the American Ocean Steam<br />
Navigation Co. He was <strong>in</strong> Panama with the purpose of<br />
explor<strong>in</strong>g the terra<strong>in</strong> for the construction of a railroad<br />
through the isthmus <strong>and</strong> was later president of the<br />
Panama Railroad Company, which would become so<br />
important for the botanical exploration of the region.<br />
Ephraim Ge<strong>org</strong>e Squier (1821-1888) (Fig. 40D)<br />
“came to Nicaragua <strong>in</strong> the year of 1849 as charge<br />
d’affairs of the United States <strong>and</strong> while occupy<strong>in</strong>g this<br />
diplomatic position rendered valuable services fight<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Engl<strong>and</strong>’s expansionistic tendencies <strong>in</strong> the Mosquito<br />
Coast. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1880 between<br />
the United Stated <strong>and</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong>, which guaranteed<br />
effectively for half a century Central America’s<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependence, was signed ma<strong>in</strong>ly through his efforts. An<br />
enthusiastic promoter of the open<strong>in</strong>g of an <strong>in</strong>teroceanic<br />
canal, he contributed, through his studies <strong>and</strong> research,<br />
greatly to broaden the geographical <strong>and</strong> geological<br />
113<br />
knowledge relative to the Central American Isthmus.<br />
He returned to Central America <strong>in</strong> 1853 to direct studies<br />
for the Honduran Interoceanic Railway Company, of<br />
which he was Secretary <strong>and</strong> whose <strong>in</strong>terests he had<br />
been promot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Europe; but this railway project was<br />
later ab<strong>and</strong>oned” (Fernández Guardia, 1972: 265-266).<br />
Squier traveled through Nicaragua, El Salvador <strong>and</strong><br />
Honduras, but it was Nicaragua the country he knew<br />
best. He wrote an important book about this country,<br />
which was published <strong>in</strong> 1860 (cited here is the Spasnish<br />
version of 1972). In several passages of his book, Squier<br />
describes the trees of the forest, full of ‘parasites’, <strong>in</strong><br />
many cases surely <strong>orchids</strong>. “The pendent branches<br />
full of parasites...” “From there on the countryside [...]<br />
is full of ‘jicarales’ (Crescentia spp.) covered to such<br />
extent with parasitic plants that they almost conceal the<br />
branches of these trees”. He also mentions a narrative<br />
by his friend Julius Froebel about his ascent to the Telica<br />
volcano, near León, <strong>in</strong> which he writes: “On the highest<br />
rim of the crater I found an orchid, whose crimson stems<br />
are similar to some varieties of our German <strong>orchids</strong>”<br />
(Squier, 1972: 319, 404, 436).<br />
Julius Froebel (1805-1893), nephew of Friedrich<br />
Froebel the celebrated educational reformer <strong>and</strong><br />
founder of the k<strong>in</strong>dergarten system, had been<br />
sentenced to death <strong>in</strong> 1848 for his participation of<br />
the German Revolution of that year, <strong>and</strong> fled to the<br />
United States. He arrived <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua <strong>in</strong> 1850, where<br />
he made important studies about the language of the<br />
Sumo Indians. His studies of Mayan architecture <strong>and</strong><br />
l<strong>in</strong>guistics are still used extensively. In 1857 he was <strong>in</strong><br />
Belize, study<strong>in</strong>g the suitability of British Honduras for<br />
German emigration.<br />
Friedrich Wilhelm Adolph Marr (1819-1904) was<br />
born <strong>in</strong> Magdeburg, Germany, a son of the famous<br />
actor He<strong>in</strong>rich Marr. The discovery of the Californian<br />
gold m<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> the projects for an <strong>in</strong>teroceanic canal<br />
<strong>in</strong> Nicaragua or Panama awakened his <strong>in</strong>terests, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> 1852 he traveled to New York <strong>and</strong> from there to<br />
Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica. While <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, he<br />
practiced as an improvised physician. In Costa Rica<br />
he became an eng<strong>in</strong>eer <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally a merchant, until he<br />
returned to Germany <strong>in</strong> 1853, with a commission by<br />
the Costa Rican government to br<strong>in</strong>g German colonists<br />
to the country. He failed <strong>in</strong> this purpose <strong>and</strong> returned<br />
to Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1854, where he established himself<br />
as a merchant <strong>in</strong> Puntarenas. He returned to Hamburg<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
114<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1859 <strong>and</strong> died <strong>in</strong> 1904 <strong>in</strong> extreme poverty. Marr<br />
published <strong>in</strong> 1863 a book about his journey, <strong>in</strong> which<br />
he presents beautiful descriptions of the nature that he<br />
encountered <strong>in</strong> the Central American countries (Marr,<br />
1863). It is sad that his racist tendencies dim<strong>in</strong>ished<br />
the value of his writ<strong>in</strong>gs. In several parts of his book,<br />
Marr writes about the <strong>orchids</strong> that he encountered on<br />
his way: “On the big trees often thirty or more orchid<br />
species had found a host, <strong>in</strong> the most bizarre forms<br />
<strong>and</strong> sizes.” “On the riverbanks, the powerful v<strong>in</strong>es<br />
that fall <strong>in</strong>to the water, the wild planta<strong>in</strong>s, the green<br />
physiognomies of the <strong>orchids</strong>!” “There I turned my<br />
eyes to the giants of the forest, to the wildly entangled<br />
v<strong>in</strong>es, the bizarre forms of the <strong>orchids</strong>, the fabulous<br />
fans of the wild palms…” (Marr, 1870: 166, 188, 172).<br />
William V<strong>in</strong>cent Wells (1826-1876) formed an<br />
association called the Honduras M<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> Trad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Company early <strong>in</strong> 1854 with James Davenport<br />
Whelpley, <strong>and</strong> Byron Cole. Wells traveled to Honduras<br />
through Nicaragua look<strong>in</strong>g for the gold m<strong>in</strong>es of<br />
Olancho, <strong>and</strong> he wrote Explorations And Adventures<br />
In Honduras (Wells, 1857). William V. Wells was one<br />
of the pioneers dur<strong>in</strong>g the gold rush <strong>in</strong> California. One<br />
of his partners, Byron Cole, was one of the <strong>in</strong>stigators<br />
of William Walker’s <strong>in</strong>vasion of Nicaragua <strong>in</strong> 1856.<br />
In his travel journal, Wells described what where<br />
undoubtedly <strong>orchids</strong>, near the Nicaraguan city of<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong>ega: “…parasitic plants, adorned with showy<br />
flowers, hung from the branches, which presented<br />
fantastic forms…”. Wells was not the first to confuse<br />
epiphytic plants with parasites. Some months later,<br />
already <strong>in</strong> Honduras, he writes about the “solemn<br />
greatness of these forests: the ceibas (Ceiba pent<strong>and</strong>ra),<br />
of gigantic proportions, with the hang<strong>in</strong>g gardens of<br />
parasites on their branches ...” (Wells, 1857).<br />
The Irishman Thomas Francis Meagher (1823-<br />
1867) came to Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1858 <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1860.<br />
From his travels he wrote his well-known Holidays <strong>in</strong><br />
Costa Rica. Dur<strong>in</strong>g an excursion to the valley of Orosi,<br />
Meagher writes: “We rode the last part of the journey<br />
towards the rivers with the eyes fixed on the canopy of<br />
the trees, full of <strong>orchids</strong> ...” (Meagher, 1859).<br />
A narrative of a journey along the Panama Railroad<br />
by Oran (?-?) <strong>in</strong> 1859 <strong>in</strong>cludes the description of a<br />
huge ceiba, the famous ‘Stephen’s tree’: “This Titan<br />
of the tropics measured no less than five yards <strong>in</strong><br />
diameter at its base, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the broad plane-shaped<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
roots that extended out on every side like buttresses,<br />
<strong>and</strong> tower<strong>in</strong>g up without a branch for nearly a hundred<br />
feet, supported a canopy of foliage full fifty yards <strong>in</strong><br />
diameter… A little reconnaissance rewarded us with<br />
several f<strong>in</strong>e specimens of orchidaceae with which the<br />
trunks <strong>and</strong> branches of many of the trees were studded”<br />
(Vargas, 2008: 159).<br />
The German Karl Albert Ludwig von Seebach<br />
(1839-1880) traveled through Central America<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the years of 1864 <strong>and</strong> 1865, study<strong>in</strong>g ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
the volcanoes of the region. In March of 1865 he<br />
climbed the Turrialba volcano <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the ascend, he describes the tropical forest: “V<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong><br />
epiphytic <strong>orchids</strong> hang from the trees, which, hidden<br />
from our view, announce their presence through their<br />
sweet perfume” (Seebach, 1892).<br />
Frederick Boyle (1841-1883) arrived <strong>in</strong> Greytown,<br />
Nicaragua, on November 12, 1865, hav<strong>in</strong>g traveled<br />
via K<strong>in</strong>gston (Jamaica) <strong>and</strong> Asp<strong>in</strong>wall (today Colón,<br />
Panama) <strong>in</strong> the company of his friend John Gladwyn<br />
Jebb. Boyle became years later a well-known writer<br />
on orchid matters. However, as Boyle expla<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the<br />
preface to the book that he wrote about this journey,<br />
his <strong>in</strong>terests dur<strong>in</strong>g this trip were different. “The ma<strong>in</strong><br />
object of the travels [...] was to exam<strong>in</strong>e the antiquities<br />
of Nicaragua”. Boyle sailed on a small steamer on the<br />
San Juan River to Granada, <strong>and</strong> from there rode to the<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g region of Chontales, where he spent some time<br />
digg<strong>in</strong>g out Indian graves <strong>in</strong> search for antiquities.<br />
Along the way to Libertad, the ma<strong>in</strong> village <strong>in</strong> this<br />
region, he writes, “every branch was decked with a<br />
fr<strong>in</strong>ge of <strong>orchids</strong>”; <strong>and</strong>, ly<strong>in</strong>g under a big tree, he saw<br />
that “purple dendrobia boldly clung to the lianas,<br />
parasites of a parasite” (Boyle, 1868). “Who <strong>in</strong> a volume<br />
could tell the story of this tree <strong>and</strong> its <strong>in</strong>habitants, could<br />
describe the variety, the lovel<strong>in</strong>ess of its vegetation,<br />
the millions of its liv<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong>gs...” (Boyle, 1874). In<br />
January of 1866 Boyle had returned to Granada, from<br />
where he explored the surround<strong>in</strong>gs until the first days<br />
of March. In March of 1866, Boyle sailed from the<br />
port of El Realejo to Puntarenas, <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, rid<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from there to San José, the capital of the country. “The<br />
beautiful purple <strong>orchids</strong>, for which Costa Rica is famed<br />
[Guarianthe sk<strong>in</strong>neri], hung trail<strong>in</strong>g down from walls<br />
<strong>and</strong> branches...” as Boyle noticed (Boyle, 1868). After a<br />
few weeks <strong>in</strong> San José, he returned to Greytown along<br />
the road of Sarapiquí. In Greytown he embarked for
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
his return trip to Engl<strong>and</strong>. His collections of antiquities<br />
went to the British Museum.<br />
Thomas Belt (1832-1878), English geologist <strong>and</strong><br />
naturalist, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne <strong>in</strong> 1832, <strong>and</strong><br />
educated <strong>in</strong> that city. As a youth he became actively<br />
<strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> natural history through the Tyneside<br />
Naturalists Field Club. In 1852 he went to Australia<br />
<strong>and</strong> for about eight years worked at the gold-digg<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
where he acquired a practical knowledge of ore deposits.<br />
In 1860 he proceeded to Nova Scotia to take charge of<br />
some gold-m<strong>in</strong>es, <strong>and</strong> there met with a serious <strong>in</strong>jury,<br />
which led to his return to Engl<strong>and</strong>. In 1861 he wrote<br />
on the orig<strong>in</strong> of m<strong>in</strong>eral ve<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> Australia. Later on he<br />
was engaged for about three years at Dolgelly (North<br />
Wales), another though small gold-m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g region, <strong>and</strong><br />
here he carefully <strong>in</strong>vestigated the rocks <strong>and</strong> fossils,<br />
his observations be<strong>in</strong>g published <strong>in</strong> an important <strong>and</strong><br />
now classic memoir <strong>in</strong> the Geological Magaz<strong>in</strong>e for<br />
1867. In the follow<strong>in</strong>g year he was appo<strong>in</strong>ted to take<br />
charge of some m<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, where he passed<br />
four active <strong>and</strong> adventurous years (1868-1872) the<br />
results be<strong>in</strong>g given <strong>in</strong> his The Naturalist <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua<br />
(1874), a work of high merit. In this volume the author<br />
expressed his views on the former presence of glaciers<br />
<strong>in</strong> that country. In subsequent papers he dealt boldly <strong>and</strong><br />
suggestively with the phenomena of the Glacial period<br />
<strong>in</strong> Brita<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> various parts of the world. After many<br />
further expeditions to Russia, Siberia <strong>and</strong> Colorado,<br />
he died at Denver on the 21st of September 1878 <strong>and</strong><br />
was buried there. Belt arrived at Greytown, as did most<br />
of the Europeans travel<strong>in</strong>g to Nicaragua, <strong>and</strong> gives an<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g description of the route along the San Juan<br />
River to the Lake of Nicaragua. The m<strong>in</strong>e managed<br />
by Belt was <strong>in</strong> the region of Chontales, <strong>in</strong> the Santo<br />
Dom<strong>in</strong>go valley, where he made the acqua<strong>in</strong>tance<br />
of the well-known German botanist Dr. Seemann,<br />
who was the manager at that time of the neighbor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Javalí m<strong>in</strong>e. Seemann died at Javalí; <strong>and</strong> Belt read the<br />
Burial Service over him, as was his custom upon the<br />
death of any European. Although Belt’s ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terests<br />
were <strong>in</strong> geology <strong>and</strong> entomology, he made <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
observations about <strong>orchids</strong>. “Beyond the brushwood,<br />
which grows where the orig<strong>in</strong>al forest has been cut<br />
down, there are large trees covered with numerous<br />
epiphytes — Till<strong>and</strong>sias, <strong>orchids</strong>, ferns, <strong>and</strong> a hundred<br />
others, that make every big tree an aerial garden”.<br />
“Except<strong>in</strong>g near the river, the country was very th<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
115<br />
timbered; <strong>and</strong> it was pleasant, after rid<strong>in</strong>g across the<br />
open pla<strong>in</strong>s, exposed to the hot rays of the sun, to reach<br />
the shady banks of the stream, by which grew many<br />
high thick-foliaged trees, with lianas hang<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
them, <strong>and</strong> bromelias, <strong>orchids</strong>, ferns, <strong>and</strong> many other<br />
epiphytes perched on their branches”. “This rock, on<br />
the southern <strong>and</strong> most perpendicular side, weathers to<br />
a whitish colour, <strong>and</strong> is called Pena Blanca, mean<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the white peak. It is visible from some po<strong>in</strong>ts on the<br />
savannahs. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the summer months it is, on the<br />
northern side, covered with the flowers of a caulescent<br />
orchid (Ornithorhynchos) that has not been found<br />
anywhere else <strong>in</strong> the neighbourhood; <strong>and</strong> the natives,<br />
who are very fond of flowers, <strong>in</strong>herit<strong>in</strong>g the taste from<br />
their Indian ancestors, at this time, often on Sundays<br />
ascend the peak <strong>and</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g down large quantities of the<br />
blossoms. Its colour, when it first opens, is scarlet <strong>and</strong><br />
yellow”. “A ridge on the eastern side runs up to with<strong>in</strong><br />
about 200 feet of the summit, <strong>and</strong> so far it is accessible.<br />
Up this I climbed to the base of the brown rock, the<br />
perpendicular cliff tower<strong>in</strong>g up above me; here <strong>and</strong><br />
there were patches of grey, where lichens clung to the<br />
rock, <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchids</strong>, ferns, <strong>and</strong> small shrubs grew <strong>in</strong> the<br />
clefts <strong>and</strong> on ledges. There were two f<strong>in</strong>e <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
flower, which grew not only on the rock, but on some<br />
stunted trees at its base...”. “Amongst the numerous<br />
plants that do not provide houses, but attract ants to their<br />
leaves <strong>and</strong> flower-buds by means of gl<strong>and</strong>s secret<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
honey-like liquid, are many epiphytal <strong>orchids</strong>, <strong>and</strong> I<br />
th<strong>in</strong>k all the species of Passiflora”. “Many epiphytes<br />
grew on the oaks, amongst which the mottled yellow<br />
flower of an orchid hung down <strong>in</strong> spikes six feet long”<br />
(Belt, 1874: 7, 42, 110, 153, 174, 188). “Mr. Belt is<br />
a close, an accurate, <strong>and</strong> an <strong>in</strong>telligent observer. He<br />
possesses the valuable faculty of wonder at whatever is<br />
new, or strange, or beautiful <strong>in</strong> nature; <strong>and</strong> the equally<br />
valuable habit of seek<strong>in</strong>g a reason for all that he sees.<br />
Hav<strong>in</strong>g found or imag<strong>in</strong>ed one, he goes on to make<br />
fresh observations <strong>and</strong> seeks out new facts, to see how<br />
they accord with his supposed cause of the phenomena.<br />
He is a man of wide experience; hav<strong>in</strong>g travelled much<br />
<strong>in</strong> North <strong>and</strong> South America <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Australia, as well<br />
as <strong>in</strong> many parts of Europe — <strong>and</strong> always with his eyes<br />
open — before visit<strong>in</strong>g Nicaragua. He is a geologist<br />
<strong>and</strong> an eng<strong>in</strong>eer, <strong>and</strong> knows how to overcome obstacles<br />
whether caused by the perversity of man or the forces<br />
of nature” (Wallace, 1874).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
116<br />
The era of lIberalIsm<br />
“Paz, educación y prosperidad material”<br />
(= ‘Peace, education <strong>and</strong> material prosperity’)<br />
Slogan of the liberal reform <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, 1871<br />
“The immense ideological power of the Church<br />
was a notorious characteristic <strong>in</strong> the formation of<br />
Central American society… The establishment of<br />
secular power was slow <strong>and</strong> difficult; a first attempt<br />
was made <strong>in</strong> the second half of the XVIII century,<br />
under the Bourbons of enlightened Spa<strong>in</strong>. But one has<br />
to wait until the end of the XIX century to observe a<br />
moderate laic triumph: this is the liberal era, the era of<br />
positivism, of education controlled by the State <strong>and</strong> the<br />
def<strong>in</strong>itive consecration of freedom of religion (Pérez<br />
Brignoli, 2000: 27)”. “... the fight between liberals <strong>and</strong><br />
conservatives (clericals) fills the history of Central<br />
America <strong>in</strong> the second half of the century...” (Halper<strong>in</strong><br />
Donghi, 2001: 258).<br />
In Guatemala the liberal revolution triumphed<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1871, dom<strong>in</strong>ated by the figure of president Justo<br />
Ruf<strong>in</strong>o Barrios, who was responsible for a radical<br />
agrarian reform <strong>and</strong> the expropriation of ecclesiastical<br />
possessions. In 1876 liberal ideas ga<strong>in</strong>ed strength <strong>in</strong><br />
El Salvador, dur<strong>in</strong>g the presidency of Rafael Zaldívar<br />
(1876-1885) <strong>and</strong> under strong Guatemalan <strong>in</strong>fluence.<br />
Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Honduras were an exception, with<br />
reforms that were frustrated or <strong>in</strong>complete. While<br />
Walker’s defeat <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua was followed by more<br />
than thirty years of conservative governments, regional<br />
fragmentation, difficulties <strong>in</strong> communications <strong>and</strong><br />
backwardness h<strong>in</strong>dered <strong>in</strong> Honduras the consolidation<br />
of the State. In Costa Rica, the liberal reforms <strong>in</strong>itiated<br />
<strong>in</strong> the forties by president Braulio Carrillo were<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ued by president José María Castro Madriz, who<br />
fought for public education <strong>and</strong> for the freedom of<br />
the press, <strong>and</strong> by the ‘progressive authoritarianism’ of<br />
dictator Tomás Guardia (1870-1882). The first public<br />
schools <strong>and</strong> the first universities of Central America<br />
were founded dur<strong>in</strong>g those years.<br />
“After most of Lat<strong>in</strong> America achieved <strong>in</strong>dependence<br />
from Spa<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the early n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century, foreign<br />
naturalists began to visit the new republics, as part<br />
of a flood of foreign soldiers, m<strong>in</strong>ers, eng<strong>in</strong>eers,<br />
adventurers, missionaries <strong>and</strong> others. The botany<br />
practiced by these foreign naturalists was essentially<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
extractive. They extracted botanically significant plants<br />
<strong>in</strong> much the same way that foreign corporations such<br />
as the United Fruit Company extracted bananas from<br />
Central America… By the late n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century, the<br />
most important herbaria of Lat<strong>in</strong> American plants were<br />
to be found <strong>in</strong> Europe <strong>and</strong> North America… Beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the last quarter of the n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century, however,<br />
many Lat<strong>in</strong> American countries began to produce<br />
their own botanical <strong>in</strong>ventories <strong>and</strong> national floras.<br />
The grow<strong>in</strong>g official <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the natural world<br />
co<strong>in</strong>cides with the liberal era <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> America that<br />
lasted roughly from 1870 to 1930. National botanical<br />
<strong>in</strong>ventories appealed to Lat<strong>in</strong> America’s liberal elites<br />
for ideological <strong>and</strong> practical reasons. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the liberal<br />
era, national governments pursued the goals of ‘order<br />
<strong>and</strong> progress’, enlist<strong>in</strong>g science <strong>and</strong> technology to<br />
help rationalize <strong>and</strong> modernize the state, the economy,<br />
<strong>and</strong> society. They pursued economic growth through<br />
the export of tropical commodities – rang<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustrial commodities such as rubber <strong>and</strong> henequen<br />
to luxury foods such as coffee, sugar <strong>and</strong> bananas.<br />
This meant that dur<strong>in</strong>g the liberal era many Lat<strong>in</strong><br />
American economies -<strong>and</strong> by extension the states-<br />
depended heavily upon plants… The leaders <strong>in</strong> each<br />
country began to take an <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> botany that offered<br />
the possibility of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the production of exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
export crops <strong>and</strong> of discover<strong>in</strong>g new ones. Many Lat<strong>in</strong><br />
American governments established or revived national<br />
botanical gardens, agricultural experiment stations,<br />
<strong>and</strong> natural history museums, whose research agendas<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded survey<strong>in</strong>g the nation’s plants, compil<strong>in</strong>g<br />
national herbaria <strong>and</strong>, most significantly, produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
national floras” (McCook, 2002: 514-515).<br />
Liberal ideas also led to the creation of private<br />
gardens <strong>and</strong> collections, comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g leisure with<br />
scientific <strong>in</strong>terests. In the history of the <strong>orchids</strong> of<br />
Central America the legendary orchid hunter began to<br />
be displaced by the scientific collector. Although great<br />
quantities of plants where still collected <strong>and</strong> sent to<br />
Europe <strong>and</strong> later to the United States, the shipments of<br />
herbarium specimens began to outnumber those of live<br />
plants. A further contribution to this development were<br />
the improvement of methods for the reproduction of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> from seed <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong>, which began <strong>in</strong> 1849 <strong>and</strong><br />
the production of the first hybrids by John Dom<strong>in</strong>y <strong>in</strong><br />
1854. “Gradually […] the <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> imported species<br />
waned as commercial success <strong>in</strong> orchid hybridization
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased” (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 66). The era of the great<br />
collectors, of the great adventurers <strong>and</strong> gatherers of<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g plants, came slowly to an end, <strong>and</strong> gave way<br />
to a large group of scientific travelers, whose ma<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>terest was the collection of herbarium specimens. An<br />
additional reason for this change were the ris<strong>in</strong>g costs<br />
of the expeditions.<br />
As Boyle wrote <strong>in</strong> 1893, “twenty years ago, nearly<br />
all the great nurserymen <strong>in</strong> London used to send out<br />
their travellers; but they have mostly dropped the<br />
practice. Correspondents forward a shipment from<br />
time to time. The expenses of the collector are heavy,<br />
even if he draw no more than his due. [...] Then, grave<br />
losses are always probable –<strong>in</strong> the case of South<br />
American importations, certa<strong>in</strong>. It has happened not<br />
once but a hundred times that the toil of months, the<br />
dangers, the suffer<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong> the hard money expended<br />
go to absolute waste. Twenty or thirty thous<strong>and</strong> plants<br />
or more an honest man collects, br<strong>in</strong>gs down from the<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s or the forests, packs carefully <strong>and</strong> ships.<br />
[...] The cases arrive <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong> – <strong>and</strong> not a liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
th<strong>in</strong>g there<strong>in</strong>!” (Boyle, 1983: 68).<br />
German (<strong>and</strong> other) collectors <strong>in</strong> the second half of<br />
the XIX century. Germany played always an important<br />
role <strong>in</strong> the history of Botany. When national unity was<br />
achieved, symbolized by the crown<strong>in</strong>g of Wilhelm I as<br />
German Emperor <strong>in</strong> 1871, natural sciences received a<br />
new impulse. The Royal Herbarium <strong>in</strong> Berl<strong>in</strong>, created<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1815 under the tutelage of the Royal Prussian<br />
Academy of Sciences to host the collections of de C.<br />
L. Willdenow, became <strong>in</strong> 1879 the Royal Botanical<br />
Museum of Berl<strong>in</strong>, to which the Botanical Garden<br />
was attached <strong>in</strong> 1910.When the German Empire<br />
exp<strong>and</strong>ed dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1880s, with the <strong>in</strong>corporation<br />
of the colonies of Cameroon, Togo, German South-<br />
West Africa, Eastern Africa, South Pacific Territories,<br />
Kiautschou, New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea <strong>and</strong> Samoa, a great wave of<br />
emigrants began to leave Germany. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the last 30<br />
years of the XIX century more than 4 million Germans<br />
left for America, Africa <strong>and</strong> Asia <strong>in</strong> search of fortune.<br />
Great opportunities presented themselves to<br />
German explorers <strong>and</strong> scientists to explore little known<br />
territories. Reichenbach had, until his death <strong>in</strong> 1889, an<br />
<strong>in</strong>exhaustible source of new orchid species that were<br />
sent to him from all conf<strong>in</strong>es of the globe. His place<br />
would be occupied very soon by a young scientist<br />
117<br />
who, at the age of 19, embarked on his first exploratory<br />
mission to colonial Africa: Rudolf Schlechter.<br />
The new wave of German collectors <strong>in</strong> Central<br />
America began with Gustav Wallis (1830-1878) (Fig.<br />
40F), who was born with a physical limitation: he was<br />
deaf <strong>and</strong> mute until six years of age, when he learned to<br />
articulate, although a speech defect persisted dur<strong>in</strong>g his<br />
entire life (Re<strong>in</strong>ika, 1995: 234). Despite of his problem,<br />
<strong>and</strong> of a childhood filled with penuries, he showed<br />
always an <strong>in</strong>domitable will <strong>and</strong> enormous energy. He<br />
learned garden<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> botany <strong>in</strong> Germany, where he<br />
made his first collections while study<strong>in</strong>g the flora of the<br />
Alps. He first traveled to America <strong>in</strong> 1856, collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> Southern Brazil. In connection with a German house<br />
he started a horticultural establishment, but ow<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
the failure of the parent firm <strong>in</strong> 1858 Wallis was left<br />
practically penniless (Veitch, 1906: 63). He cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Brazil, employed by L<strong>in</strong>den, <strong>and</strong> explored<br />
the Amazonas River from its mouth <strong>in</strong> the Atlantic<br />
to its source. “At the end of September 1868, utterly<br />
exhausted by arduous journeys, he returned to Europe.<br />
... He received the Great Gold Medal for Botany at the<br />
International Exhibition <strong>in</strong> Paris <strong>and</strong> also a premier<br />
prize from the Belgian Government” (Yearsley, 2007:<br />
108). Dur<strong>in</strong>g the years of 1860 to 1864 he collected<br />
aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Brazil <strong>and</strong> passed <strong>in</strong> 1865 to Colombia y<br />
Ecuador, arriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1868 <strong>in</strong> Panama, from where he<br />
made an excursion to the border of Costa Rica. He<br />
returned to Europe <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1869 came under contract<br />
with Veitch to explore the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es. He went to Japan<br />
<strong>and</strong> then to the United States <strong>and</strong> returned to Europe.<br />
He was sent <strong>in</strong> 1872 to Colombia, <strong>in</strong> what would be<br />
his last travel to South America. Upon the term<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
of his contract with the Veitches he cont<strong>in</strong>ued to<br />
collect plants <strong>in</strong> South America, among them many<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>. Re<strong>in</strong>ikka suggests that he arrived <strong>in</strong> Panama<br />
after 1875 (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 235), but he must have<br />
been earlier <strong>in</strong> Central America, because Reichenbach<br />
described Trichocentrum capistratum Rchb. f., based<br />
on a collection by Wallis <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1871, <strong>and</strong><br />
Zygopetalum (= Keferste<strong>in</strong>ia) lacteum Rchb. f. (Wallis<br />
s.n., Panama) <strong>in</strong> 1872. The majority of his collections<br />
(as had the collections of Roezl some years before)<br />
arrived at the London market by <strong>in</strong>termediation of<br />
Eduard Ortgies, an important German orchid merchant<br />
based <strong>in</strong> Zurich, Switzerl<strong>and</strong> (Anonymous, 1894: 225-<br />
229).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
118<br />
Wallis published a few new species, presumably<br />
based on material collected while he worked for<br />
L<strong>in</strong>den, which resulted <strong>in</strong> a strong personal attack by<br />
L<strong>in</strong>den (1875), who accused Wallis of be<strong>in</strong>g a corrupt<br />
collector with little knowledge of plants. “I found him<br />
penniless, unknown, ab<strong>and</strong>oned. When he left me he<br />
had a reputation, a small fortune [...]. I took him from<br />
the Amazon Delta to the Isthmus of Panama, a journey<br />
which cost me 125,000 francs: an enormous sum<br />
compared with the paltry returns result<strong>in</strong>g from the<br />
specimens arriv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> poor condition...” (Ceulemans et<br />
al., 2006: 146). Wallis answer was a letter of 18 pages<br />
<strong>and</strong> consisted <strong>in</strong> cit<strong>in</strong>g previous letters by L<strong>in</strong>den,<br />
<strong>in</strong> which he was congratulated for his work <strong>and</strong><br />
excellent collections (Jörgensen, 2003). In Panama he<br />
suffered a bad attack of yellow fever, from which he<br />
barely recovered. He cont<strong>in</strong>ued work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> arrived<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ecuador, but a second attack, comb<strong>in</strong>ed with<br />
dysentery, proved fatal. “Letters from the collector<br />
Edward Klaboch carried the news that Wallis died <strong>in</strong><br />
the hospital at Cuenca, Ecuador, on 20 June 1878”<br />
(Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 235). More than 20 species of<br />
Orchidaceae carry his name, among them Oerstedella<br />
wallisii (Rchb. f.) Hágsater, one of the most beautiful<br />
species of this genus.<br />
Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze (1843-1907) (Fig. 41A),<br />
the famous German botanist <strong>and</strong> naturalist, crossed<br />
Costa Rica from the Atlantic to the Pacific <strong>in</strong> 1874,<br />
<strong>and</strong> compla<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> his book (Kuntze, 1881) that he<br />
saw only six species of <strong>orchids</strong>. He had previously<br />
explored the isthmus of Panama, between Colón <strong>and</strong><br />
Panama City. The results of his botanical explorations<br />
were published by Kuntze <strong>in</strong> his Revisio Generum<br />
Plantarum that appeared <strong>in</strong> several parts between 1891<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1898. It conta<strong>in</strong>ed a large section on Kuntze’s<br />
nomenclatural system that became the source of a<br />
great deal of controversy. In the third volume, Kuntze<br />
replied to many of his critics <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduced much<br />
new material. It was published <strong>in</strong> two parts <strong>in</strong> 1893<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1898 <strong>and</strong> conta<strong>in</strong>s a lengthy summary of his<br />
nonconformist system. For the rest of his life, Kuntze<br />
was engaged <strong>in</strong> disputes with the botanical community<br />
on the basic questions of plant nomenclature. An<br />
enemy of L<strong>in</strong>né’s b<strong>in</strong>omial system of nomenclature, he<br />
spoke of the date of 1753 (when L<strong>in</strong>né promulgated his<br />
system) as ‘a horrible fiction <strong>and</strong> mistake that I cannot<br />
accept as a scientific <strong>and</strong> honest man’ ”(Anonymous,<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
1907: 67). In his Revisio Generum Plantarum, Kuntze<br />
describes over 1,000 new species of Orchidaceae. One<br />
of his collections was dedicated to him by Cogniaux:<br />
Campylocentrum kuntzei Cogn. ex Kuntze (=<br />
Campylocentrum micranthum (L<strong>in</strong>dl) Rolfe - Bolivia).<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to some sources, Kuntze was <strong>in</strong> Mexico at<br />
the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the XX century, where he collected <strong>in</strong><br />
the states of Veracruz, Puebla <strong>and</strong> Oaxaca (Anonymous,<br />
1906: 167). However, no records of collections of<br />
Orchidaceae have been found from these travels.<br />
As one of many German emigrants who traveled<br />
to the tropics search<strong>in</strong>g for fortune, Baron Hans<br />
von Tuerckheim (1853-1920) (Fig. 41B) arrived <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala <strong>in</strong> 1877. He settled <strong>in</strong> the region of Alta<br />
Verapaz, near Cobán, where he acquired the farm<br />
‘Chicoyogüito’, thanks to a letter of recommendation<br />
from the German Charge of Affairs Werner von Bergen<br />
(Wagner, 2007: 178). There he lived, produc<strong>in</strong>g coffee<br />
<strong>and</strong> study<strong>in</strong>g the flora <strong>and</strong> fauna of the region. It is<br />
said that he was dis<strong>in</strong>herited by his German family,<br />
because he married a Guatemalan dancer. From 1883<br />
to 1895, von Tuerckheim substituted for the Charge of<br />
Affairs at the German vice-consulate <strong>in</strong> Cobán, until<br />
he decided to sell his farm <strong>and</strong> return to Germany. In<br />
1906 he returned to Guatemala for a short period <strong>and</strong><br />
left f<strong>in</strong>ally Central America <strong>in</strong> 1914. The collections<br />
by von Tuerckheim whose numbers start with “II” are<br />
all from this last journey. In 1910 he made a short trip<br />
to the Dom<strong>in</strong>ican Republic (March-June, 1910), as<br />
German consul <strong>in</strong> that country. From this trip we know<br />
of several collections (Pleurothallis appendiculata<br />
Cogn., Tuerckheim 3233). When he started to have<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ancial problems due to the fall of the <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
coffee prices, he began collect<strong>in</strong>g plants <strong>and</strong> seeds at<br />
a larger scale, which he exported to laboratories <strong>and</strong><br />
botanical gardens. At a certa<strong>in</strong> po<strong>in</strong>t of his research<br />
<strong>in</strong> Guatemala he received f<strong>in</strong>ancial support from John<br />
Donnell-Smith, the great North American botanist,<br />
who distributed von Tuerckheim’s specimens to the<br />
most important herbaria of the world (Maldonado<br />
Polo, 1996: 135). Donnell-Smith published also his<br />
Enumeratio Plantarum Guatemalensium, describ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
von Tuerckheim’s collections <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
40 species of <strong>orchids</strong> (Donnell-Smith, 1889: 41.45).<br />
His collections form the base for a more exact<br />
knowledge of the orchid flora of Guatemala, ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
that of Alta Verapaz, especially because he occupied
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
D<br />
Figure 40. A — San Jose <strong>in</strong> Endrés’ time. 19th century postcard, courtesy of Alvaro Castro. B — Epidendrum endresii Rchb.f.<br />
Illustration by A. Goosens, <strong>in</strong> Cougniaux <strong>and</strong> Goosens, 1896-1907. C — Endrés’ obituary <strong>in</strong> the Gardeners’ Chronicle, May<br />
8, 1875. D —Ephraim G. Squier (1821-1888). In Squier, 1972: 28. E — Gustav Wallis (1830-1878). Courtesy of the Oakes<br />
Ames Herbarium, Harvard University..<br />
E<br />
119<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
120<br />
C<br />
A B<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 119<br />
Figure 41. A — Carl Ernst Otto Kuntze (1843-1907). Courtesy of the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation. B — Hans<br />
von Tuerckheim (1853-1920). Courtesy of Freddy Archila. C — The city of Cobán, 19th century. In Wagner, 2001: 121.<br />
D — Frederick S<strong>and</strong>er (1847-1920). In Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970, after p. 190.<br />
D
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
himself also with the less showy species. “The study<br />
of the collections prepared by Baron von Tuerckheim<br />
<strong>in</strong> the area of Cobán has made us discover a surpris<strong>in</strong>g<br />
number of new species” (Schlechter, 1918: 343).<br />
Among the many types of new species that he<br />
discovered, are the follow<strong>in</strong>g, described ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
by Ames <strong>and</strong> Schlechter: Aspidogyne stictophylla<br />
(Schltr.) Garay (Tuerckheim II 1994), Dichaea<br />
<strong>in</strong>termedia Ames & Correll (Tuerckheim II 1798),<br />
Dichaea muricatoides Hamer & Garay (Tuerckheim<br />
s.n.), Dichaea tuerckheimii Schltr. (Tuerckheim s.n.),<br />
Dryadella guatemalensis (Schltr.) Luer (Tuerckheim II<br />
490), Dryadella l<strong>in</strong>earifolia (Ames) Luer (Tuerckheim<br />
7784), Encyclia tuerckheimii Schltr. (Tuerckheim 2456<br />
), Epidendrum cer<strong>in</strong>um Schltr. (Tuerckheim 4179 ),<br />
Epidendrum isomerum Schltr. (Tuerckheim II 167),<br />
Epidendrum mixtum Schltr. (Tuerckheim II 1868),<br />
Epidendrum pseudoramosum Schltr. (Tuerckheim<br />
II 1951), Erythrodes tuerckheimii (Schltr.) Ames<br />
(Tuerckheim 733), Microstylis tuerckheimii Schltr.<br />
(Tuerckheim 1017), Platystele jungermannioides<br />
(Schltr.) Garay (Tuerckheim 698), Scaphyglottis<br />
cuneata Schltr. (Tuerckheim s.n.), Scelochilus<br />
tuerckheimii Schltr. (Tuerckheim II-1919), Stelis<br />
fulva Schltr. (Tuerckheim 4064), Stelis gracilis<br />
Ames (Tuerckheim 7681), <strong>and</strong> Stelis rubens, Schltr.<br />
(Tuerckheim II 1061). Platystele jungermannioides<br />
is one of his most <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g collections, be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
reputedly the smallest orchid <strong>in</strong> the world. He is also<br />
mentioned <strong>in</strong> relation to the discovery of Catlleya<br />
bowr<strong>in</strong>giana Veitch: “A planter named Turkheim<br />
[sic] sent it from British Honduras to Mr. Bowr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of Forest Farm, W<strong>in</strong>dsor, <strong>in</strong> 1884” (Boyle, 1901:<br />
37). Von Tuerckheim was also <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> many<br />
other plants families, <strong>and</strong> many new species were<br />
described <strong>and</strong> dedicated to him, such as: Coccobola<br />
tuerckheimii Donn. Sm. (Polygonaceae), Panicum<br />
tuerckheimii Hackel (Poaceae), Lyonia tuerckheimii<br />
Urb. (Ericaceae), Phyllanthus tuerckheimii G.L.<br />
Webster (Euphorbiaceae), Phaseolus tuerckheimii<br />
Donn. Sm. (Fabaceae), <strong>and</strong> Columnea tuerckheimii<br />
Sprague (Gesneriaceae). Von Tuerckheim met briefly<br />
Bernoulli, before the Swiss went on his last expedition<br />
to the region of Petén <strong>in</strong> 1877.<br />
The city of Cobán (Fig. 41C) <strong>and</strong> the department<br />
of Alta Verapaz occupy a special place <strong>in</strong> the history<br />
of Guatemalan <strong>orchidology</strong>, similar to that of San<br />
121<br />
Ramón <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica. With its very humid climate<br />
(Cobán <strong>in</strong> the language of the Q´eqchi’ means<br />
“between ra<strong>in</strong>falls”) the region offers an enormous<br />
diversity of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> has traditionally been the<br />
birthplace of the best nurseries <strong>in</strong> the country. Cobán<br />
was founded on August 14, 1543 by Dom<strong>in</strong>ican friars<br />
<strong>and</strong> Emperor Charles V named her ‘Imperial City’.<br />
The follow<strong>in</strong>g species of <strong>orchids</strong> were dedicated to<br />
the city: Jacqu<strong>in</strong>iella cobanensis (Ames & Schltr.)<br />
Dressler, Maxillaria cobanensis Schltr., Pleurothallis<br />
cobanensis Schltr., <strong>and</strong> Spiranthes cobanensis Schltr.<br />
The types of the first three were collected by von<br />
Tuerckheim. The fourth was collected by Friedrich<br />
Carl Lehmann, of whom we will talk shortly.<br />
The dem<strong>and</strong> for <strong>orchids</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g the last quarter of the<br />
century escalated <strong>and</strong> the collection of plants from the<br />
wild <strong>and</strong> their shipment back to Brita<strong>in</strong> (<strong>and</strong> subsequently<br />
to the rest of Europe) became a major <strong>in</strong>dustry. The time<br />
was right for Henry Frederick Conrad S<strong>and</strong>er (1847-<br />
1920) to set up bus<strong>in</strong>ess as an importer <strong>and</strong> commercial<br />
grower of <strong>orchids</strong>. S<strong>and</strong>er faced stiff opposition from<br />
already well-established firms, such as James Veitch,<br />
Hugh Low, William Bull <strong>and</strong> others, <strong>and</strong> he teetered<br />
on the br<strong>in</strong>k of bankruptcy on several occasions. But<br />
eventually S<strong>and</strong>er (later S<strong>and</strong>er <strong>and</strong> Sons) became the<br />
largest orchid establishment <strong>in</strong> Europe.<br />
Frederick S<strong>and</strong>er (Fig. 41D) was born <strong>in</strong> Bremen<br />
(Germany) but moved to Engl<strong>and</strong> at age 16. Marriage<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1870 to Elizabeth Fearnley, daughter of a rich pr<strong>in</strong>ter<br />
was the catalyst for S<strong>and</strong>er’s rise to fame, as she provided<br />
him with the funds to enter bus<strong>in</strong>ess by purchas<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
seed bus<strong>in</strong>ess at Sa<strong>in</strong>t Albans, a short distance northwest<br />
of London. He soon entered <strong>in</strong>to a profitable<br />
arrangement with the Czech orchid collector Benedict<br />
Roezl <strong>and</strong> they prospered together until Roezl died <strong>in</strong><br />
1884. More <strong>and</strong> more collectors were employed until<br />
at one po<strong>in</strong>t he had 23 ‘travelers’ collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> for<br />
him throughout the world. Several of them (Oversluys,<br />
Falkenberg, F<strong>org</strong>et, etc.) collected for S<strong>and</strong>ers <strong>in</strong> our<br />
region. The supply of plants of all k<strong>in</strong>ds grew to such an<br />
extent that S<strong>and</strong>er found it necessary to set up a second<br />
nursery <strong>in</strong> Bruges (Belgium), where 250 glass-houses<br />
were eventually constructed, of which 50 were used<br />
to house <strong>orchids</strong>. Some idea of the scale of S<strong>and</strong>er’s<br />
operations can be ga<strong>in</strong>ed from his claim that he imported<br />
more than one million plants of just one orchid species,<br />
Dendrobium phalaenopsis var. schroederiana, from<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
122<br />
New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea. Between 1888 <strong>and</strong> 1894 S<strong>and</strong>er devoted a<br />
great amount of work <strong>and</strong> money on the publication of<br />
Reichenbachia, a series of beautiful orchid illustrations,<br />
<strong>in</strong> Boyle’s worlds “that great monument to <strong>orchidology</strong>,<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>in</strong> four languages. [...] S<strong>and</strong>er employed the most<br />
skilful craftsmen to be found, the f<strong>in</strong>est paper, the most<br />
deliberate <strong>and</strong> costly processes, to rival great works of<br />
the past ...” (<strong>in</strong> Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 17). Volume I of the first<br />
series came out <strong>in</strong> 1888, conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g forty-eight plates.<br />
Volume two, with the same number of plates, came<br />
out <strong>in</strong> 1890. In 1892 <strong>and</strong> 1894 the two volumes of the<br />
second series appeared, aga<strong>in</strong> with a total of n<strong>in</strong>ety-six<br />
plates. “It is no wonder that S<strong>and</strong>er often remarked that<br />
the project almost ru<strong>in</strong>ed him” (Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 100).<br />
In 1902 S<strong>and</strong>er’s three sons (Louis, Fearnley <strong>and</strong> Fred)<br />
were taken <strong>in</strong>to partnership but the orchid boom was<br />
near<strong>in</strong>g its end. New species were becom<strong>in</strong>g harder<br />
to f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>and</strong> they did not comm<strong>and</strong> such high prices<br />
as they had <strong>in</strong> the past. Most other nurserymen no<br />
longer employed plant collectors, but bought <strong>orchids</strong><br />
on commission, so that any losses <strong>in</strong>curred dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
shipment (a frequent occurrence) were borne by the<br />
collector, not by the nurseryman. But S<strong>and</strong>er rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
loyal to his long-time collectors F<strong>org</strong>et <strong>and</strong> Micholitz,<br />
who rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> his employment until they retired <strong>in</strong><br />
1914.<br />
World War I <strong>and</strong> the German occupation of Belgium<br />
forced the S<strong>and</strong>er family to leave Bruges but thanks<br />
to the services of a Swedish manager the nursery<br />
survived the war, although many <strong>orchids</strong> died dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
w<strong>in</strong>ter because of fuel restrictions. Frederick S<strong>and</strong>er<br />
also survived the war, but <strong>in</strong> decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g health <strong>and</strong> he<br />
died <strong>in</strong> 1920, aged 72 years. He had become a legend<br />
<strong>in</strong> Europe. Most royal families grew <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> they<br />
all knew him personally <strong>and</strong> respected his advice. He<br />
received honors from many of them. S<strong>and</strong>er exhibited<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> throughout Europe dur<strong>in</strong>g his long career <strong>and</strong><br />
won <strong>in</strong>numerable trophies for his displays, <strong>and</strong> awards<br />
<strong>and</strong> gold medals for his <strong>orchids</strong>. Such was his fame<br />
that he was known as ‘The Orchid K<strong>in</strong>g’. S<strong>and</strong>er was<br />
Royal Orchid Grower to Queen Victoria from 1886<br />
<strong>and</strong> a foundation member of the Orchid Committee of<br />
the Royal Horticultural Society. A great number of new<br />
species were dedicated to him. From the American<br />
Tropics we f<strong>in</strong>d among them: Calanthe s<strong>and</strong>eriana<br />
B.S. Williams, Epidendrum s<strong>and</strong>eri A.D.Hawkes,<br />
Gongora s<strong>and</strong>eriana Kraenzl., Houlletia s<strong>and</strong>eri<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Rolfe, Laelia s<strong>and</strong>eriana Crawshay, Lueddemannia<br />
s<strong>and</strong>eriana Kraenzl., Maxillaria s<strong>and</strong>eriana Rchb.f.<br />
ex S<strong>and</strong>er, Odontoglossum s<strong>and</strong>erianum Rchb.f.,<br />
Oncidium s<strong>and</strong>erae Rolfe, Oncidium s<strong>and</strong>erianum<br />
Rolfe, Schomburgkia s<strong>and</strong>eriana Rolfe, Sobralia<br />
s<strong>and</strong>erae Rolfe, <strong>and</strong> Zygopetalum s<strong>and</strong>erianum Regel.<br />
“Though the precise date that S<strong>and</strong>er sent out his first<br />
travellers cannot be stated with certa<strong>in</strong>ty, it must have<br />
been very soon after he opened up his shop <strong>in</strong> 1876...”<br />
(Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 44). One of these travelers was Martien<br />
Oversluys, a (Dutch?) collector with long experience<br />
<strong>in</strong> South America, who came to Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1878<br />
<strong>in</strong> search of Oncidium splendidum A. Rich. ex Duch.<br />
Boyle gives us an account of his travels from one part<br />
of the country to the other, dur<strong>in</strong>g five years <strong>in</strong> which<br />
Oversluys went from North to South <strong>and</strong> East to West,<br />
but “not a peon could be found <strong>in</strong> the woods to recognize<br />
the sketch which Mr. S<strong>and</strong>er had given him” (Boyle,<br />
1901: 243). “It may grow <strong>in</strong> heaven or <strong>in</strong> other places,<br />
but it is not to be found <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica” (Oversluys <strong>in</strong> a<br />
letter to S<strong>and</strong>er, <strong>in</strong> Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 101. “Irritated <strong>and</strong><br />
despair<strong>in</strong>g as time went by, but not permitted to ab<strong>and</strong>on<br />
the search, the collector found diversion now <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> a gallop through the neighbor<strong>in</strong>g States. And once he<br />
pushed as far as Guatemala” (Boyle, 1901: 37). Here<br />
Boyle relates the story of how Oversluys attempted, <strong>in</strong><br />
va<strong>in</strong>, to collect a large number of Cattleya bowr<strong>in</strong>giana<br />
from the roof of a church <strong>in</strong> a small Indian village,<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g to flee for his life after be<strong>in</strong>g discovered. Some<br />
years later, he returned to Guatemala. “[In March 1889]<br />
Oversluys was writ<strong>in</strong>g from Guatemala that he was<br />
send<strong>in</strong>g off sixty-n<strong>in</strong>e cases of <strong>orchids</strong>, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 2,000<br />
plants of Oncidium splendidum (Fig. 42A). This must<br />
have delighted S<strong>and</strong>er’s heart, for this was the plant<br />
he had dispatched him to f<strong>in</strong>d several years earlier”<br />
(Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 101). Oversluys was an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g<br />
character, <strong>and</strong> a confirmed pessimist, <strong>and</strong> like Micholitz<br />
he was never afraid to tell S<strong>and</strong>er what he thought of<br />
him. So he writes: “I duly received your letter of the<br />
6th May <strong>and</strong> am very astonished at the order you give<br />
me to collect <strong>in</strong> this month Lycaste sk<strong>in</strong>neri. You know<br />
as well as I do that it is <strong>in</strong> full growth from April till<br />
the end of October <strong>and</strong> cannot be collected <strong>in</strong> these<br />
months.’ In his qua<strong>in</strong>t English, he also gave some vivid<br />
pictures of the problems besett<strong>in</strong>g the orchid hunter: ‘3 rd<br />
September, 1890, Cobán. I got the plants, many <strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>e<br />
pieces, but now have the pa<strong>in</strong>ful trouble of how I can
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
get them away from Cobán. At the moment I do not<br />
know, as the season of heavy ra<strong>in</strong>fall has settled <strong>in</strong>. I sit<br />
here before the question. How can I beg<strong>in</strong> to pack <strong>and</strong><br />
get them all away? I had the plants cleaned, arranged<br />
under the trees <strong>in</strong> the shade, I will see they are given<br />
much care <strong>and</strong> try to keep them <strong>in</strong> good condition... <strong>and</strong><br />
when carts go down I will see they are packed <strong>and</strong> sent<br />
away by <strong>and</strong> by. Mules are not to be had <strong>in</strong> Cobán <strong>and</strong><br />
from Guatemala drivers will not come up. All transport<br />
here is done on men’s backs” (<strong>in</strong> a letter to S<strong>and</strong>er, <strong>in</strong><br />
Sw<strong>in</strong>son, A., 1970, op. cit., p. 102).<br />
At the end of 1894, only three travelers rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
with S<strong>and</strong>er: L. F<strong>org</strong>et, the German William Micholitz,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Oversluys, who was almost at the end of his career.<br />
In April 1895 he was aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Cobán, where he had<br />
been sent to collect once more Lycaste sk<strong>in</strong>neri: “I have<br />
already 5,000 plants <strong>and</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k with<strong>in</strong> ten days more<br />
I’ll have at least 8,000. There is one th<strong>in</strong>g that troubles<br />
me about your letter of the 25 th February, which I got<br />
yesterday. That is you hope I will not take up too much<br />
money. [...] Will you please expla<strong>in</strong> to me how I should<br />
collect up to 10,000 Lycaste <strong>in</strong> one month, before<br />
the season is f<strong>in</strong>ished, with seventy-five to hundred<br />
pounds? [...]” A few days later: “Oncidium splendidum<br />
is gett<strong>in</strong>g scarce. I told my men to look out for further<br />
spots” (letter to S<strong>and</strong>er, <strong>in</strong> Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 127). After<br />
this no further news appear from Oversluys, <strong>and</strong> what<br />
happened to him is unknown. “Probably though, as<br />
there is no record of his be<strong>in</strong>g killed or dy<strong>in</strong>g on the<br />
job, he merely left S<strong>and</strong>er’s services or gave up orchid<br />
hunt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> returned home. His f<strong>in</strong>al letters <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />
a trend [...]: <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g expenses <strong>and</strong> the dry<strong>in</strong>g up of<br />
orchid grounds” (Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 127).<br />
“Falkenberg perished at Panama...” This statement<br />
has been repeated over <strong>and</strong> over <strong>in</strong> many orchid<br />
histories. However, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Frederick S<strong>and</strong>er,<br />
who was his employer <strong>and</strong> should know better, Carl<br />
Falkenberg (1850-1880) (Fig. 42B) died at Sa<strong>in</strong>t<br />
Thomas, one of the Virg<strong>in</strong> Isl<strong>and</strong>s (S<strong>and</strong>er, 1880).<br />
Born <strong>in</strong> eastern Germany, Falkenberg came <strong>in</strong> 1878 to<br />
S<strong>and</strong>er’s nursery, ask<strong>in</strong>g to be sent as a plant collector<br />
to South America. Both S<strong>and</strong>er <strong>and</strong> Roezl, who was<br />
present, advised the young man to stay <strong>in</strong> Europe,<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g at the extreme difficulties he would have to<br />
encounter. But noth<strong>in</strong>g changed his m<strong>in</strong>d <strong>and</strong> a few<br />
weeks later he was on his way. He was immediately<br />
successful (Reichenbach, 1880: 232) <strong>and</strong> became soon<br />
123<br />
famous for his eye for rare plants <strong>and</strong> for his skill <strong>in</strong><br />
pack<strong>in</strong>g them, most of which arrived <strong>in</strong> Europe <strong>in</strong><br />
perfect condition. His ma<strong>in</strong> collect<strong>in</strong>g ground was<br />
Colombia <strong>and</strong> he was probably on his way home when<br />
he passed through Panama, <strong>in</strong> the first months of 1880.<br />
If he died <strong>in</strong> Panama, delirious with yellow fever<br />
(Munera, 2005), or went already ill onboard his ship,<br />
dy<strong>in</strong>g shortly afterwards <strong>in</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t Thomas, is a mystery<br />
which will probably rema<strong>in</strong> unsolved. Reichenbach<br />
named <strong>in</strong> his honor Restrepia falkenbergii, which<br />
Falkenberg had collected <strong>in</strong> Colombia, but perhaps his<br />
most important discovery was Vriesea falkenbergii W.<br />
Bull, a bromeliad which grows <strong>in</strong> Panama <strong>and</strong> won a<br />
First Class Medal at an exhibit <strong>in</strong> Kens<strong>in</strong>gton, a few<br />
months before Falkenberg’s death.<br />
We know little about another of S<strong>and</strong>er’s collectors,<br />
Friedrich Christian Bartholomaeus (1854-1904), who<br />
apparently collected <strong>in</strong> South America between 1882<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1892, but also <strong>in</strong> Panama <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Mexico. From this<br />
last country we know of his collection of Laelia anceps<br />
var. schroederiana (Bock, 2008).<br />
Friedrich Carl Lehmann (1850-1903) went to South<br />
America as a collector for the firm of Hugh Low &<br />
Co. of London. Around 1878 he settled <strong>in</strong> Popayán,<br />
Colombia, where he held the position of consul of<br />
Germany until his death. He made very important<br />
discoveries of new Colombian species, especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> the genus Masdevallia, which was his favorite. In<br />
1883 he was described as “the most important traveler<br />
<strong>and</strong> collector <strong>in</strong> the United States of Colombia <strong>and</strong><br />
neighbor<strong>in</strong>g territories of our time” (Anonymous,<br />
1883: 287). Reichenbach published his Orchidaceae<br />
F. C. Lehmannianae ecuadorenses (Reichenbach,<br />
1878) where he described Lehmann’s collections<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ecuador from the year 1876. At the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
the 1880s he traveled to Costa Rica, Panama <strong>and</strong><br />
Guatemala. Although the exact dates of his journey<br />
are not known, the first clearly dated collection from<br />
our area is Physurus lehmannii Schltr. (Lehmann 1757,<br />
Costa Rica), <strong>in</strong> 1882. In a short time he discovered<br />
numerous new Central American species, described<br />
later by Schlechter <strong>and</strong> Kränzl<strong>in</strong>: Dichaea suaveolens<br />
Kraenzl. (Lehmann 1642, Guatemala), Maxillaria<br />
stenostele Schltr. (Lehmann 1236, Costa Rica),<br />
Maxillaria turialbae Schltr. (Lehmann 1098, Costa<br />
Rica), Physurus lehmannii Schltr. (Lehmann 1757,<br />
Costa Rica), Physurus nigrescens Schltr. (Lehmann<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
124<br />
s.n., Costa Rica), Pleurothallis jalapensis (Kraenzl.)<br />
Luer (Lehmann 1296, Guatemala), Stenorrhynchus<br />
guatemalensis Schltr. (Lehmann s.n., Guatemala),<br />
Spiranthes cobanensis Schltr. (Lehmann s.n.,<br />
Guatemala), Stelis crescentiicola Schltr. (Lehmann<br />
4540, Panama).<br />
An important number of the <strong>orchids</strong> collected by<br />
Lehmann were described by F. Kränzl<strong>in</strong> under the<br />
title of Orchidaceae Lehmannianae <strong>in</strong> Guatemala,<br />
Costarica, Columbia et Ecuador collectae, quas<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>avit et descripsit (Kraenzl<strong>in</strong>, 1899). Lehmann<br />
liked to say: “I attribute my good health, <strong>and</strong> even my<br />
life ma<strong>in</strong>ly to two th<strong>in</strong>gs: First, when <strong>in</strong> danger either<br />
from natives or, worse still, from lawless white men, I<br />
never produce a revolver or other weapon… Secondly,<br />
I never dr<strong>in</strong>k water without first boil<strong>in</strong>g it” (Taylor,<br />
1975: 177). His precautions did not help him. He<br />
shared the fate of many other explorers of these regions<br />
<strong>and</strong> died by drown<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1903, while try<strong>in</strong>g to cross<br />
the Timbiquí River with the <strong>in</strong>tention of visit<strong>in</strong>g a gold<br />
m<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> which he had <strong>in</strong>terests. His herbarium <strong>and</strong> his<br />
draw<strong>in</strong>gs were sold by his widow to the herbarium at<br />
Kew. Lehmann was also an excellent illustrator. Many<br />
of the pencil draw<strong>in</strong>gs with which he accompanied his<br />
herbarium specimens are preserved at the herbarium<br />
at Kew. He also wrote the notes for the geographical<br />
description <strong>in</strong> the monograph of Masdevallia edited<br />
by the Marquis de Lothian <strong>and</strong> illustrated by Miss<br />
Woolward (Woolward, 1896), where his extensive<br />
knowledge about the plants <strong>in</strong> their native habitats can<br />
be appreciated (Fig. 42D). A new genus was dedicated<br />
to him by Kraenzl<strong>in</strong>: Neolehmannia.<br />
The botanist Gustav Niederle<strong>in</strong> (1858-1924) was<br />
the last German collector to visit Central America<br />
<strong>in</strong> the XIX century. Niederle<strong>in</strong> came very young to<br />
Argent<strong>in</strong>a, where s<strong>in</strong>ce 1878 he explored the flora<br />
of the prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Córdoba. He settled <strong>in</strong> Argent<strong>in</strong>a<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1893 was appo<strong>in</strong>ted as commissioner of that<br />
country to the Universal Exposition of Chicago. He<br />
stayed for several years <strong>in</strong> the United States <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
1896 acquired, for several museums of Philadelphia,<br />
the collection of objects of natural history that<br />
Costa Rica had sent to the Exhibition of Chicago.<br />
For this reason he was named consul of Costa Rica<br />
<strong>in</strong> Philadelphia (González 1921: 223-224). In 1897<br />
he traveled through Central America <strong>and</strong> visited<br />
the Central American Exposition <strong>in</strong> Guatemala. In<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Honduras he collected Pleurothallis niederle<strong>in</strong>ii<br />
Schltr. (Niederle<strong>in</strong> s.n.) <strong>and</strong> Spiranthes hondurensis<br />
Schltr. (Niederle<strong>in</strong> s.n.). While <strong>in</strong> Philadelphia he<br />
published several works about Central America: The<br />
State of Nicaragua, The Republic of Guatemala <strong>and</strong><br />
The Republic of Costa Rica (1898).<br />
“[...] the world — the whole way of life of which<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> had been such a typical expression — came to<br />
an abrupt end on the outbreak of the First World War <strong>in</strong><br />
1914 <strong>and</strong> even prior to this there were signs of change.<br />
The despoil<strong>in</strong>g of the world’s tropical wild places could<br />
not cont<strong>in</strong>ue unchecked <strong>and</strong> the trade <strong>in</strong> the export of<br />
tropical species never recovered” (Black, 1973: 56).<br />
Hemsley <strong>and</strong> the ‘Biologia Centrali-Americana’.<br />
Godman y Salv<strong>in</strong> were mentioned <strong>in</strong> the last chapter.<br />
They made the decision to “produce a work which<br />
should review every form of life <strong>in</strong> a def<strong>in</strong>ite part of the<br />
world”. This work, the Biologia Centrali-Americana,<br />
resulted from the contributions of the best specialists<br />
<strong>in</strong> its time <strong>in</strong> all fields of natural history, <strong>and</strong> is perhaps<br />
the most monumental biological publication of all<br />
times. It conta<strong>in</strong>s 1677 illustrations, of which more<br />
than 900 are <strong>in</strong> color. It was published at irregular<br />
<strong>in</strong>tervals dur<strong>in</strong>g 36 years (1879 a 1915). The preface is<br />
by Sir J. D. Hooker. This work, written over a century<br />
ago, is an obligatory reference for anybody wish<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
study Central America’s biodiversity.<br />
William Bott<strong>in</strong>g Hemsley (1843–1924) (Fig.<br />
42D), <strong>in</strong> charge of the Botany for this work, published<br />
the first list of the <strong>orchids</strong> of Central America <strong>and</strong><br />
Mexico (Hemsley, 1879), a condensed version of<br />
the one that would later appear <strong>in</strong> volume III (1883)<br />
of the botany of the Biologia Centrali-Americana.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the same period he published the description<br />
of an important number of botanical species <strong>in</strong> his<br />
Diagnoses plantarum novarum vel m<strong>in</strong>us cognitarum<br />
Mexicanarum et Centrali-Americanarum (Hemsley,<br />
1878-1880). Hemsley became <strong>in</strong> 1899 Keeper<br />
of the Herbarium <strong>and</strong> Librarian of Kew, <strong>in</strong> which<br />
positions he served until his retirement <strong>in</strong> 1908<br />
(Jackson, 1924: 77). The f<strong>in</strong>al version of Hemsley’s<br />
Orchideae can be found <strong>in</strong> volume III of the Botany<br />
<strong>and</strong> is dated November 1883. It lists 927 different<br />
species distributed <strong>in</strong> 100 genera, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g their<br />
localities of collection <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>and</strong> Central<br />
America. 109 plants are illustrated, but no <strong>orchids</strong>.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Thus, despite all efforts by collectors <strong>and</strong> botanists,<br />
at the end of the XIX century less then one third<br />
of all presently known Central American orchid<br />
species had been identified. In volume IV of<br />
March 1887, Hemsley wrote a historical sketch of<br />
the botanical exploration of the region. Restrepia<br />
hemsleyana (today a synonym of R. antennifera<br />
Kunth) was dedicated to him by Rudolf Schlechter.<br />
In recognition of his services Hemsley was elected<br />
an Honorary Member of the Natural History Society<br />
of Mexico (Anonymous, 1925: 22). He passed away<br />
<strong>in</strong> Broadstairs, on October 7, 1924.<br />
The Botanical Station <strong>in</strong> Belize (1892-1921).<br />
Orig<strong>in</strong>ally the nation’s capital, popular lore has Belize<br />
City built on a l<strong>and</strong>fill of mahogany chips <strong>and</strong> rum<br />
bottles, both <strong>in</strong>gredients generated by the British pirates<br />
of the XVIII century (Miller & Miller, 2002: 70). At<br />
the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the XIX century, all Guatemalan trade<br />
passed through this port. The common route left the<br />
Central American capital <strong>and</strong> had to cross the fearful<br />
‘Montaña del Mico’ (=‘Mounta<strong>in</strong> of the Monkey’) to<br />
arrive f<strong>in</strong>ally at the port of Izabal. Here the merch<strong>and</strong>ise<br />
was embarked on small vessels that sailed along the<br />
coastl<strong>in</strong>e to Belize, from where British ships would<br />
carry it, via Jamaica, on to Engl<strong>and</strong>. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1840s<br />
trade with the United States began to flourish, aga<strong>in</strong><br />
through Belize (Fig. 43A).<br />
Sk<strong>in</strong>ner used this route for many years to ship his<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> to Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> it was not until 1855, when the<br />
Panama railroad was <strong>in</strong>augurated, that Belize lost its<br />
importance for Central American trade to Europe <strong>and</strong><br />
the United States.<br />
An Account of the British Settlement of Honduras,<br />
written by Capta<strong>in</strong> Ge<strong>org</strong>e Henderson of the 44 th<br />
Regiment of the British Army, conta<strong>in</strong>s the earliest<br />
detailed description of the natural history of Belize<br />
(Henderson, 1811). Interspersed with descriptions<br />
of the economic activity of the colony (mostly<br />
based on timber) are numerous references to the<br />
conspicuous or useful plants, often referred to by<br />
scientific <strong>and</strong> common name” (Balick et al., 2000:<br />
5). But Henderson did not mention any <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
In fact, few <strong>orchids</strong> from Belize were known<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the XIX century. Leav<strong>in</strong>g aside the types of<br />
Polystachya clavata L<strong>in</strong>dl. (1842) <strong>and</strong> Brassavola<br />
digbyana L<strong>in</strong>dl., already mentioned, there is<br />
125<br />
only the publication by Reichenbach, <strong>in</strong> 1876, of<br />
Epidendrum (= Encyclia) belizense.<br />
Stephens, the great North American traveler, wrote<br />
that <strong>in</strong> 1841 the territory of Belize counted no more<br />
than 6,000 <strong>in</strong>habitants, of which 4,000 were Negroes<br />
employed by the wood cutters (slavery had been<br />
abolished <strong>in</strong> 1839). “Government House is built on a<br />
beautiful site at the end of the city, with a park that<br />
extends to the water <strong>and</strong> is adorned with coconut<br />
palms” (Stephens, 1841: 15). It was on the site of<br />
the Governor’s kitchen garden where years later the<br />
Botanic Station of Belize (also known as Botanic<br />
Center) was built, the first botanical garden to be<br />
established <strong>in</strong> Central America.<br />
A botanical research facility was formally proposed by<br />
J. D. Hooker, Director of Kew from 1865 to 1885, <strong>and</strong><br />
adopted by the Secretary of State for Colonies <strong>in</strong> 1884<br />
(Balick et al., 2000: 6). It was given a one-acre terra<strong>in</strong><br />
beh<strong>in</strong>d Government House <strong>and</strong> began function<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
1892. A postcard dated 1904 depicts an orderly garden<br />
with well-ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed paths. Ge<strong>org</strong>e Samuel Jenman<br />
(1845-1902) assisted <strong>in</strong> the establishment of the Botanical<br />
Station. Jenman, who had arrived <strong>in</strong> Guyana <strong>in</strong> 1879 as<br />
Government botanist <strong>and</strong> Super<strong>in</strong>tendent of Gardens to<br />
work on the enhancement project of the Ge<strong>org</strong>etown<br />
area, came to Belize <strong>in</strong> October of 1890. Dur<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
time he made a collection of Arpophyllum giganteum<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Jenman s.n., Belize). Ge<strong>org</strong>e S. Jenman was an<br />
important figure <strong>in</strong> the botanical exploration of Guyana,<br />
<strong>and</strong> collected the types of two new orchid species for<br />
that region: Cattleya jenmanii Rolfe (Jenman s.n.), <strong>and</strong><br />
Sievek<strong>in</strong>gia jenmanii Rchb.f. (Jenman s.n.). Robert A.<br />
Rolfe named <strong>in</strong> his honor a new genus of Orchidaceae:<br />
Jenmania, with a s<strong>in</strong>gle species, Jenmania elata (J.<br />
Zahlbr.) Rolfe. The Jenman Herbarium of the University<br />
of Guyana was named <strong>in</strong> his honor.<br />
James McNair was the first super<strong>in</strong>tendent (1892 to<br />
1896), followed by Eugene Campbell (1896 to 1920),<br />
who presided over the station for most of its brief<br />
existence. On several occasions Campbell wrote of his<br />
dissatisfaction with the size <strong>and</strong> location of the station<br />
at Belize City <strong>and</strong> proposed creat<strong>in</strong>g a permanent<br />
station <strong>in</strong> the Stann Creek District, probably where the<br />
Forestry Department now has a field station. Charles<br />
Hummel assumed control over the station <strong>in</strong> 1821,<br />
after which the project was ab<strong>and</strong>oned (Balick et al.,<br />
2000: 6).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
126<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Table 7. Species of Orchidaceae that grew <strong>in</strong> the Botanical Station of Belize <strong>in</strong> 1899 (Balick et al., 2000: 14) .<br />
Botanical name as it appears <strong>in</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al list Botanical name today<br />
Brassavola nodosa Brassavola nodosa (L.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Brassavola gr<strong>and</strong>iflora Brassavola gr<strong>and</strong>iflora L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Brassavola cuspidata Brassavola cuspidata Hook.<br />
Brassia maculata Brassia maculata R. Br.<br />
Epidendrum cochleatum Prosthechea cochleata (L.) W.E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Epidendrum radicans Epidendrum radicans Pavón ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Epidendrum acicularis Encyclia bractescens (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Hoehne<br />
Epidendrum bootheri Prosthechea boothiana (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s<br />
Epidendrum stamfordianum Epidendrum stamfordianum Batem.<br />
Epidendrum atropurpureum Encyclia cordigera (Kunth) Dressler<br />
Epidendrum alatum Encyclia alata (Batem.) Schltr.<br />
Epidendrum alatum majus Encyclia alata (Batem.) Schltr. var. majus<br />
Gale<strong>and</strong>ra Batemanii Gale<strong>and</strong>ra batemanii Rolfe<br />
Catasetum tridentatum Catasetum tridentatum Hook.<br />
Cattleya sk<strong>in</strong>neri Guarianthe sk<strong>in</strong>neri (Batem.) Dressler & N. H. Williams<br />
Cattleya Gaskelliana Cattleya gaskelliana B. S. Wms.<br />
Oncidium luridum Trichocentrum luridum (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) M.W. Chase & N. H. Williams<br />
Oncidium papilio Psychopsis papilio (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) H. G. Jones<br />
Dendrobium moschatum Dendrobium moschatum Sw.<br />
Dendrobium fimbriatum Dendrobium fimbriatum Hook.<br />
Stanhopea gr<strong>and</strong>iflora Stanhopea gr<strong>and</strong>iflora (Lodd.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Schomburgkia undulata Schomburgkia undulata L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Vanilla planifolia Vanilla planifolia Andr.<br />
Eugene Campbell made several collections of<br />
Orchidaceae dur<strong>in</strong>g his time as super<strong>in</strong>tendent of the<br />
Botanical Station: Brassavola cucullata (L.) R. Br.<br />
(Campbell s.n.), Cycnoches ventricosum Bateman<br />
(Campbell s.n.), Encyclia alata (Batem.) Schltr.<br />
(Campbell s.n.), Epidendrum ciliare L. (Campbell<br />
s.n.), <strong>and</strong> Rhyncholaelia dygbiana (Benth.) Schltr.<br />
(Campbell 104).<br />
A list of the plants <strong>in</strong> cultivation at the Botanic<br />
Station <strong>in</strong> 1899 can be found <strong>in</strong> the archives of Kew,<br />
sent by C. A. Moloney, Governor <strong>and</strong> Comm<strong>and</strong>er-<strong>in</strong>-<br />
Chief. This list is apparently the earliest list of plants<br />
collected or <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong>to the colony, <strong>and</strong> it shows<br />
23 species of <strong>orchids</strong>. [Table 7] Among the species<br />
mentioned <strong>in</strong> this list is Prosthechea cochleata, the<br />
“Black Orchid”, Belize’s National Flower. There<br />
is another list <strong>in</strong> the archives of Kew, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that there was an herbarium at the Botanic Centre.<br />
The whereabouts of these collections are however<br />
unknown” (Balick et al., 2000: 15).<br />
32 This chapter follows mostly Gómez, 2007.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Central American <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong> at the end of<br />
the XIX century 32 . Among the most important English<br />
establishments dedicated to the import <strong>and</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> were the house of B.S. & H. Williams (Victoria<br />
<strong>and</strong> Paradise Nurseries) <strong>and</strong> that of James Veitch <strong>in</strong><br />
Chelsea, of which we talked <strong>in</strong> the previous chapter.<br />
The first one produced the famous The Orchid-<br />
Grower’s Manual, (first edition 1852), <strong>and</strong> the second<br />
a catalogue, the Hortus Veitchii, published <strong>in</strong> 1906.<br />
The Williams were great promoters of British<br />
orchidomania, particularly Benjam<strong>in</strong> who began,<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1851 <strong>and</strong> at the suggestion of John L<strong>in</strong>dley, a<br />
divulgative series entitled Orchids for the Millions,<br />
published <strong>in</strong> The Gardeners’ Chronicle. From this<br />
series the famous Orchid Album was derived, a<br />
monthly publication with illustrations by John Fitch.<br />
The Orchid-Grower’s Manual conta<strong>in</strong>s 796 pages,<br />
with 310 l<strong>in</strong>e illustrations. We are follow<strong>in</strong>g here the<br />
7 th (last) edition, published <strong>in</strong> 1894, which lists a total<br />
of 3,359 taxa of which the authors consider that 2,650
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C D<br />
Figure 42. A — Oncidium splendidum A. Rich ex Duchartre. Curtis’s Botanical Magaz<strong>in</strong>e, plate 5878. B — Carl Falkenberg<br />
(1850-1880). In S<strong>and</strong>er, 1880: 173. C — Illustration of a species of Rodriguezia by F.C. Lehmann. Courtesy of Rudolf<br />
Jenny. D — William Bott<strong>in</strong>g Hemsley (1843–1924) Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny <strong>and</strong> the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew.<br />
127<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
128<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
A B<br />
C<br />
E<br />
Figure 43. A — Old Belize City. Front cover of Thomson, 2004. B — Henri Francois Pittier (1857-1950). Portrait by Sava<br />
Botzaris (Caracas, 1942) <strong>in</strong> the frontispiece of Häsler & Baumann, 2000. C — Meteorological Institute, San José. Courtesy<br />
of L.D. Gómez. D — Anastasio Alfaro (1865-1951). Courtesy of his gr<strong>and</strong>son, Rodrigo van der Laat Alfaro. E — Map of<br />
Panama by Pittier. In Heckadon-Moreno, 1998: 113.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
D
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
are valid names. From the valid names, 163 correspond<br />
to Central American species.<br />
The Hortus was a limited edition for private<br />
distribution, beautifully bound <strong>and</strong> that used a<br />
watercolor paper of heavy weight. The edition was<br />
obviously prepared for a select <strong>and</strong> wealthy list of<br />
clients, <strong>and</strong> was divided <strong>in</strong>to five sections or chapters.<br />
Part one is a history of the Veitch family <strong>and</strong> of the<br />
creation of the company <strong>and</strong> its evolution. Part two is<br />
dedicated to short biographies, with <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g notes,<br />
of the travelers <strong>and</strong> collectors sponsored by Veitch<br />
& Son, which amount to a total of 22, between 1840<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1905. Section three is dest<strong>in</strong>ed to biographical<br />
data about the ma<strong>in</strong> horticulturists, most of them<br />
dedicated to the hybridization of <strong>orchids</strong>. Section four<br />
is the one that is of <strong>in</strong>terest to us. It bears the title of<br />
Orchid Species. A list of the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal orchid species<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced by Messrs. Veitch. The list mentions 219<br />
species with its author, orig<strong>in</strong>, often curious notes <strong>and</strong><br />
a very brief description. Of these species 23 are Central<br />
American.<br />
Because of the different selection criteria, <strong>in</strong><br />
Veitch for a wealthy clientele <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Williams based<br />
on a populist attitude of <strong>orchids</strong> for the millions, any<br />
analysis or numerical comparison would be useless.<br />
It is clear, however, that Central American <strong>orchids</strong><br />
played a very important role <strong>in</strong> the early development<br />
of professional <strong>and</strong> amateur <strong>orchidology</strong>.<br />
Costa Rica: the National Museum <strong>and</strong> the ‘Instituto<br />
Físico-Geográfico’<br />
“The <strong>in</strong>terest for natural sciences is proportional<br />
to the spiritual development of the nations”<br />
Karl Wercklé<br />
(In a letter to Dr. N. L. Britton,1901)<br />
Botanical exploration of Central America was<br />
<strong>in</strong> the h<strong>and</strong> of foreigners dur<strong>in</strong>g the entire century.<br />
“Costa Rica attracted more botanists <strong>and</strong> plant hunters<br />
than the neighbor<strong>in</strong>g countries. Although the list by<br />
Lanjouw (1945) is not complete, it shows that <strong>in</strong> the<br />
XIX century Costa Rica was visited by 10 scientists<br />
or collectors, Nicaragua by 5, Panama by 6 <strong>and</strong><br />
Guatemala by 7. This preference can be expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
because the publications by the foreigners who visited<br />
129<br />
the country after Independence were very favorable to<br />
Costa Rica” (León, 2002: 154). However, the last two<br />
decades of the century showed for the first time the<br />
development of a ‘national science’ <strong>in</strong> Central America.<br />
In Costa Rica, “as part of an educational reform aimed<br />
at seculariz<strong>in</strong>g public education, the government of<br />
president Bernardo Soto (1885-1889) hired a group of<br />
European academics to staff the two new public high<br />
schools <strong>in</strong> the capital, San José (The ‘Liceo de Costa<br />
Rica’ for boys <strong>and</strong> the ‘Colegio Superior de Señoritas’<br />
for girls, both founded under Soto’s adm<strong>in</strong>istration).<br />
The arrival of these academics marks the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of a small scientific renaissance <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica. Two<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions symbolize this renaissance: the Instituto<br />
Físico-Geográfico (IFG) (=‘Physical-Geographical<br />
Institute’) <strong>and</strong> the National Museum, founded <strong>in</strong> 1887<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1889, respectively.”<br />
Among the hired teachers were Pablo Biolley<br />
(1861-1908) <strong>and</strong> Henri Francois Pittier (1857-1950)<br />
(Fig. 43B), who arrived <strong>in</strong> 1886 <strong>and</strong> 1887. Pittier<br />
lived <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica until 1905 <strong>and</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g these years<br />
conducted a systematic exploration of the Costa Rican<br />
flora that had no equal <strong>in</strong> his time <strong>in</strong> any country of<br />
tropical America. From these efforts resulted the<br />
publication of the Primitiae Florae Costaricensis,<br />
the first flora of Costa Rica, a work that unfortunately<br />
was not concluded 33 . The Primitiae was published<br />
<strong>in</strong> conjunction with a Belgian colleague, Téophile<br />
Alexis Dur<strong>and</strong> (1855-1912) <strong>and</strong> appeared <strong>in</strong> three<br />
volumes <strong>and</strong> 12 fascicles, published from 1891 to<br />
1905 (Grayum et al., 2004: 12). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Paul C.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley, <strong>in</strong> his <strong>in</strong>troduction to the Flora of Costa Rica:<br />
“Henri Pittier has undoubtedly ga<strong>in</strong>ed a more <strong>in</strong>timate<br />
knowledge of the natural history <strong>and</strong> especially the<br />
botany of Central America <strong>and</strong> northwestern South<br />
America than has ever been possessed by any s<strong>in</strong>gle<br />
person” (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1937:49).<br />
The comb<strong>in</strong>ed labors of Pittier, Alfaro, Tonduz,<br />
Biolley, Wercklé, Brenes <strong>and</strong> the Brade brothers<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> the formation of the National Herbarium that<br />
counted <strong>in</strong>itially with more than 5,000 species. Cit<strong>in</strong>g<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley aga<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong> 1903 the National Herbarium “was<br />
unequaled below the Río Gr<strong>and</strong>e del Norte” (St<strong>and</strong>ley,<br />
1937:50). Pittier’s other goal was the creation of a map<br />
of Costa Rica. Cartographic work began <strong>in</strong> 1891 <strong>and</strong><br />
33 Only the first two volumes of the Primitiae Flora Costaricensis were published. Pittier expected Schlechter to write the fascicle<br />
on the <strong>orchids</strong>, which never happened.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
130<br />
went on until the publication of the map <strong>in</strong> 1904. A<br />
great part of the botanical exploration of the country<br />
followed the routes of the mapp<strong>in</strong>g expeditions.<br />
“Perhaps the most important result of these efforts<br />
were his travels to the southern region of the country,<br />
almost unexplored at that time” (Castro Castro &<br />
Colombo Víquez, 1989: 114). Although hired to teach<br />
at secondary schools, Pittier had more ambitious<br />
ideas <strong>and</strong> immediately after his arrival <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica<br />
started to fight for the formation of a meteorological<br />
observatory <strong>and</strong> an <strong>in</strong>stitute. The Meteorological<br />
Institute (Fig. 43C) was founded <strong>in</strong> April 1888, under<br />
the direction of Pittier.<br />
“Shortly before Pittier arrived, a young Costa Rican<br />
named Anastasio Alfaro (1865-1951) (Fig. 43D) had<br />
persuaded the government to <strong>org</strong>anize a national<br />
museum. Alfaro had overcome the obstacles fac<strong>in</strong>g any<br />
student of the sciences <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica (such as the lack<br />
of mentors <strong>and</strong> facilities) to become an essentially selftaught<br />
naturalist <strong>and</strong> archaeologist <strong>and</strong> a collaborator<br />
with several important U.S. scientists. M<strong>in</strong>ister of<br />
Development Cleto González Víquez... had dispatched<br />
Alfaro on a mission to the United States to learn about<br />
the latest techniques <strong>in</strong> museum <strong>org</strong>anization. On<br />
Alfaro’s return <strong>in</strong> May 1887, the government funded<br />
the creation of the Museo Nacional <strong>and</strong> named Alfaro<br />
its first director” (Eak<strong>in</strong>, 1999: 127). Pittier, who had<br />
been <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica for only two months, was named on<br />
the Board of Directors of the Museum, together with<br />
Pablo Biolley <strong>and</strong> José Cástulo Zeledón.<br />
With the publication of a list with the known plants<br />
of Costa Rica, an <strong>in</strong>terest awoke <strong>in</strong> professor Alfaro<br />
for the study of botany which lasted to his last days<br />
(Alfaro, 1888). Alfaro wrote, a few months after the<br />
<strong>in</strong>auguration of the Museo Nacional: “And <strong>in</strong> no<br />
way can this void [the absence of studies about the<br />
vegetation of the country] be filled if not with the<br />
formation of collections <strong>in</strong> which day by day the<br />
material accumulates that is <strong>in</strong>dispensable to achieve<br />
a correct scientific knowledge” (cited <strong>in</strong> Viales &<br />
Clare, 2006: 12). He paid great attention to <strong>orchids</strong>,<br />
ferns, mosses <strong>and</strong> cacti, mak<strong>in</strong>g important discoveries<br />
<strong>in</strong> each of these groups. The list published by Alfaro<br />
was an extract of the botanical part of the Biologia<br />
Centrali-Americana of W. B. Hemsley (from the<br />
Botanic Gardens at Kew), edited by the British<br />
naturalists Godman <strong>and</strong> Salv<strong>in</strong> some years earlier.<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Unfortunately, Alfaro <strong>and</strong> Pittier, the two major<br />
scientific entrepreneurs <strong>in</strong> the small country, never<br />
could agree on how to <strong>org</strong>anize their operations. In<br />
1889 the government consolidated the Museum <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Meteorological Institute <strong>in</strong>to one center, the ‘Instituto<br />
Físico-Geográfico Nacional de Costa Rica’. This was a<br />
temporary triumph for Pittier, who was named director.<br />
However, <strong>in</strong>tegration only lasted a few months <strong>and</strong><br />
the Museum was aga<strong>in</strong> separated from the rest of the<br />
Institute. In 1890, Pittier became part of the staff of the<br />
recently founded School of Agriculture, where he as<br />
<strong>in</strong> charge of the practical <strong>in</strong>struction. In 1898, a severe<br />
economic crisis led the government to cut expenses<br />
<strong>and</strong> to elim<strong>in</strong>ate entire agencies <strong>and</strong> departments.<br />
One of them was the Instituto Físico-Geográfico.<br />
“The small staff of the Museum took custodial care<br />
of the collections that Pittier <strong>and</strong> Alfaro had amassed<br />
over the previous decade (especially the Herbario<br />
Nacional)” (Eak<strong>in</strong>, 1999: 133). But Pittier cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
fight<strong>in</strong>g. In 1901 he apparently persuaded politicians<br />
of the practical benefits that his research <strong>in</strong> economic<br />
botany could br<strong>in</strong>g. The government, at a time when<br />
the nation was feel<strong>in</strong>g the worst consequences of<br />
coffee monoculture, revived the IFG, which absorbed<br />
the Museo Nacional as one of its divisions. However,<br />
constant <strong>in</strong>trigues <strong>and</strong> lack of funds led to Pittier’s f<strong>in</strong>al<br />
fall<strong>in</strong>g out with the government. In 1905 he left the<br />
country to work <strong>in</strong> the United States <strong>and</strong> on to a long<br />
<strong>and</strong> dist<strong>in</strong>guished career <strong>in</strong> Venezuela until his death <strong>in</strong><br />
1950. With his departure, the Instituto lost its creator<br />
<strong>and</strong> eng<strong>in</strong>e, <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica a dynamic <strong>and</strong> prolific<br />
scientist.<br />
“With<strong>in</strong> a month, Anastasio Alfaro became the new<br />
director of the Instituto. The government assigned<br />
an assistant to care for the collections <strong>in</strong> each of the<br />
three sections: the Museo, the observatory, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
herbarium. In effect, the Instituto was reduced to a<br />
collection of plants <strong>and</strong> an assistant who made daily<br />
meteorological observations. In 1910 the observatory<br />
became an official division of the Museo Nacional, <strong>and</strong><br />
the Instituto essentially ceased to exist <strong>in</strong> name as well<br />
as fact” (Eak<strong>in</strong>, 1999: 135-136). Alfaro was not really<br />
a botanist <strong>and</strong> even less an orchidologist. In Pittier’s<br />
op<strong>in</strong>ion, “Alfaro is hardly a collector, botanically<br />
speak<strong>in</strong>g… He is before everyth<strong>in</strong>g a native lawyer<br />
<strong>and</strong> his work <strong>in</strong> natural history is of the amateur k<strong>in</strong>d”<br />
(Häsler & Baumann, 2000: 145). Notwithst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g,
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
he collected many specimens that were described<br />
as new species of Orchidaceae, <strong>and</strong> many others<br />
were dedicated to him: Epidendrum alfaroi Ames &<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (A. Alfaro, 174), Epidendrum anastasioi<br />
E. Hágsater, Maxillaria alfaroi Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.<br />
(A. Alfaro, 284), Stelis alfaroi Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (A.<br />
Alfaro, s.n.). Lankester <strong>and</strong> Ames had great respect of<br />
him: “Some <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> baffl<strong>in</strong>g specimens have<br />
just arrived from your hacienda. Also a few good<br />
th<strong>in</strong>gs from Alfaro…” (Letter from Ames to Lankester,<br />
Jan. 23rd, 1926).<br />
From the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g, Pittier had considered the<br />
botanical exploration of Costa Rica as one of the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> activities of the Instituto Físico-Geográfico.<br />
“Pittier began sampl<strong>in</strong>g plants for the herbarium <strong>in</strong><br />
the vic<strong>in</strong>ity of San José <strong>and</strong> eighteen months later<br />
had collected 2,<strong>500</strong> specimens” (León, 2002: 147).<br />
Pittier collected <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica until his departure <strong>in</strong><br />
1905. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the same year he visited <strong>and</strong> collected<br />
<strong>in</strong> Guatemala. Between 1906 <strong>and</strong> 1907 he was aga<strong>in</strong><br />
briefly <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras <strong>and</strong><br />
Costa Rica. F<strong>in</strong>ally, he traveled to Panama employed<br />
by the United States Department <strong>and</strong> collected there<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensively between 1910 <strong>and</strong> 1917. In 1908, with the<br />
support of the United States government, he published<br />
his important work Plantas Usuales de Costa Rica<br />
(Pittier, 1908).<br />
In Costa Rica, Pittier had researched <strong>in</strong> geology,<br />
meteorology, ethnology, botany, cartography <strong>and</strong><br />
archeology. In Panama, without f<strong>org</strong>ett<strong>in</strong>g his other<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests, he dedicated himself almost exclusively<br />
to the botany. From 1910 to 1912 he took part <strong>in</strong> the<br />
‘Biological Exploration of Panama’ of the Smithsonian<br />
Institution, collect<strong>in</strong>g over 4.000 specimens (Fig. 43E).<br />
“With these words he described his first encounter<br />
with the astound<strong>in</strong>g biodiversity of the isthmus: ‘I set<br />
everyth<strong>in</strong>g up Friday night <strong>and</strong> yesterday, December<br />
31, 1910, I began collect<strong>in</strong>g. From the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g I<br />
conv<strong>in</strong>ced myself of the impossibility of f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the task alone, confronted with a profusion of plants<br />
flower<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> these first months of the summer or dry<br />
season.’[...] He asked to be assisted by William R.<br />
Maxon, from the New York Botanical Garden, to study<br />
the mosses, cacti, <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> bromeliads. [...] He had<br />
tried to get Adolphe Tonduz as his assistant, but his<br />
countryman had already departed from Costa Rica<br />
to Guatemala (Heckadon-Moreno, 1998: 81).” Upon<br />
131<br />
return<strong>in</strong>g to Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, he set himself to analyze <strong>and</strong><br />
publish the scientific <strong>in</strong>formation of his vast collection<br />
of plants from Panama, many of them new to science.<br />
In this research he was assisted by a young botanist<br />
who would later become famous <strong>in</strong> the history of<br />
the botanical exploration of Central America: Paul<br />
C. St<strong>and</strong>ley. “Pittier was the driv<strong>in</strong>g force beh<strong>in</strong>d<br />
the decision of [Panamanian] president Porras to<br />
establish with<strong>in</strong> the M<strong>in</strong>istry for Development… the<br />
Agricultural Service [...] The ‘Estación Experimental<br />
de Matías Hernández’, the first agricultural research<br />
center <strong>in</strong> Panama, was established <strong>in</strong> 1916. Pittier was<br />
its first director” (Heckadon-Moreno, 1998: 87).<br />
He was always <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong>. While work<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on his Primitiae Flora Costaricensis he sent a great<br />
number of specimens to his friend Théophile Dur<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Brussels, who passed them on to Schlechter <strong>in</strong> Berl<strong>in</strong><br />
for identification. The <strong>orchids</strong> collected <strong>in</strong> Panama<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g his work for the United States government went<br />
the same way. “In Panama he had obta<strong>in</strong>ed specimens<br />
from the collections of David D. Gaillard <strong>and</strong> Mrs.<br />
Harry Harwood Rousseau <strong>and</strong> had formed, dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
botanical exploration of the Smithsonian (together<br />
with Maxon) a large collection of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Canal<br />
Zone <strong>and</strong> Chiriquí” (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1925: 357-358). Among<br />
the latter 18 new species were found. After <strong>in</strong>itial<br />
differences (Schlechter dur<strong>in</strong>g some time refused<br />
to return the material sent by Pittier), Pittier worked<br />
together with Schlechter until the death of the German<br />
scientist <strong>in</strong> 1925. In 1906, Schlechter dedicated a new<br />
genus of Orchidaceae to Pittier: Pittierella (today a<br />
synonym of Cryptocentrum).<br />
Among the types of new species discovered by<br />
Pittier are: Cranichis pittieri Schltr., Epidendrum<br />
cardiophorum Schltr. (Pittier 9519, Costa Rica),<br />
Epidendrum henrici Schltr. (Pittier 2176, Costa Rica),<br />
Epidendrum <strong>in</strong>sulanum Schltr. (Pittier 16350 Herb.<br />
Nac., Costa Rica), Keferste<strong>in</strong>ia costaricensis Schltr.<br />
(Pittier 16058, Costa Rica), Lockhartia pittieri Schltr.<br />
(Pittier 3401, Panama), Microstylis (= Malaxis)<br />
carp<strong>in</strong>terae Schltr. (Pittier & Tonduz 4394 Herb.<br />
Nac., Costa Rica), Notylia pittieri Schltr. (Pittier<br />
6850, Costa Rica), Oncidium pittieri Schltr. (Pittier<br />
10310, Costa Rica), Oncidium salvadorense Schltr.<br />
(Pittier 5753, El Salvador)., Prosthechea abbreviata<br />
(Schltr.) W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s (Pittier & Tonduz s.n., Costa<br />
Rica), Sauroglossum nigricans Schltr. (Pittier s.n.,<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
132<br />
Costa Rica), Scaphosepalum elasmatopus Schltr.<br />
(Pittier 3229, Panama), Scaphosepalum pittieri Schltr.<br />
(Pittier 11143, Costa Rica), Stelis chiriquensis Schltr.<br />
(Pittier 3228, Panama), Stelis panamensis Schltr.<br />
(Pittier 4490, Panama), Stelis perplexa Ames (Pittier<br />
308, Guatemala), <strong>and</strong> Vanilla pittieri Schltr. (Pittier<br />
6600, Costa Rica). Pittier’s <strong>orchids</strong> are probably<br />
<strong>in</strong> the National Herbarium <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton” (Häsler<br />
& Baumann, 2000: 206). Pittier moved <strong>in</strong> 1922 to<br />
Venezuela <strong>and</strong> spent the rest of his life <strong>in</strong> this country,<br />
where he founded the National Park System <strong>and</strong> died<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1950. The Henri Pittier National Park, located<br />
along the Coastal Range <strong>in</strong> northern Venezuela, was<br />
created <strong>in</strong> 1937 <strong>and</strong> named <strong>in</strong> his honor. He returned to<br />
Costa Rica for a brief visit <strong>in</strong> 1938, for the celebration<br />
of the 50 th anniversary of the ‘Colegio Superior de<br />
Señoritas’.<br />
Pablo Biolley (1861-1908) formed part of the first<br />
group of Swiss teachers hired by the government<br />
of Bernardo Soto. Biolley established himself<br />
permanently <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the Costa Rican<br />
nationality <strong>and</strong> marry<strong>in</strong>g a Costa Rican. He died <strong>in</strong><br />
1908 at the very young age of forty six. His sister<br />
Estela arrived <strong>in</strong> 1889 <strong>and</strong> was for many years a<br />
teacher at the ‘Colegio Superior de Señoritas’. Biolley<br />
accompanied Pittier dur<strong>in</strong>g many of his explorations<br />
<strong>and</strong> was, for a short period (1904) director of the<br />
Instituto Físico-Geográfico. Although his ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
was <strong>in</strong> entomology, he made important contributions<br />
to the knowledge of the Costa Rican flora. To him<br />
we owe, among others, the discovery of the types of<br />
Masdevallia ecaudata Schltr. (Biolley 3127, Costa<br />
Rica), Maxillaria biolleyi (Schltr.) L. O. Williams<br />
(Biolley 1052, Costa Rica) <strong>and</strong> Telipogon biolleyi<br />
Schltr. (Biolley 1340, Costa Rica).<br />
Shortly after his arrival <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1887,<br />
Pittier ...“obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the government the necessary<br />
fund<strong>in</strong>g for the assignment of a person <strong>in</strong> charge of<br />
the botanical service, for which he chose Adolphe<br />
Tonduz (1862-1921) (Fig. 44A), who was assistant at<br />
the botanical garden of Lausanne, Switzerl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
arrived <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> June of 1889” (León, 2002:<br />
147). “Botanical exploration of Costa Rica was not<br />
only closely related with [Tonduz], but depended<br />
heavily on him” (Häsler & Baumann, 2000: 151).<br />
However, Pittier was not easily satisfied. In a letter to<br />
John H. Barnhart (1915) he wrote: “Adolphe Tonduz<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
has been <strong>and</strong> is still, a laborious <strong>and</strong> pa<strong>in</strong>stak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
collector, responsible for almost 60% of the 20,000<br />
specimens of the Instituto Físico-Geográfico, ... but<br />
his collections conta<strong>in</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> the same<br />
species <strong>and</strong> comparatively few new th<strong>in</strong>gs.” Tonduz’<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g excursions were best described by himself<br />
<strong>in</strong> his Herborisations au Costa Rica (1895). Pittier <strong>and</strong><br />
Tonduz collected at times together, discover<strong>in</strong>g several<br />
new species, among them Epidendrum abbreviatum<br />
Schltr. (Pittier & Tonduz s.n. – Costa Rica). After Pittier<br />
left Costa Rica, Tonduz went to work for the United<br />
Fruit Company. In 1908 he held aga<strong>in</strong> the position of<br />
curator of the National Herbarium <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1911 he went<br />
to Guatemala, where dur<strong>in</strong>g a short period he occupied<br />
a position <strong>in</strong> the department of phytopathology of the<br />
Direction of Agriculture. He died <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, a<br />
victim of alcoholism, <strong>in</strong> December 1921. With sadness<br />
we read Lankester’s words to Ames: “Poor Tonduz<br />
was also hopeless <strong>in</strong> this regard [alcoholism] <strong>and</strong> the<br />
possession of a small sum of money was immediately<br />
fatal. I kept him here 10 months dur<strong>in</strong>g our previous<br />
stay <strong>in</strong> Cóncavas (Lankester’s farm near Cartago) <strong>and</strong><br />
had him ‘dry’ the whole time, clothed [<strong>and</strong>] fed…<br />
he became a new man, but a salaried position <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala broke him completely (<strong>in</strong> a letter to Ames,<br />
1922).”<br />
Costa Rica owes to Tonduz the discovery of<br />
many new orchid species, most of them described<br />
by Schlechter (1923). Worthy of mention, among<br />
others, are the follow<strong>in</strong>g: Bulbophyllum v<strong>in</strong>osum<br />
Schltr. (Tonduz 13734, Costa Rica), Camaridium<br />
dendrobioides Schltr. (Tonduz 17620 Herb. Nac., Costa<br />
Rica), Epidendrum acrochordonium Schltr. (Tonduz<br />
s.n., Costa Rica), Epidendrum majale Schltr. (Tonduz<br />
17620 Herb. Nac., Costa Rica), Masdevallia tonduzii<br />
Woolward (Tonduz s.n., Costa Rica), Microstylis<br />
microtoides Schltr. (Tonduz s.n., Costa Rica),<br />
Ornithocephalus tonduzii Schltr., (Tonduz s.n., Costa<br />
Rica), Pleurothallis tonduzii Schltr. (Tonduz 17646<br />
Herb. Nac., Costa Rica), Stelis aemula Schltr. (Tonduz<br />
17632b Herb. Nac., Costa Rica), Stelis conmixta Schltr.<br />
(Tonduz 17632a Herb. Nac., Costa Rica), <strong>and</strong> Stelis<br />
sarcodantha Schltr. (Tonduz 17632 Herb. Nac., Costa<br />
Rica). From his time <strong>in</strong> Guatemala we know several<br />
collections of Orchidaceae: Scaphyglottis crurigera<br />
(Bateman ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Ames & Correll (Tonduz 409,<br />
Guatemala), <strong>and</strong> Osmoglossum convallarioides
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Schltr. (Tonduz 523, Guatemala) <strong>and</strong> at least one new<br />
type: Pleurothallis pacayana Schltr. (Tonduz 413 -<br />
Guatemala). The illustrious trio of Swiss naturalists is<br />
remembered <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica’s geography: the district of<br />
Biolley <strong>and</strong> the village of Santa María de Pittier, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Puntarenas, <strong>and</strong> the peaks of Tonduz <strong>and</strong><br />
Pittier, <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong> range of Talamanca, rem<strong>in</strong>d us<br />
of those <strong>in</strong>itial glorious years when the first national<br />
scientific <strong>in</strong>stitutions were born.<br />
Other collectors at the end of the XIX century<br />
“Normal people do not collect plants”<br />
Franco Pupul<strong>in</strong>, 2004 (pers. comm.)<br />
Ludwig Kienast-Zölly grew <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> his native<br />
Hirsl<strong>and</strong>en (Zurich), Switzerl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> occasionally<br />
sent plants to Reichenbach or to Kew for identification,<br />
among them Epidendrum kienastii Rchb. f., which<br />
was named <strong>in</strong> his honor. The archives of the Swiss<br />
Confederation <strong>in</strong>dicate that Kienast-Zölly was “Consul<br />
général honoraire” <strong>in</strong> Mexico, <strong>in</strong> the period between<br />
1870 <strong>and</strong> 1875. He lived, accord<strong>in</strong>g to Boyle, for<br />
many years at Orizaba (Veracruz), “where he collected<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> with enthusiasm for his own delight.” Boyle<br />
goes on: “an Indian servant gave zealous help, partly,<br />
doubtless, for love for the flowers, but partly also for<br />
love of the master whose ‘bread he had eaten’ from<br />
childhood [...].”Boyle cont<strong>in</strong>ues tell<strong>in</strong>g us the story of<br />
Sobralia kienastiana (which was the pride of Kienast-<br />
Zölly’s collection for many years), a crazy account of<br />
Indian chiefs, Catholic priests, human sacrifice <strong>and</strong> an<br />
orchid laid before the ‘Blessed Mother’, called ‘the<br />
Devil’s Flower’ (Boyle, 1901: 163-169). Other orchid<br />
species dedicated to Kienast-Zölly were Oncidium<br />
kienastianum Rchb. f., Ponera kienastii Rchb. f. <strong>and</strong><br />
Trichopilia kienastiana Rchb. f. Kienast-Zölly was<br />
a contributor to the Gardeners’ Chronicle, where he<br />
wrote on Mexican <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
Another Swiss, Rudolf Richard Pfau ( —1897),<br />
founded <strong>in</strong> San José, Costa Rica, <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al years of<br />
the XIX century, a nursery that sold a great variety of<br />
ornamental plants. He also collected native plants for<br />
exportation. Through his collections we know that he<br />
was also <strong>in</strong> Panama <strong>and</strong> Colombia, <strong>and</strong> at least one of<br />
the new species described from plants sent to Europe<br />
by Pfau came from Mexico: Vanilla pfaviana Rchb. f.<br />
Other species discovered by Pfau were: Epidendrum<br />
133<br />
pfavii Rolfe (Pfau s.n., Costa Rica), Pleurothallis pfavii<br />
Rchb.f. (Pfau s.n., Panamá), Sobralia pfavii Schltr.<br />
(Pfau s.n., Costa Rica), Telipogon pfavii Schltr. (Pfau<br />
930, Costa Rica), <strong>and</strong> Trichocentrum pfavii Rchb.f.<br />
(Pfau 60, Panamá). Pfau wrote the first work published<br />
<strong>in</strong> Costa Rica about the <strong>orchids</strong> of this country: New,<br />
Rare <strong>and</strong> Beautiful Orchids of Costa Rica (ca. 1895), of<br />
greater <strong>in</strong>terest for horticulture than for botany. In this<br />
work, Pfau gives advice as to how to grow <strong>and</strong> pack<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> for exportation, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes a list of the species<br />
he had for sale <strong>in</strong> his nursery (Fig. 44B). But Pfau’s<br />
voice is also one of the first to address the ris<strong>in</strong>g concern<br />
about the destruction of our nature, when he describes<br />
one of our most beautiful <strong>orchids</strong>: “Cattleya sk<strong>in</strong>neri,<br />
some ten years ago, was a common Orchid all over<br />
Central America; but <strong>in</strong> the last few years it has been<br />
exported by shiploads; <strong>and</strong> to-day – at least <strong>in</strong> Costa<br />
Rica – it has almost become rare” (Pfau, 1895: 6). Pfau<br />
also wrote several articles about Central America <strong>and</strong> its<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>, such as The climate of Central America, Orchid<br />
culture (1883), Notes on the fertilization of Orchids<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Tropics (1894) <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> its Orchids<br />
(1896). As did Roezl <strong>and</strong> Wallis, Pfau sold his plants <strong>in</strong><br />
Europe through the agency of Eduard Ortgies <strong>in</strong> Zurich.<br />
Many of his specimens are part of the Reichenbach<br />
herbarium <strong>in</strong> Vienna, often accompanied with beautiful<br />
illustrations by Pfau (Fig. 44C).<br />
“By the turn of the century, U.S. scientists had<br />
replaced Europeans as the Instituto’s pr<strong>in</strong>cipal<br />
collaborators. The first was apparently Sereno Watson<br />
(1826-1892), who had made important botanical<br />
explorations <strong>in</strong> California <strong>and</strong> went for a short<br />
period of time to Guatemala (1885), but had to stop<br />
due to illness. There he made several collections of<br />
Orchidaceae, among them the type of Pleurothallis<br />
(=Trichosalp<strong>in</strong>x) blaisdelli S. Watson (Watson, s.n.,<br />
Guatemala), named <strong>in</strong> honor of his travel companion,<br />
F. E. Blaisdell <strong>and</strong> Notylia guatemalensis Schltr.<br />
(Watson, s.n., Guatemala). Watson, curator of the Gray<br />
Herbarium at Harvard until his death, was possibly<br />
who <strong>in</strong>terested Donnell Smith <strong>in</strong> the flora of Central<br />
America” (Williams, 1972: 203).<br />
Ge<strong>org</strong>e Frankl<strong>in</strong> Gaumer (1850-1929), president<br />
of the Natural History Society of Kansas University,<br />
established himself <strong>in</strong> 1884 <strong>in</strong> Yucatán, where he<br />
resided until his death. He was also briefly <strong>in</strong> Honduras<br />
<strong>and</strong> Guatemala (1885). Gaumer st<strong>and</strong>s out for hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
134<br />
been the first to collect <strong>in</strong> the isl<strong>and</strong> of Cozumel (1885-<br />
1886), collections that were described by Hemsley<br />
(Hemsley, 1887b). Besides the types of Triphora<br />
yucatanensis Ames (Gaumer 1008, Yucatán) <strong>and</strong><br />
Epidendrum yucatanense Schltr. (Gaumer 588), we<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d numerous other <strong>orchids</strong> among the specimens<br />
collected by Gaumer, such as: Ionopsis utricularioides<br />
(Sw.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gaumer 23305), Rhyncholaelia digbyana<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Schltr. (Gaumer 23357), Leochilus scriptus<br />
(Scheidw.) Rchb. f. (Gaumer 23358), Harrisella<br />
porrecta (Rchb. f.) Fawc. & Rendle (Gaumer 23359),<br />
Oncidium sphacelatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gaumer 23664),<br />
Lophiaris oerstedii (Rchb. f.) R. Jiménez & Carnevali<br />
(Gaumer 23813), Encyclia belizensis (Rchb. f.) Schltr.<br />
(Gaumer 23916), <strong>and</strong> Psygmorchis pusilla (L.) Dodson<br />
& Dressler (Gaumer s.n.).<br />
The Czech Eduard Klaboch (1852-1915), a nephew<br />
of Benedikt Roezl, collected mostly <strong>in</strong> Ecuador but<br />
was <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>in</strong> 1885, from where we know of<br />
his collections of Epidendrum elegans (Knowles &<br />
Westc.) Rchb. f. <strong>and</strong> Spiranthes acaulis (J. E. Sm.)<br />
Cogn. He was killed <strong>in</strong> Mexico.<br />
John H<strong>in</strong>ckley Hart (1847-1911), an Englishman<br />
who worked for the Department of Botany <strong>in</strong> Jamaica,<br />
visited Bocas del Toro (Panama) between November<br />
<strong>and</strong> December of 1885, where he collected extensively<br />
<strong>in</strong> a region that had been scarcely explored. We know<br />
of only one specimen of Orchidaceae among his<br />
collections: Brassavola nodosa (L.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Hart 111).<br />
Edward Shuttleworth (1829-1909) (Fig. 44D)<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> 1873 for William Bull <strong>in</strong> Colombia. He<br />
collected several new species of Masdevallia <strong>and</strong> was<br />
successful to br<strong>in</strong>g them back to Engl<strong>and</strong> alive. After<br />
his return from South America he founded, together<br />
with John Carder (-1908), another of Bull’s collectors,<br />
his own company under the name of Shuttleworth<br />
<strong>and</strong> Carder. Like Shuttleworth, Carder was a gardener<br />
by tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> like him, worked for William Bull’s<br />
nursery <strong>in</strong> Clapton, Engl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> collected plants <strong>in</strong><br />
South America. There are no accounts of Shuttleworth<br />
or Carder travel<strong>in</strong>g to Costa Rica, but the database of<br />
the Missouri Botanical Garden lists two species as<br />
collected by them <strong>in</strong> this country: Masdevallia astuta<br />
Rchb. f. (Costa Rica, Shuttleworth & Carder, s.n.) <strong>and</strong><br />
Masdevallia demissa Rchb. f. (Costa Rica: collected<br />
by Mr. Carder, <strong>and</strong> grown by Messrs. Shuttleworth<br />
& Carder). Several orchid species were dedicated<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
to the two partners: Stanhopea shuttleworthii Rchb.<br />
f., Restrepia shuttleworthi Rolfe, Masdevallia<br />
shuttleworthi Rchb. f., Masdevallia carderi Rchb. f.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Oncidium carderi Rchb. f. (Jenny, 2003: 36-37).<br />
In the meantime, Carl Thieme collected <strong>in</strong> Honduras<br />
between 1887 <strong>and</strong> 1890 (Fig. 45A). He sent his<br />
specimens to Donnell Smith for identification. “The<br />
collections of Dr. Thieme, now <strong>in</strong> the U. S. National<br />
Herbarium, are the only important ones I know of from<br />
Honduras before 1900. No Honduran, as far as I know,<br />
became <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the native flora until the 1940’s.”<br />
(Williams, L.O., 1972). To him we owe Pelexia<br />
hondurensis Ames (C. Thieme 785) <strong>and</strong> Physurus<br />
vag<strong>in</strong>atus Hook. (C. Thieme 681).<br />
“Shortly after his death, his collections of <strong>in</strong>sects <strong>and</strong><br />
his manuscripts, which must be very important..., were<br />
sent to Germany... (Pérez Estrada, 1952: 153).” A<br />
man with a strange character, Thieme never admitted<br />
women <strong>in</strong> his house. “Although a real man of science,<br />
the rarities of his social life were not those of a scientist<br />
but those of a human be<strong>in</strong>g who carries <strong>in</strong> his soul an<br />
emotional disturbance <strong>and</strong> a grief that only death can<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g to an end. Through vague accounts of his fellow<br />
countrymen it was known that he had been married <strong>and</strong><br />
that his wife, <strong>in</strong> whom he had set all of his confidence,<br />
failed her duties <strong>in</strong> such a manner that the affronted<br />
husb<strong>and</strong> was brought to the br<strong>in</strong>k of madness” (Pérez<br />
Estrada, 1952: 152).<br />
Reverend He<strong>in</strong>rich Theophile Heyde <strong>and</strong> his nephew<br />
Ernesto Lux collected extensively <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
between 1889 <strong>and</strong> 1894. Amongst their over 6,000<br />
collections there are hundreds of <strong>orchids</strong>, mentioned <strong>in</strong><br />
Orchids of Guatemala <strong>and</strong> Belize by Ames & Correll<br />
(1985). Oakes Ames described several new species<br />
among their specimens: Habenaria macroceratitis<br />
Willdenow var. brevicalcarata Ames (Heyde & Lux<br />
6383, 1894), Odontoglossum majale (Heyde & Lux<br />
3502, 1892), Sarcoglottis zamororae Ames (Heyde &<br />
Lux 4625, 1893), <strong>and</strong> Sarcoglottis orbiculata Ames<br />
(Heyde & Lux 3504, 1892).<br />
John Donnell Smith (1829-1928) (Fig. 45B), a<br />
retired capta<strong>in</strong> of the Confederate Army <strong>and</strong> botanist at<br />
the Johns Hopk<strong>in</strong>s University worked with Anastasio<br />
Alfaro <strong>and</strong> Pittier <strong>and</strong> made two trips to Costa Rica<br />
<strong>in</strong> the 1890s” (Eak<strong>in</strong>, 1999: 141). Although he had<br />
no special <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong>, his work as a botanist<br />
was important <strong>and</strong> he collaborated with Pittier <strong>in</strong> his
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Primitiae Flora Costaricensis, for which he wrote the<br />
fascicles on the orders of Polypetalae <strong>and</strong> Gamopetalae<br />
of the second volume. In Costa Rica he collected<br />
Oncidium ascendens L<strong>in</strong>dl. <strong>in</strong> 1894 (J.D. Smith 4592).<br />
He also worked <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, where he made<br />
important contributions, “not only through his own<br />
work, but because he f<strong>in</strong>anced other scientists such<br />
as Tuerckheim, Father E. T. Heyde <strong>and</strong> his nephew<br />
Ernesto Lux, W. C. Shannon, Juan J. Cooper [<strong>in</strong><br />
Costa Rica], Carl Thieme [<strong>in</strong> Honduras] <strong>and</strong> others<br />
(Maldonado Polo, 1996: 135).” He distributed many<br />
specimens of the Central American flora among the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> herbariums of the United States <strong>and</strong> it may have<br />
been through him that Ames made his first contacts<br />
with the <strong>orchids</strong> of the region (Williams, 1972: 201).<br />
Among the collections of Donnell-Smith <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
we f<strong>in</strong>d the follow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong>: Epidendrum arbuscula<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (J. D. Smith 2635), Epidendrum atropurpureum<br />
Willd. (J. D. Smith 2225), Epidendrum imatophyllum<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (J. D. Smith 1584), <strong>and</strong> Nageliella purpurea<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>dl.) L. O. Wms. (J. D. Smith 2643). Donnell Smith<br />
was appo<strong>in</strong>ted an Honorary Associate of the U.S.<br />
National Herbarium <strong>in</strong> 1905, a position that he reta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
until his death <strong>in</strong> 1928. “Capta<strong>in</strong> Smith published no<br />
fewer than 39 contributions to the Central American<br />
flora, all <strong>in</strong> the Botanical Gazette…” (Williams, 1972:<br />
201). Of great importance for the knowledge of the<br />
flora of Guatemala where his Enumeratio Plantarum<br />
Guatemalensium (Donnell-Smith, 1889-1907). His<br />
herbarium of Central American material, with over<br />
100,000 specimens, is preserved at the Smithsonian<br />
Institution. Louis O. Williams called him ‘the Father<br />
of Botany <strong>in</strong> Central America.’ He is commemorated,<br />
among others, with the moss genus Donnellia <strong>and</strong><br />
Donnelsmithia (Apiaceae).<br />
William Cumm<strong>in</strong>gs Shannon (1851-1905), an<br />
American surgeon, collected specimens of Orchidaceae<br />
<strong>in</strong> Guatemala dur<strong>in</strong>g 1891 <strong>and</strong> 1892 (Barkeria sk<strong>in</strong>neri,<br />
Govenia bella, Osmoglossum pulchellum) <strong>and</strong> went later<br />
on to Honduras <strong>and</strong> El Salvador (1893). He botanized<br />
spar<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong> the Guanacaste region of Costa Rica dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the same year (Grayum et al., 2004: 17).<br />
Under contract with Anastasio Alfaro, Juan J. Cooper<br />
(1843-1911) collected plants <strong>and</strong> birds <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica<br />
for local <strong>and</strong> foreign <strong>in</strong>stitutions. He was employed by<br />
the National Museum <strong>and</strong> appo<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>in</strong>terim director <strong>in</strong><br />
1896. For several years he send herbarium specimens of<br />
135<br />
dicotiledons <strong>and</strong> monocotiledons to John Donell Smith<br />
from the neighborhood of Cartago <strong>and</strong> the Atlantic<br />
region. Several new species of <strong>orchids</strong> were described<br />
from specimens collected by Cooper: Epidendrum<br />
selag<strong>in</strong>ella Schltr. (Cooper 523), Physosiphon cooperi<br />
Ames (Cooper 481), Pleurothallis cooperi Schltr.<br />
(Cooper s.n.), <strong>and</strong> Stelis cooperi Schltr. (Cooper 562).<br />
Charles Leonard Smith (1866-1923) <strong>and</strong> Bohumil<br />
Shimek (1861-1937), American botanists specialized<br />
<strong>in</strong> ferns, collected several species of Orchidaceae<br />
<strong>in</strong> Nicaragua <strong>in</strong> 1893 (Leochilus labiatus <strong>and</strong><br />
Psygmorchis pusilla).<br />
Another American, Charles Fuller Baker (1872-<br />
1927) brought together a large collection of more<br />
than 2,<strong>500</strong> samples <strong>in</strong> the Nicaraguan Pacific region<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1895. A few <strong>orchids</strong>, collected <strong>in</strong> León <strong>and</strong><br />
Granada <strong>in</strong> 1903, can be found among his specimens<br />
(Encyclia gravida <strong>and</strong> Laelia rubescens).<br />
Before turn<strong>in</strong>g the century, special mention must be<br />
made of U. S. biologist Edward William Nelson (1855-<br />
1934), who made extensive botanical explorations<br />
throughout Mexico together with Edward A.<br />
Goldman from 1892-1896. An autodidact, Nelson had<br />
participated <strong>in</strong> the famous Death Valley Expedition<br />
from 1890-91, <strong>in</strong> the newly created Division of<br />
Ornithology <strong>and</strong> Mammalogy of the Bureau of<br />
Biological Survey. He worked <strong>in</strong> every state <strong>in</strong> Mexico<br />
<strong>and</strong> on all coastal isl<strong>and</strong>s, as well as <strong>in</strong> northern<br />
Guatemala. In Chiapas, well with<strong>in</strong> our area of study,<br />
he discovered an important number of new orchid<br />
species, most of which were later described by Ames.<br />
Worthy to mention are the follow<strong>in</strong>g: Bletia nelsonii<br />
Ames (Nelson 913), Erythrodes chicharrasensis Ames<br />
(Nelson 3808), Erythrodes mexicana (= vesicifera)<br />
Ames (Nelson 3777), Malaxis macrantha Ames<br />
(Nelson 3124), Microstylis (= Malaxis) nelsonii<br />
Ames (Nelson 4782), <strong>and</strong> Pleurothallis nelsonii Ames<br />
(Nelson 3763).<br />
Charles Frederick Millspaugh (1854-1923), the first<br />
Curator of Botany of the Field Museum <strong>in</strong> Chicago,<br />
selected Peru as the Museum’s center of floristic<br />
research. He looked however also to Central America.<br />
On board of the famous yacht ‘Utowana’ he traveled<br />
through the Caribbean <strong>in</strong> 1898-99, touch<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Cozumel Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Yucatan, where he collected,<br />
among others, Spiranthes orchioides (Sw.) Rchb.<br />
f. (Millspaugh 1616, Yucatan), Brassavola cordata<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
136<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Millspaugh 1797, Isl<strong>and</strong> of Cozumel) <strong>and</strong><br />
Oncidium cebolleta (Jacq.) Sw. (Millspaugh 1617,<br />
Pisté, Yucatan). He described his collections <strong>in</strong> 1900.<br />
Millspaugh was at that time already famous for his<br />
work American Medic<strong>in</strong>al Plants (1887).<br />
Other travelers <strong>in</strong> Central America (II): 1870-1900.<br />
We cont<strong>in</strong>ue with accounts of travels through Central<br />
America, written by persons who came for various<br />
motives (never primarily as botanists).<br />
In 1874, the German Helmuth Polakowsky (1847-<br />
1917) came to Costa Rica, hired to teach lessons of<br />
Chemistry, Physics, Botany, M<strong>in</strong>eralogy <strong>and</strong> Zoology<br />
at the National Institute of San José. Polakowsky<br />
traveled throughout the country <strong>and</strong> left various<br />
detailed accounts, among which “La República de<br />
Costa Rica” st<strong>and</strong>s out (Polakowsky, 1940). In addition<br />
to his comments about the Vanilla that Carmiol had <strong>in</strong><br />
his house, he writes <strong>in</strong> his books about the common<br />
plants of Costa Rica: “The largest number of parasites<br />
belong to the family of the <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> Bromeliads.<br />
Among the first I mention the genus Epidendrum (there<br />
are many species), Lelia [sic], Oncidium, Trichopilae<br />
[sic], Odontoglossum <strong>and</strong> the rarest Catleyas [sic]<br />
(such as Dowiana <strong>and</strong> Stanhopea [sic]). In no private<br />
garden have I seen these plants grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> large<br />
numbers; at the most one or two hang <strong>in</strong> the corridors<br />
of the ‘haciendas’ grow<strong>in</strong>g on a piece of wood, <strong>and</strong><br />
nobody knows or chooses the species with particularly<br />
beautiful flowers” (Polakowsky, 1940). Specimens of<br />
Epidendrum ciliare L., Epidendrum paniculatum Ruiz<br />
& Pav. <strong>and</strong> Stelis sp. were collected by Polakowsky<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1875 (Polakowsky 382) <strong>and</strong> are today <strong>in</strong> the orchid<br />
collection of the Natural History Museum <strong>in</strong> London.<br />
The British traveler John W. Boddam-Whetham<br />
(1843-?) arrived at the Guatemalan port of San José<br />
<strong>in</strong> October of 1875. From the capital he made ‘some<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g trips, east <strong>and</strong> west’, <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ued then to<br />
Cobán <strong>in</strong> Alta Verapaz. He went on over the mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
to the region of Petén <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally by canoe on the<br />
Usumac<strong>in</strong>ta River to the isl<strong>and</strong> of Carmen <strong>in</strong> the Gulf<br />
of Mexico.<br />
Two years later Boddam-Whetham published an<br />
account of his travels with the title of Across Central<br />
America (Boddam-Whetham, 1877). In his narrative,<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> are frequently mentioned. Between Guatemala<br />
<strong>and</strong> Esquipulas, he f<strong>in</strong>ds “many of the large trees [...]<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
adorned with a most beautiful rose-coloured orchid<br />
-I th<strong>in</strong>k a Lycaste Sk<strong>in</strong>neri- whose large flowers<br />
gave a wonderful glow to the grey trunk <strong>and</strong> green<br />
leaves among which they were perched. It appeared<br />
to me that they had been transplanted, as they were<br />
seldom far from the ground, <strong>and</strong> generally on trees<br />
overhang<strong>in</strong>g a native hut; to an Indian an orchid is a<br />
sacred flower, <strong>and</strong> as none of the trees <strong>in</strong> that locality,<br />
except those near houses, were similarly decorated, it<br />
is not improbable that superstition rather than a love<br />
of garden<strong>in</strong>g accounted for their appearance.” And he<br />
compla<strong>in</strong>s: “Guatemala is rich <strong>in</strong> these lovely plants<br />
-the élite of the floral k<strong>in</strong>gdom- <strong>and</strong> every day I had<br />
cause to regret my limited knowledge of botany; <strong>and</strong><br />
after I had left the country, when show<strong>in</strong>g what I<br />
had collected <strong>and</strong> describ<strong>in</strong>g what I had not, I often<br />
found I had taken the chaff <strong>and</strong> left the gra<strong>in</strong>”. Once <strong>in</strong><br />
Esquipulas, he describes the procession of the pilgrims<br />
who came to the village to worship the Holy Christ:<br />
“They were all decked with garl<strong>and</strong>s of the till<strong>and</strong>sia,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> their h<strong>and</strong>s they carried brilliant <strong>orchids</strong>. Some of<br />
the different companies carried spikes of the beautiful<br />
rose-coloured orchid I have before mentioned; others<br />
carried a species of Epidendrum whose rich orange<br />
flowers contrasted with the creamy blossoms of an<br />
Odontoglot which seemed a great favourite. Panicles<br />
of one of the commonest <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Guatemala -an<br />
Oncidium- were used <strong>in</strong> great profusion, <strong>and</strong> their long<br />
droop<strong>in</strong>g stalks covered with small yellow flowers<br />
looked very graceful”. Rid<strong>in</strong>g back to Guatemala he<br />
“entered a beautiful country [which] was a region of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>, <strong>and</strong> each species seemed to have its favourite<br />
locality. In one spot a Stanhopea flourished, the<br />
flowers of this k<strong>in</strong>d be<strong>in</strong>g a bright yellow, barred with<br />
chocolate. In another, the trees bore no other species,<br />
except one whose flowers were shaped like a Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
rose <strong>and</strong> of a delicate p<strong>in</strong>k hue. I gathered twenty of<br />
these blossoms off one tree, <strong>and</strong> I recalled to m<strong>in</strong>d that<br />
once or twice <strong>in</strong> London I had paid five shill<strong>in</strong>gs for a<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle specimen”. He cont<strong>in</strong>ued <strong>and</strong> crossed the border<br />
to Honduras, want<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>spect the ru<strong>in</strong>s of Copán.<br />
“The forest was damp <strong>and</strong> hot, <strong>and</strong> for that reason a<br />
wild garden of ferns, <strong>orchids</strong>, <strong>and</strong> creepers...”<br />
Some weeks later, <strong>in</strong> the first days of 1876, he rides<br />
from Guatemala to Cobán. Close to this city, amidst<br />
a terrible down-pour, he crosses a river <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ds a<br />
place that “<strong>in</strong> f<strong>in</strong>e weather must be a perfect Paradise
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
A B<br />
C D<br />
D<br />
Figure 44. A — Adolphe Tonduz (1862-1921). Courtesy of L.D. Gómez. B — Front cover of Pfau’s book <strong>and</strong> advertisement<br />
of his nurseries. C — Chondroscaphe bicolor (Rolfe) Dressler. Illustration by R. Pfau. Courtesy of F. Pupul<strong>in</strong>. D — Edward<br />
Shuttleworth (1829-1909). Anonymous, 1889b: 1.<br />
137<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
138<br />
A<br />
C<br />
D<br />
F<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 45. A — San Pedro Sula at the time of Thieme’s collections. In Escoto, 2002: 28. B — John Donnell Smith (1829-1928).<br />
Courtesy of Jaime García. C — The city of Guatemala. In Boddam-Whetham, 1877, frontispiece. D — United Fruit Co. Lodge<br />
<strong>and</strong> Station <strong>in</strong> Port Limón, ca. 1915. Photograph by Manuel Gómez Miralles <strong>in</strong> Leiva Coto, 2004: 83. E — Rudolf Schlechter<br />
(1872-1925), <strong>in</strong> the Herbarium of the Botanical Museum <strong>in</strong>Berl<strong>in</strong>, 1909. F — The Herbarium <strong>in</strong> Berl<strong>in</strong>, after its destruction <strong>in</strong><br />
March, 1943. (E—F, Courtesy of Dr. N. Kilian, Archives BGBM Berl<strong>in</strong>-Dahlem).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B<br />
E
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
[...] The branches which arched the deep stream on<br />
our right were loaded with <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> parasites, over<br />
whose blossoms a few humm<strong>in</strong>g birds hovered as if<br />
<strong>in</strong> defiance of the ra<strong>in</strong>...” (Fig. 45C). After Cobán, he<br />
crosses the mounta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>s the descend to the<br />
Atlantic regions. “The scenery is splendidly tropical;<br />
v<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> festoon the trees, from which you<br />
are saluted by the merry chatter of the parrots...” And<br />
two leagues later he arrives at a shr<strong>in</strong>e dedicated to Our<br />
Lady of C<strong>and</strong>elaria, where the offer<strong>in</strong>gs, among them<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>, were very numerous (Boddam-Whetham,<br />
1877: 150, 151, 167, 172, 186, 261-262). Already on<br />
his way home, <strong>in</strong> Petén, near the village of Tenosique,<br />
he found Peristeria elata Hook. “Here for the first time<br />
I saw the curious Holy Ghost orchid -Espíritu Santo-<br />
so called on account of the yellow dove-like form that<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the centre of the white globular flower”. And<br />
<strong>in</strong> the same area: “One portion of the wood glowed so<br />
brilliantly with a crimson flush that I went to see the<br />
cause. It proved to be a number of splendid <strong>orchids</strong><br />
whose flowers graduated <strong>in</strong> colour from a pale p<strong>in</strong>k<br />
to a bright spotted crimson, the <strong>in</strong>ner cup be<strong>in</strong>g p<strong>in</strong>k<br />
<strong>and</strong> white. The blossoms grew on a long spike, one<br />
of which I measured, be<strong>in</strong>g over five feet <strong>in</strong> length,<br />
<strong>and</strong> hav<strong>in</strong>g on it more than one hundred flowers.<br />
Afterwards I saw many trees laden with them, but all<br />
near Tenosique <strong>and</strong> none on the other side of the river”<br />
(Boddam-Whetham, 1877: 311).<br />
Arm<strong>and</strong>o Reclus (1843-1927), an officer <strong>in</strong> the<br />
French Navy, traveled to Panama on two occasions,<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the years of 1876 to 1878, recogniz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
survey<strong>in</strong>g possible routes for a future <strong>in</strong>teroceanic<br />
canal. In 1878 the Colombian government f<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
granted a French company the right to build a canal<br />
across the isthmus. Napoleon Bonaparte Wyse,<br />
Arm<strong>and</strong>o Reclus <strong>and</strong> Pedro J. Sosssa presented the<br />
plans for the famous project <strong>and</strong> founded the Universal<br />
Company of the Interoceanic Canal. A description of<br />
the travels by Reclus was published <strong>in</strong> Madrid (Reclus,<br />
1972). We f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> it some <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g references.<br />
Describ<strong>in</strong>g the merch<strong>and</strong>ises that were offered to<br />
the travelers <strong>in</strong> the railroad station of Gatún, Reclus<br />
writes: “They also offer a plant from the Orchid family<br />
(Peristeria elata), the Holy Ghost flower, which grows<br />
<strong>in</strong> great numbers <strong>in</strong> the neighborhood, <strong>and</strong> is very rare<br />
further away, as it seems; on the corolla of this flower,<br />
deliciously scented <strong>and</strong> of a color white as wax, the<br />
139<br />
stamen <strong>and</strong> pistils form a small group that resembles<br />
a t<strong>in</strong>y dove variegated with red”. Months later, already<br />
<strong>in</strong> the region of Darién, he describes ‘espavé’ trees<br />
(Anacardium excelsum): “Their short, wide <strong>and</strong> curved<br />
trunk, […] can almost be described as disappear<strong>in</strong>g<br />
under the stems of thous<strong>and</strong>s of <strong>orchids</strong>…” (Reclus,<br />
1972: 50, 182).<br />
The British Mary Lester traveled <strong>in</strong> 1881 through<br />
Honduras, rid<strong>in</strong>g from Amapala, on the Pacific Coast,<br />
all the way to San Pedro Sula, where she expected to<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d employ as a teacher. She marveled about the forest:<br />
“… we went <strong>in</strong>to a labyr<strong>in</strong>th, go<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> out, where<br />
the soil was firmer, free from the extended, uncovered<br />
roots of the trees, <strong>and</strong> from the garl<strong>and</strong>s of parasite<br />
plants that fell from above…” (Lester, 1971: 196).<br />
Carl Bovallius (1847-1917) descended from a<br />
family from Northern Sweden. His father, Robert<br />
Bovallius, was the Royal Librarian <strong>in</strong> Stockholm. Carl<br />
studied at the University of Upsala, where he became<br />
a professor <strong>in</strong> Biology. In 1881 he asked for a leave of<br />
absence <strong>and</strong> traveled to Central America. He visited<br />
Panama (February to July, 1882), Costa Rica (July to<br />
October, 1882) <strong>and</strong> Nicaragua (October, 1882 to April,<br />
1883), return<strong>in</strong>g to Europe <strong>in</strong> 1883. The observations<br />
made dur<strong>in</strong>g his journey were the base for Viaje por<br />
Centroamérica (1881-1883), published <strong>in</strong> 1887 <strong>in</strong><br />
Upsala <strong>and</strong> translated later <strong>in</strong>to Spanish <strong>in</strong> 1977. In<br />
his work he writes about a trip to the Atlantic region<br />
of Costa Rica, <strong>in</strong> the company of Julian Carmiol <strong>and</strong><br />
Anton Huebsch, a botanist from Bohemia who had<br />
made the trip ma<strong>in</strong>ly “to collect <strong>and</strong> study <strong>orchids</strong>”.<br />
From the Hacienda Caño Seco, near Siquirres, where<br />
they stayed for several weeks, Bovallius <strong>and</strong> Huebsch<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ued to the region of Talamanca, <strong>in</strong> the company<br />
of Costa Rican Bishop Bernard August Thiel. Jerónimo<br />
Fernández, the priest who acted as the chronicler of<br />
the expedition, tells us about the <strong>in</strong>dian village of<br />
San José Cabécar, where Huebsch found “an orchid<br />
unknown to science” (Bovallius, 1977: 125). Huebsch,<br />
a collector for S<strong>and</strong>er <strong>in</strong> St. Albans, traveled also <strong>in</strong><br />
Ecuador <strong>and</strong> Colombia, where he discovered three<br />
new species: Maxillaria huebschii Rchb. f., Oncidium<br />
huebschii Rchb. f. <strong>and</strong> Masdevallia huebschiana<br />
Kraenzl. In Costa Rica he collected the type specimen<br />
of Masdevallia flaveola Rchb. f. In the type protologue<br />
we read: “discovered by Hübsch for Mr. F. S<strong>and</strong>er,<br />
who has just imported a stock of it”. From the same<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
140<br />
year (1884) is his collection of another new species,<br />
Masdevallia anchorifera Rchb. f. (Hübsch s.n.; Costa<br />
Rica, without locality). Bovallius tells us about his<br />
experiences <strong>in</strong> the Costa Rican ra<strong>in</strong>forest, <strong>and</strong> about his<br />
encounter with “the almost soporific aroma of Vanilla<br />
… so strong that it almost produced <strong>in</strong>disposition”.<br />
Sometime later, he traveled from San Juan del Norte<br />
to the Lake of Nicaragua on the San Juan River, <strong>and</strong><br />
described <strong>in</strong> his journal the beauty that he encountered:<br />
“As the sun rose we climbed aga<strong>in</strong> on the steamer <strong>and</strong><br />
never tired to admire the majestic l<strong>and</strong>scape around<br />
us. Heliconias with white stems could be seen <strong>in</strong> great<br />
numbers, which made a showy contrast to the dark<br />
green, luxuriant vegetation <strong>in</strong> the background. Species<br />
of ficus with thick, brilliant leaves, passion flowers<br />
with large white <strong>and</strong> red flowers, […] leafy bromeliads,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> with colors from purple velvet to the most<br />
delicate waxy yellow, made up a decoration to the<br />
green walls so brilliant <strong>and</strong> strong that any description<br />
will seem pale aga<strong>in</strong>st it” (Bovallius, 1977: 171, 207).<br />
The new empIre<br />
“Company no heart”<br />
Popular say<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Costa Rican<br />
Atlantic regions<br />
The <strong>in</strong>troduction of bananas <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
led to the colonization of the Atlantic region <strong>and</strong><br />
to the consolidation of the <strong>in</strong>fluence of the United<br />
States on the political <strong>and</strong> economical life of the<br />
young republics. “Banana plantations began dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the decade of 1870, with shipments from the coast of<br />
Honduras that were sold <strong>in</strong> New Orleans.... The United<br />
Fruit Company was founded <strong>in</strong> 1899. Together with<br />
the Cuyamel Fruit Company (with which it merged <strong>in</strong><br />
1929) <strong>and</strong> the St<strong>and</strong>ard Fruit <strong>and</strong> Steamship Company,<br />
it monopolized the banana activities <strong>in</strong> the whole<br />
Central American area <strong>and</strong> the Caribbean” (Pérez<br />
Brignoli, 2000: 126-127) (Fig. 45D). The dom<strong>in</strong>ance<br />
of the United States <strong>in</strong>creased after the Spanish-<br />
American War (1898), dur<strong>in</strong>g which Spa<strong>in</strong> lost, besides<br />
the Philipp<strong>in</strong>e Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Cuba <strong>and</strong> Puerto Rico, her last<br />
possessions <strong>in</strong> America. Cuba became a protectorate<br />
<strong>and</strong> Puerto Rico is presently an “Associated State” of<br />
the United States.<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
The ‘Big Stick’ policy<br />
“Speak softly <strong>and</strong> carry a big stick, <strong>and</strong><br />
you will go far.”<br />
African proverb<br />
In 1901 Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919), who had<br />
become a hero dur<strong>in</strong>g the war aga<strong>in</strong>st Spa<strong>in</strong>, was elected<br />
President of the United States. In 1904 the “Roosevelt<br />
Corollary” was added to the Monroe Doctr<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
declar<strong>in</strong>g that the United States would exercise force<br />
to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the stability <strong>in</strong> the Western Hemisphere.<br />
Directed at Europe, the Roosevelt Corollary stated<br />
that the United States would consider any <strong>in</strong>terference<br />
<strong>in</strong> the affairs of small, poor Lat<strong>in</strong> American nations a<br />
violation of the Monroe Doctr<strong>in</strong>e. The first application<br />
of the Corollary occurred <strong>in</strong> 1905, when Roosevelt<br />
sent Mar<strong>in</strong>es to the Dom<strong>in</strong>ican Republic to manage<br />
the country’s European debts. This was the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of the “Big Stick Policy”. A controversial figure,<br />
Roosevelt was a great conservationist <strong>and</strong> naturalist,<br />
considered <strong>in</strong> his time one of the greatest U. S. experts<br />
<strong>in</strong> large American mammals. Dur<strong>in</strong>g his tenure <strong>in</strong> the<br />
White House from 1901 to 1909, he designated 150<br />
National Forests, the first 51 Federal Bird Reservations,<br />
5 National Parks, the first 18 National Monuments <strong>and</strong><br />
the first 4 National Game Preserves. Altogether, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
seven-<strong>and</strong>-one-half years he was <strong>in</strong> office, he provided<br />
federal protection for almost 230 million acres, a<br />
l<strong>and</strong> area equivalent to that of all the East coast states<br />
from Ma<strong>in</strong>e to Florida. In 1916, Roosevelt took part<br />
<strong>in</strong> an expedition to Brazil, explor<strong>in</strong>g the course of the<br />
Juruena River. The great orchidologist F. C. Hoehne,<br />
who was part of the expeditionary group, found a new<br />
species of Catasetum, that was dedicated to Roosevelt:<br />
Catasetum rooseveltianum Hoehne.The United States<br />
<strong>in</strong>tervened <strong>in</strong> 1903 <strong>in</strong> favor of the <strong>in</strong>dependence of<br />
Panama, obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a contract that would allow them<br />
to beg<strong>in</strong>, one year later, the construction of the canal,<br />
which was <strong>in</strong>augurated <strong>in</strong> 1914. The Canal Zone was<br />
ceded <strong>in</strong> perpetuity to the United States. Liberal revolts<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st the conservative regime of Adolfo Díaz were<br />
on the po<strong>in</strong>t of victory when U.S. troops were sent to<br />
Nicaragua to help put them down. After the entry of<br />
American Mar<strong>in</strong>es, the U.S. would essentially rule the<br />
country until 1925 through a series of puppet dictators.<br />
In 1926, when a Liberal <strong>in</strong>surrection was started<br />
by Augusto César S<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>o (1895–1934), the U.S.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
government hastily l<strong>and</strong>ed forces. Dedicated to free<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the country of foreign dom<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the lot of Nicaraguan peasants, S<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>o would fight<br />
a war aga<strong>in</strong>st U.S. Mar<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> the National Guard<br />
for the next eight years. The Mar<strong>in</strong>es withdrew <strong>in</strong><br />
1933, leav<strong>in</strong>g Anastasio Somoza as comm<strong>and</strong>er of<br />
the National Guard. In 1937 Somoza, who had been<br />
responsible for the murder of S<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>o <strong>in</strong> 1934, was<br />
elected president, <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g a dynasty of dictators that<br />
would rule the country for the next forty years. The<br />
antagonism between the dictatorship <strong>and</strong> the ideals of<br />
S<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>o would mark the history of Nicaragua dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the rest of the XX Century. “The penetration of foreign<br />
capital – especially North American after World War<br />
I – complements the already close relations of Central<br />
America to <strong>in</strong>ternational trade... The powerful banana<br />
companies, with extensive <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> a vast scope<br />
of activities (plantations, railways, shipp<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>es,<br />
communications, etc.) played an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly relevant<br />
role” (Pérez Brignoli, 2000: 127).<br />
While Europe struggled with the problems <strong>and</strong><br />
the misery of the postwar years, the establishment of<br />
communism <strong>and</strong> the rapid rise of fascism, the United<br />
States consolidated, dur<strong>in</strong>g the first three decades of<br />
the XX century, their new American empire. In the<br />
same manner, European explorers <strong>and</strong> scientists,<br />
who had dom<strong>in</strong>ated the history of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central<br />
America dur<strong>in</strong>g the past four centuries, yielded the<br />
field to a new generation of U. S. botanists, especially<br />
after the deaths of Rolfe <strong>in</strong> 1921 <strong>and</strong> of Schlechter <strong>in</strong><br />
1925, giv<strong>in</strong>g way to what Robert Dressler would co<strong>in</strong>,<br />
years later, “botanical imperialism” (<strong>in</strong> a letter to E.<br />
Greenwood, January 5, 1981).<br />
In Costa Rica, the strong impulse given to the<br />
botanical exploration of the country by the ‘Instituto<br />
Físico Geográfico’ <strong>and</strong> the National Museum <strong>in</strong> the last<br />
years of the XIX century cont<strong>in</strong>ued until after World<br />
War I. It was the only Central American country where<br />
a strong group of national scientists <strong>and</strong> naturalists was<br />
formed, work<strong>in</strong>g together with foreign residents. In<br />
Panama, the impulse came from the construction of the<br />
canal, which attracted the <strong>in</strong>terest of <strong>in</strong>stitutions such as<br />
the Smithsonian <strong>and</strong> the Missouri Botanical Garden. In<br />
northern Meso<strong>america</strong>, Guatemala, Yucatan, Belize, <strong>and</strong><br />
to a lesser degree Honduras, were explored <strong>in</strong> the first<br />
years of the XX century by naturalists who followed the<br />
archeological exploration of the ancient Mayan cities.<br />
Rudolf Schlechter<br />
141<br />
“Without a good memory it is of no use try<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
be a botanist; one had better give it up <strong>and</strong> be a<br />
merchant”<br />
Rudolf Schlechter (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 293)<br />
The previous quote is characteristic of the egotistic<br />
self-confidence of the great German orchidologist<br />
Friedrich Richard Rudolf Schlechter (1872-1925) (Fig.<br />
45E), a man of driv<strong>in</strong>g ambition, a great capacity for<br />
work <strong>and</strong> a remarkable memory, of whom it is said<br />
that at an early age had set for himself the goal of<br />
describ<strong>in</strong>g at least one new orchid every day (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka,<br />
1995: 293-294). Schlechter was born <strong>in</strong> Berl<strong>in</strong> where<br />
he served an apprenticeship as a horticulturist, first<br />
<strong>in</strong> the well-known commercial nursery of F. Bluth,<br />
<strong>and</strong> later <strong>in</strong> the gardens of the University of Berl<strong>in</strong><br />
(Loesener, 1926: 912). At n<strong>in</strong>eteen years of age he<br />
left Europe on botanical explorations that carried<br />
him to Africa, Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Borneo, New<br />
Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, the Bismarck Archipelago <strong>and</strong> Australia.<br />
Of utmost importance were his explorations of New<br />
Gu<strong>in</strong>ea (1901-1902 y 1906-1909) where he discovered<br />
over 1,100 new species of Orchidaceae, described<br />
<strong>in</strong> his work Die Orchidaceen von Deutsch-Neu-<br />
Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, published <strong>in</strong> 1914. “Between collect<strong>in</strong>g trips<br />
Schlechter cont<strong>in</strong>ued his visits to London, always<br />
stopp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> at the herbarium at Kew <strong>and</strong> the British<br />
Museum. He was considered an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g figure, but<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g not respectful of persons or th<strong>in</strong>gs, he was apt to<br />
tread on other people’s feel<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> sensibilities. He<br />
was dogmatic <strong>in</strong> his convictions, a characteristic which<br />
did not assist <strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g him popular; but on the basis<br />
of his achievements <strong>and</strong> experience, he was accorded<br />
great respect” (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1925: 294).<br />
Schlechter’s work had been preceded, after the death<br />
of Reichenbach, by Ernst Hugo He<strong>in</strong>rich Pfitzer (1846-<br />
1906). Pfitzer, s<strong>in</strong>ce 1872 professor <strong>and</strong> director of the<br />
Botanical Garden of Königsberg (Prussia), dedicated<br />
himself to the classification of the Orchidaceae <strong>and</strong><br />
published <strong>in</strong> 1895 his Beiträge zur Systematik der<br />
Orchideen (= ‘Contributions to the Systematics of<br />
Orchids ’ ). Of jovial character, Pfitzer was respected all<br />
over Europe. It was his untimely death, at only 60 years<br />
of age, which really opened the way for Schlechter.<br />
Schlechter described, <strong>in</strong> his Orchidaceae novae<br />
et criticae (1906-1907), for the first time new orchid<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
142<br />
species from Central America, which were specimens<br />
collected by von Tuerckheim <strong>in</strong> Guatemala (which<br />
he received from Donnell-Smith) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica<br />
by Pittier <strong>and</strong> others, which were sent to Schlechter<br />
by Dur<strong>and</strong>: Cranichis guatemalensis Schltr. (von<br />
Tuerckheim 1379), Epidendrum isomerum Schltr. (von<br />
Tuerckheim II 167), Physurus tuerckheimii Schltr.<br />
(von Tuerckheim 733), Camaridium costaricense<br />
Schltr. (Tonduz 12429), Epidendrum selag<strong>in</strong>ella<br />
Schltr. (J. Cooper 523), Epidendrum wercklei Schltr.<br />
(Wercklé 16419), Lockhartia pittieri Schltr. (Pittier<br />
10592), Pittierella calcarata Schltr. (Tonduz 9682),<br />
<strong>and</strong> Vanilla pittieri Schltr. (Pittier 6600).<br />
Shortly after first describ<strong>in</strong>g new Central American<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> comes Schlechter’s first contact with Ames. In<br />
a letter written from German New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, Schlechter<br />
congratulates Ames on his paper on the Orchids<br />
of Mount Halcon <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es. After hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
published <strong>in</strong> 1914 his studies of the <strong>orchids</strong> of the<br />
Andean countries <strong>in</strong> South America, Schlechter wrote<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1918 a general recapitulation of the <strong>orchids</strong> of<br />
Central America <strong>in</strong> his work: Kritische Aufzählung<br />
der bisher aus Zentral-Amerika bekanntgewordenen<br />
Orchidaceen (= ‘Critical enumeration of the <strong>orchids</strong><br />
that so far are known from Central America’) where he<br />
enumerates 132 genera of <strong>orchids</strong> with 1,325 species<br />
for Central America <strong>and</strong> Mexico (about 400 more than<br />
those mentioned by Hemsley a quarter of a century<br />
earlier). The lack of knowledge about the orchid flora<br />
of certa<strong>in</strong> countries is notorious. Schlechter mentions<br />
only eight species for Belize, 13 for El Salvador <strong>and</strong><br />
18 for Honduras, while he counts 396 <strong>and</strong> 366 for<br />
Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Guatemala, 57 for Nicaragua, 117 for<br />
Panama <strong>and</strong> 688 for México. In this work, Schlechter<br />
describes also <strong>in</strong> detail the geography <strong>and</strong> climate of<br />
the Central American regions, analyz<strong>in</strong>g for the first<br />
time the phytogeographical distribution of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> Central America. In his correspondence with<br />
Lankester, Ames wrote sharply about Schlechter’s<br />
work: “Schlechter’s list of Central American <strong>orchids</strong> is<br />
an undigested compilation which bristles with errors”<br />
(Letter to Lankester, December 30, 1922).<br />
From 1921 onward Schlechter held the position<br />
of curator of the herbarium of the Berl<strong>in</strong> Botanical<br />
Garden, amass<strong>in</strong>g an enormous collection of<br />
Orchidaceae. His <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the <strong>orchids</strong> of Central<br />
America was ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed until his death. In 1919<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Schlechter wrote to Alberto M. Brenes <strong>and</strong> Amparo<br />
de Zeledón <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, ask<strong>in</strong>g them to prepare new<br />
collections <strong>in</strong> the country. Shortly after Rolfe’s death <strong>in</strong><br />
1921, Charles C. Powell sent him numerous herbarium<br />
specimens from Panama, which often proved to be<br />
new species. With the material received from Costa<br />
Rica <strong>and</strong> Panama, Schlechter published <strong>in</strong> 1922 his<br />
Orchidaceae Powellianae Panamenses (collections<br />
by C. Powell), followed one year later by Additamenta<br />
ad Orchideologiam Costaricensem (collections by<br />
Brenes, Brade, Tonduz, Wercklé <strong>and</strong> Acosta).<br />
In 1926, one year after his death, his system for<br />
the classification of the Orchidaceae saw the light of<br />
day: Das System der Orchidaceen. This system was<br />
widely accepted for the next three decades. If we study<br />
Schlechter’s catalogue of publications, we f<strong>in</strong>d that he<br />
wrote 233 works about <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> which he described<br />
177 new genera <strong>and</strong> 5,592 new species, approx. 14%<br />
of all valid species known today (Senghas, 2002: 4).<br />
Hoehne dedicated to him the genera Schlechterella <strong>and</strong><br />
Rudolfiella <strong>and</strong> many other orchidologists honored his<br />
name <strong>in</strong> a great number of species, among which the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g can be named: Bifrenaria rudolfii (Hoehne)<br />
Carnevali & G. A. Romero, Dichaea schlechteri J. P.<br />
Folsom, Eltroplectris schlechteriana (Porto & Brade)<br />
Pabst, Epidendrum rudolfianum Hoehne, Epidendrum<br />
schlechterianum Ames, Erythrodes schlechteriana<br />
(Hoehne) Pabst, Habenaria rudolfi-schlechteri<br />
Hoehne, Maxillaria rudolfii Hoehne, Maxillaria<br />
schlechteri Foldats, Maxillaria schlechteriana J.<br />
T. Atwood, Platythelys schlechterana (Hoehne)<br />
Garay, Pleurothallis schlechteriana Ames, Prescottia<br />
schlechterii Hoehne, Schiedeella schlechteriana<br />
Szlach. & Sheviak, Schomburgkia schlechterana H. G.<br />
Jones, <strong>and</strong> Stelis schlechterana Garay.<br />
Rudolf Schlechter died on November 15, 1925,<br />
from a tropical disease that had troubled him s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
travels of his youth. His large herbarium, to which the<br />
collections of Kraenzl<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> Mansfeld (who took his<br />
position after his death) were later <strong>in</strong>corporated, was<br />
completely destroyed dur<strong>in</strong>g an Allied bombardment<br />
<strong>in</strong> March of 1943 (Fig. 45E). Only those specimens<br />
that were on loan to other <strong>in</strong>stitutions escaped the fire,<br />
plus a series of copies that Schlechter had prepared<br />
on behalf of Oakes Ames, at that time director of the<br />
Botanical Institute of the University of Harvard, <strong>in</strong><br />
Massachusetts.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
After Schlechter’s death, his wife Alex<strong>and</strong>ra cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
with this work. Schlechter dedicated to her, a short<br />
time before his death, the genus Sobennikkoffia Schltr.,<br />
from Madagascar (1925) 34 .<br />
Hans Sydow (1879-1946) was a bank employee <strong>and</strong><br />
amateur botanist, who collected <strong>in</strong> Africa for the Berl<strong>in</strong><br />
Museum (ca. 1912). Ames mentioned that he had<br />
been sent by Schlechter to Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> his letters to<br />
Charles H. Lankester, but there is no evidence that he<br />
ever collected <strong>orchids</strong>. We know however that Sydow<br />
visited Costa Rica through several publications, <strong>in</strong><br />
which he describes his collections of fungi (which<br />
where his specialty), based greatly on collections<br />
prepared by Alberto Ml. Brenes, of whom we will talk<br />
later.<br />
Oakes Ames<br />
“I am afraid that my boyish enthusiasm<br />
must seem to you <strong>in</strong>ord<strong>in</strong>ately <strong>in</strong>tense, but I<br />
take courage <strong>in</strong> the thought that you have<br />
experienced similar enthusiasm among those<br />
flutter<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong>gs that seem to rival the <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> beauty or color-patterns. The collector’s<br />
spirit, whether the hobby centers <strong>in</strong> plants<br />
or animals is specifically the same <strong>and</strong> the<br />
victims of it underst<strong>and</strong> each other.”<br />
(Letter from Oakes Ames to<br />
Charles H. Lankester, August 24,1923)<br />
Oakes Ames (1874-1950) (Fig. 46A), son of a<br />
cultivated <strong>and</strong> wealthy family <strong>in</strong> New Engl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
graduated from Harvard University <strong>in</strong> 1899 <strong>and</strong> was<br />
named shortly afterwards director of its Botanical<br />
Museum. He was Schlechter’s ma<strong>in</strong> competitor dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the last two decades of the life of the great German<br />
scientist <strong>and</strong> at the same time his friend <strong>and</strong> admirer.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g his whole career, Ames ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed a great<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the Orchidaceae, dedicat<strong>in</strong>g his free time<br />
completely to the taxonomic study of this family. After<br />
Schlechter’s death he became the world’s foremost<br />
authority <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong>. Married to Blanche Ames, he<br />
had <strong>in</strong> his wife an excellent illustrator whose draw<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
enriched many of Ames’ publications. “Seldom <strong>in</strong><br />
botanical history have science <strong>and</strong> art been so happily<br />
<strong>and</strong> fruitfully jo<strong>in</strong>ed” (Mangelsdorf, 1948: xv).<br />
143<br />
Although he dedicated himself <strong>in</strong>itially to the <strong>orchids</strong><br />
of Malaysia, Indonesia <strong>and</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es, he soon<br />
became <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the species of the American tropics.<br />
In 1905 Ames began the publication of Orchidaceae:<br />
Illustrations <strong>and</strong> Studies of the Family Orchidaceae,<br />
<strong>in</strong> seven volumes. It is <strong>in</strong> volume II (1908) where he<br />
described the first species of Central America, all based<br />
on specimens distributed by J. Donnell-Smith, collected<br />
by William Nelson <strong>and</strong> Hans von Tuerckheim <strong>in</strong><br />
Chiapas <strong>and</strong> Guatemala, or by R. S. Williams <strong>in</strong> Panama:<br />
Epipactis dolabripetala Ames (Nelson 3211 – Chiapas),<br />
Malaxis macrantha Ames (Nelson 3124 – Chiapas),<br />
Masdevallia tubuliflora Ames (von Tuerckheim 512<br />
– Guatemala). Masdevallia tuerckheimii Ames (von<br />
Tuerckheim 464 – Guatemala), Physurus polygonatus<br />
Ames (von Tuerckheim 7678 – Guatemala), Physurus<br />
purpureus Ames (von Tuerckheim 8000 – Guatemala),<br />
Physurus venustulus Ames (von Tuerckheim 8591<br />
– Guatemala), Pleurothallis hastata Ames (von<br />
Tuerckheim 501– Guatemala), Pleurothallis repens<br />
Ames (von Tuerckheim s.n.– Guatemala), <strong>and</strong> Stelis<br />
williamsii Ames (Williams 970 - Panama). Thus Ames<br />
entered <strong>in</strong>to the world the <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America,<br />
only two years after Schlechter described the first<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> from this region.<br />
In one of his fundamental works, Schedulae<br />
Orchidianae, published <strong>in</strong> ten fascicles between<br />
1922 <strong>and</strong> 1930 with the collaboration of Charles<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth (who was his disciple <strong>and</strong> friend for over<br />
35 years), Ames described numerous new species for<br />
Central America. Years later, <strong>in</strong> 1936, Ames published<br />
(aga<strong>in</strong> with the collaboration of Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth) The<br />
genus Epidendrum <strong>in</strong> the United States <strong>and</strong> Middle<br />
America, a work <strong>in</strong> which we f<strong>in</strong>d aga<strong>in</strong> many new<br />
species of our region. Together with Donovan S.<br />
Correll he prepared an extensive work on the <strong>orchids</strong> of<br />
Guatemala, that was published <strong>in</strong> three parts between<br />
1952 <strong>and</strong> 1956. F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> the numerous publications<br />
of Paul C. St<strong>and</strong>ley related to the flora of Central<br />
America, Ames authored, without exception, the list of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> for each country.<br />
In 1922 he began his relationship with Charles H.<br />
Lankester, an English naturalist who lived <strong>in</strong> Costa<br />
Rica, which bore many fruits <strong>and</strong> lasted until Ames’<br />
death. The first contact with Lankester became a<br />
34 Alex<strong>and</strong>ra Vasilevna Sobennikoff, the daughter of a Russian tea Merchant, had married Schlechter <strong>in</strong> 1910. They had two<br />
daughters, Alex<strong>and</strong>ra <strong>and</strong> Julia.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
144<br />
reality thanks to Powell, who had met don Carlos<br />
some years earlier (Fig. 46B). In his answer to the letter<br />
from Powell that is shown above, Ames is delighted<br />
to learn that he can count on Lankester’s help: “Now<br />
that I know from your letter that he has contemplated<br />
send<strong>in</strong>g his th<strong>in</strong>gs to me, this day beg<strong>in</strong>s with plenty of<br />
sunsh<strong>in</strong>e even though heavy clouds obscure the sky”<br />
(Letter from Ames to Powell, 6.10.1922). Ames was<br />
undoubtedly play<strong>in</strong>g a double game: while he could not<br />
severe his relations with Schlechter (the German had<br />
too much <strong>in</strong>formation that Ames needed desperately),<br />
he tried to block Schlechter’s access to Powell’s <strong>and</strong><br />
Lankester’s materials.<br />
In 1923, Ames paid a brief visit to Central America.<br />
He visited Panama, where he met Powell <strong>and</strong> also<br />
Costa Rica, where he made contact with Amparo de<br />
Zeledón. Lankester (who could not meet with Ames<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g his brief stay <strong>in</strong> the country) wrote to him: “The<br />
Zeledóns are old friends of m<strong>in</strong>e; don José has been for<br />
nearly 60 years a keen ornithologist. I was delighted<br />
to f<strong>in</strong>d that you had called on her [doña Amparo] <strong>and</strong><br />
if she leaves the Schlechter camp may get you a lot of<br />
material, tho’ it is rather late <strong>in</strong> the day” (Letter from<br />
Lankester to Ames, April 30, 1923). He f<strong>in</strong>ally went on<br />
to Honduras, where he collected <strong>in</strong> the neighborhood<br />
of Tela <strong>and</strong> found several new species, among them:<br />
Campylocentrum hondurense Ames (Ames II 210),<br />
Pelexia callosa Ames (Ames II 259), <strong>and</strong> Pleurothallis<br />
hondurensis Ames (Ames II 201). He passed briefly<br />
through Puerto Limón <strong>in</strong> 1928 <strong>and</strong> was a last time<br />
<strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1932 (Ames-Plimpton, 1979: 353).<br />
Curiously, dur<strong>in</strong>g his various visits, he never could<br />
meet Lankester, his life-long friend.<br />
His studies of the <strong>orchids</strong> of Central America<br />
were always overshadowed by his competition<br />
with Schlechter <strong>and</strong> the urgent need to receive<br />
new collections, <strong>in</strong> a tireless effort to surpass the<br />
great German <strong>in</strong> the description of new species.<br />
We f<strong>in</strong>d numerous expressions of this rivalry <strong>in</strong> the<br />
correspondence of Ames with Lankester, from which<br />
we have extracted the follow<strong>in</strong>g examples: “We must<br />
work fast if we hope to keep abreast of the Germans.<br />
I was surprised to see how far reach<strong>in</strong>g their efforts<br />
have been to secure a monopoly of tropical American<br />
species” (Sept. 17, 1922). “If you decide to make<br />
specimens for me, please beg<strong>in</strong> as soon as possible.<br />
Time is very precious” (October 10, 1922). “I wish we<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
could get out another number of Sched. Orch. based<br />
on your work. We might beat Schlechter <strong>and</strong> give him<br />
food for thought” (May 28, 1923). “St<strong>and</strong>ley is <strong>in</strong> New<br />
York to-day. When he arrives <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, shower<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> on him. Make it a rule that no orchid goes<br />
unpressed” (November 13, 1923). “At this stage of the<br />
undertak<strong>in</strong>g, quantity rather than quality is important”<br />
(December 3, 1923). He also mocked the German<br />
mania of splitt<strong>in</strong>g the family of Orchidaceae <strong>in</strong> more<br />
<strong>and</strong> more genera <strong>and</strong> species: “As my old teacher, Dr.<br />
Farlow, used to tell us, when referr<strong>in</strong>g to the modern<br />
systematists: ‘if they can see a difference, then a new<br />
genus is made; if they can imag<strong>in</strong>e a difference, then<br />
a new species is described’ ” (Letter from Ames to<br />
Lankester, February 6, 1924). But these phrases can<br />
give us a wrong picture. In spite of the passionate<br />
rivalry, Ames respected <strong>and</strong> admired Schlechter<br />
throughout his life. Let us see other expressions, aga<strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> Ames’ correspondence with Lankester: “From the<br />
South of France, Col. Godfery writes that Schlechter<br />
is seriously ill... I have not heard from Schlechter for<br />
over four months, <strong>and</strong> I had begun to fear that he was<br />
angry or <strong>in</strong> some way provoked by some act of m<strong>in</strong>e”<br />
(March 23, 1924). “I should not have begun this letter<br />
with a reference to myself. I should have expressed<br />
to you my deep sorrow at the news that came <strong>in</strong> this<br />
noon from Alex<strong>and</strong>ra Schlechter. Schlechter died early<br />
<strong>in</strong> November. I had known of his illness <strong>and</strong> on the<br />
n<strong>in</strong>th of December I sent aid to Mrs. Schlechter to meet<br />
the heavy burden of a hospital bill. But I had been led<br />
to believe that there were hopes for recovery. What a<br />
place the old world is. There comes a time when death<br />
plays round us like heat lightn<strong>in</strong>g. And then it beg<strong>in</strong>s to<br />
th<strong>in</strong> the ranks of those we called friends. It is a wonder<br />
we are able to carry on” (December 3, 1925).<br />
Another little known aspect of the relationship<br />
between both orchidologists is that Ames contributed<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ancially to the publication of part of Schlechter’s<br />
work on the orchidaceous flora of theAndean countries.<br />
After f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g volume II (Colombia), Schlechter ran<br />
out of funds for the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g three volumes. “I was<br />
fortunate that Prof. Oakes Ames, <strong>in</strong> Boston, put at my<br />
disposal the means which guaranteed the completion<br />
of the pr<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g of this work” (Schlechter, 1922b: v).<br />
In the summer of 1924, Ames agreed to pay some<br />
400 German gold marks as a subsidy to publish<br />
Kraenzl<strong>in</strong>’s Monograph of Masdevallia. In return for
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
this favor, the Ames Orchid Herbarium now possesses<br />
a rather large part of the Kraenzl<strong>in</strong> Herbarium,<br />
especially of the species described by him. Of great<br />
importance is Ames’ herbarium. “The Ames Orchid<br />
Herbarium, which now comprises 65,000 critically<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed specimens as well as large numbers of<br />
l<strong>in</strong>e draw<strong>in</strong>gs, trac<strong>in</strong>gs, <strong>and</strong> photographs of type<br />
material from the large orchid herbaria of Europe,<br />
has become the largest s<strong>in</strong>gle orchid herbarium <strong>in</strong> the<br />
world [...] Only the L<strong>in</strong>dley Herbarium at Kew <strong>and</strong><br />
the Reichenbach Herbarium <strong>in</strong> Vienna are comparable<br />
<strong>in</strong> scope [...] the Ames Orchid Herbarium has become<br />
the centre for most of the taxonomic studies on the<br />
orchid flora of the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> of the New World”<br />
(Schultes, 1951: 224-225).<br />
Several new genera of Orchidaceae were dedicated<br />
to Ames: Amesia A. Nelson & J. F. Macbr., Amesiella<br />
Schlechter ex Garay, Oakes-amesia C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.<br />
& P. H. Allen; <strong>and</strong> many species, among them:<br />
Bulbophyllum amesianum J. J. Smith, Dendrobium<br />
amesianum Schltr., Epidendrum amesianum Correll,<br />
Habenaria amesiana Schltr., Notylia amesii L. B. Sm.<br />
& S. K. Harris, Schiedeella amesiana L. A. Garay,<br />
Spiranthes amesiana Schltr., <strong>and</strong> V<strong>and</strong>a amesiana<br />
Rchb. f. Loefgrenianthus blanche-amesiae (Lófgren)<br />
Hoehne was dedicated to his wife.<br />
Ames’ wife Blanche passed away <strong>in</strong> 1969, at the<br />
age of n<strong>in</strong>ety-one. She had ga<strong>in</strong>ed world recognition<br />
as the outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g botanical illustrator of her time<br />
(Anonymous, 1969: 313).<br />
Charles C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth (1890-1970) (Fig. 46C)<br />
was Ames’ most important assistant <strong>and</strong> also his great<br />
friend dur<strong>in</strong>g thirty five years. He was hired <strong>in</strong> 1915 to<br />
work <strong>in</strong> the herbarium to look after the liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Ames’s greenhouses. “This new appo<strong>in</strong>tment turned out<br />
to be one of the rare concurrences of fate when the right<br />
man was given the right job at the right time (Botanical<br />
Museum Harvard University, 1983: 29).” Although his<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest were the <strong>orchids</strong> of Peru, about which<br />
he published an important work, his contributions to<br />
the identification of many Central American species<br />
were fundamental. Thus, if <strong>in</strong> most of the descriptions<br />
of new species of the XIX century we read the famous<br />
abbreviations of “L<strong>in</strong>dl.”, “Batem.”, “La Llave &<br />
Lex.”, “A. Rich. & Gal.” <strong>and</strong> “Rchb. f.”, the first<br />
decades of the XX century are clearly dom<strong>in</strong>ated by<br />
145<br />
“Schltr.”, “Ames” <strong>and</strong> “Ames & C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.” A<br />
new genus, Cischwe<strong>in</strong>fia (he signed “C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.”),<br />
was dedicated to Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth (Fig. 46D), as well as<br />
many species: Acoridium schwe<strong>in</strong>furthianum Ames,<br />
Catasetum schwe<strong>in</strong>furthii D. E. Benn. & Christenson,<br />
Dendrobium schwe<strong>in</strong>furthianum A. D. Hawkes & A.<br />
H. Heller, Epidendrum schwe<strong>in</strong>furthianum Correll,<br />
Grastidium schwe<strong>in</strong>furthianum (Hawkes & Heller)<br />
S. Rauschert, Mormolyca schwe<strong>in</strong>furthiana Garay<br />
& Wirth, Oerstedella schwe<strong>in</strong>furthiana (Correll)<br />
F. Hamer & Garay, Pleurothallis schwe<strong>in</strong>furthiana<br />
L. O. Williams, Pleurothallis schwe<strong>in</strong>furthii Garay,<br />
Rhynchopera schwe<strong>in</strong>furthii (Garay) Szlach. &<br />
Margonska, <strong>and</strong> Sauroglossum schwe<strong>in</strong>furthianum<br />
Garay. As Garay wrote <strong>in</strong> his friend’s obituary: “The<br />
world of <strong>orchids</strong> is today immensely richer because<br />
there was a Charles Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth <strong>in</strong>timately associated<br />
to it…” (Garay, 1971: 12).<br />
Costa Rica: the years of ‘doña’ Amparo 35<br />
“[Doña Amparo] has secured for herself a<br />
permanent place of honor <strong>in</strong> the history of the<br />
botanical exploration Costa Rica.”<br />
Rudolf Schlechter (1923: 4)<br />
José Cástulo Zeledón, disciple of Alex<strong>and</strong>er von<br />
Frantzius, cont<strong>in</strong>ued manag<strong>in</strong>g his establishment (the<br />
famous ‘Botica Francesa’) after Frantzius’ returned to<br />
Germany <strong>in</strong> 1869. Inspired by von Frantzius, José C.<br />
Zeledón went to work at the Smithsonian Institution<br />
<strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton. He returned to his country <strong>in</strong> the late<br />
1870s as the first formally tra<strong>in</strong>ed Costa Rican scientist.<br />
Bovallius wrote <strong>in</strong> 1881: “I used the days which I spent<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>central</strong> plateau <strong>in</strong> excursions … among them<br />
some <strong>in</strong> the company of Dr. José Zeledón, a physician<br />
<strong>and</strong> certa<strong>in</strong>ly the most prom<strong>in</strong>ent ornithologist of Costa<br />
Rica” (Bovallius, 1974). Some years later he married<br />
Amparo López-Calleja (1870-1951) (Fig. 47A), who<br />
had been born <strong>in</strong> 1870 <strong>in</strong> Camagüey, Cuba. Her father,<br />
a wealthy l<strong>and</strong>owner of Spanish orig<strong>in</strong>, had fled from<br />
Cuba to Costa Rica after the <strong>in</strong>dependentist upris<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
aga<strong>in</strong>st Spa<strong>in</strong>, which had <strong>in</strong>creased after 1860. Doña<br />
Amparo de Zeledón, as she was respectfully called,<br />
supported her husb<strong>and</strong>’s scientific activities (Zeledón<br />
had become Costa Rica’s lead<strong>in</strong>g ornithologist) <strong>and</strong><br />
became herself <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> collect<strong>in</strong>g native plants,<br />
35 ‘Doña’: title given to a lady, equivalent to the English Mrs. but used only before Christian names.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
146<br />
especially <strong>orchids</strong>, which she grew <strong>in</strong> her large garden<br />
<strong>in</strong> San José.<br />
Costa Rica’s agricultural economy began to<br />
stagnate at the turn of the century, dim<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
government’s ability <strong>and</strong> will<strong>in</strong>gness to support<br />
expensive <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>and</strong> research projects (McCook,<br />
1999: 119). Contributions of private sponsors were of<br />
fundamental importance dur<strong>in</strong>g this period. Amparo de<br />
Zeledón sponsored many of the collect<strong>in</strong>g excursions<br />
throughout Costa Rica of the Swiss Adolphe Tonduz<br />
(of whom we talked <strong>in</strong> the last chapter) <strong>and</strong> the Alsatian<br />
Karl Wercklé (1860-1924). Dur<strong>in</strong>g the first two<br />
decades of the 20 th century, Tonduz <strong>and</strong> Wercklé were<br />
responsible for the collection of over two thirds of the<br />
20,000 specimens <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica’s National Herbarium.<br />
In 1919, after receiv<strong>in</strong>g a letter from Rudolf Schlechter<br />
ask<strong>in</strong>g for Costa Rican orchid material, doña Amparo<br />
reacted with enthusiasm, arrang<strong>in</strong>g for Tonduz to press<br />
plants from her orchid garden <strong>and</strong> send<strong>in</strong>g Wercklé<br />
out on new collect<strong>in</strong>g excursions. The results were<br />
three shipments of herbarium specimens that were<br />
received by Schlechter between 1921 <strong>and</strong> 1923, <strong>and</strong><br />
that were described as Orchidaceae Amparoanae <strong>in</strong><br />
his Additamenta ad Orchideologiam Costaricensem<br />
(Schlechter, 1923). Among the specimens received<br />
from Amparo de Zeledón, Schlechter found three<br />
new genera <strong>and</strong> 62 new species. Lankester wrote with<br />
envy: “No wonder Schlechter had a rich CR collection,<br />
he had the whole of the <strong>orchids</strong> from the National<br />
Herbarium!” (In a letter to Ames, November 30, 1923).<br />
Schlechter honored doña Amparo with the dedication<br />
of a new genus: Amparoa (Fig. 47B) <strong>and</strong> numerous<br />
new species, among them: Cycnoches amparoanum<br />
Schltr., Dichaea amparoana Schltr., Epidendrum<br />
amparoanum Schltr., Gongora amparoana Schltr.,<br />
Habenaria amparoana Schltr., Isochilus amparoanus<br />
Schltr., Maxillaria amparoana Schltr., Scaphyglottis<br />
amparoana (Schltr.) Dressler, Sobralia amparoae<br />
Schltr., Stelis amparoana Schltr., <strong>and</strong> Trigonidium<br />
amparoanum Schltr. After her husb<strong>and</strong>’s death <strong>in</strong><br />
1924, Amparo de Zeledón cont<strong>in</strong>ued with her scientific<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests <strong>and</strong> formed part, from 1929 to 1932 (together<br />
with O. Jiménez, C. Lankester <strong>and</strong> A. Alfaro) of the<br />
Board of Directors of the National Museum. However,<br />
she began dedicat<strong>in</strong>g her efforts <strong>and</strong> wealth more <strong>and</strong><br />
more to religious works, which she cont<strong>in</strong>ued later <strong>in</strong><br />
Honduras. She died <strong>in</strong> Tegucigalpa , the 20 th of April<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
of 1951 (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1952: 68-69). Her importance<br />
<strong>in</strong> the history of Central American <strong>orchidology</strong> is<br />
fundamental, not only because of the new species that<br />
were discovered through her efforts, but because she<br />
became the center of the Costa Rican scientific world<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the first decades of the XX century. Her love<br />
for plants was <strong>in</strong>herited by her niece Herm<strong>in</strong>ia López-<br />
Calleja (Fig. 47C).<br />
Karl Wercklé (Fig. 47D) came to Costa Rica for<br />
the first time <strong>in</strong> 1897, the year <strong>in</strong> which his first orchid<br />
collections are dated. He did not come directly from<br />
Europe, but emigrated to the United States, where he<br />
worked as a horticulturist <strong>in</strong> the nurseries of John Lewis<br />
Childs, <strong>in</strong> New York. Childs sponsored Wercklé’s first<br />
journey to Costa Rica, <strong>in</strong> search of plants <strong>and</strong> seeds of<br />
ornamental value, for acclimatization <strong>in</strong> the American<br />
gardens. As early as 1899, Childs’ commercial catalogue<br />
described a plant “collected <strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s of Costa<br />
Rica by Mr. Carlos Wercklé” (Childsia wercklei)<br />
(Gómez, 1978: 373. He returned to the United States<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1898 <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1902 came back to Costa Rica, where<br />
he stayed until his death. In an article of 1909 with the<br />
title La subregión fitogeográfica costarricense (= ‘The<br />
Costa Rican phytogeographical subregion’), Wercklé<br />
described Costa Rica as “the privileged region of<br />
Tropical America”, add<strong>in</strong>g that “<strong>in</strong> truth, it is unlikely<br />
that any other country conta<strong>in</strong>s a flora conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />
same number of species <strong>in</strong> a territory of the same size.”<br />
“The cause of this ‘great exuberance’, argued Wercklé,<br />
was Costa Rica’s irregular, mounta<strong>in</strong>ous geography,<br />
that created a great range of atmospheric <strong>and</strong> climatic<br />
conditions <strong>in</strong> a small area. These diverse climatic<br />
conditions, <strong>in</strong> turn, produced a wide variety of species.<br />
The diversity of Costa Rica’s plant species was even<br />
more than that found <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Panama, Costa<br />
Rica’s comparatively flat <strong>and</strong> botanically homogeneous<br />
neighbours” (McCook, 1999: 119). Shortly thereafter<br />
Wercklé published the first scientific article ever written<br />
<strong>in</strong> Costa Rica about the <strong>orchids</strong> of this country: Las<br />
Orquídeas de Costa Rica (Wercklé, 1913). Wercklé<br />
died <strong>in</strong> 1924 (the same year of the death of José Cástulo<br />
Zeledón), a victim of alcoholism. “Doña Amparo de<br />
Zeledón... attended to his funeral, bury<strong>in</strong>g the friend<br />
<strong>in</strong> the family mausoleum, where he still rests next<br />
to ‘don’ José Cástulo...” (Gómez, 1978: 366). We<br />
remember him <strong>in</strong> St<strong>and</strong>ley’s words: “There is no doubt<br />
that Wercklé received a good education, <strong>and</strong> he was
A<br />
C<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 46. A — Oakes Ames (1874-1950). Courtesy of the Oakes Ames Herbarium, Harvard University. B — Letter from<br />
Powell to Ames (Sept. 25, 1922) <strong>in</strong>troduc<strong>in</strong>g Charles H. Lankester. C — Charles C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth (1890-1970). Courtesy<br />
of the Oakes Ames Herbarium, Harvard University. D — Cischwe<strong>in</strong>fia pusilla (C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.) Dressler & N. Williams.<br />
Watercolor by Rafael L. Rodríguez. Courtesy of the University of Costa Rica.<br />
B<br />
D<br />
147<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
148<br />
A<br />
C<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 47. A — Amparo López-Calleja (1870-1951). Courtesy of Conchita Guzmán. B — Amparoa costaricensis Schltr.<br />
Watercolor by Rafael L. Rodríguez. Courtesy of the University of Costa Rica. C — Residence of Amparo de Zeledón <strong>in</strong> San<br />
José. Courtesy of Jaime García. D — Karl Wercklé. Courtesy of Luis Diego Gómez.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
D<br />
B
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
a man of exceptional native talent [... ] Wercklé did<br />
not dist<strong>in</strong>guish himself for his herbarium specimens,<br />
although it is true that a good many specimens of his<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g are found <strong>in</strong> herbaria. His favorite way<br />
of preserv<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g plant was to roll it <strong>in</strong>to<br />
a bundle <strong>and</strong> stuff it <strong>in</strong> a pocket, where it rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
<strong>in</strong>def<strong>in</strong>itely. It is thus only too easy sometimes to<br />
recognize <strong>in</strong> the herbarium his specimens, without<br />
even look<strong>in</strong>g at the label” (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1926: 221).<br />
Among the new species discovered by Wercklé<br />
we f<strong>in</strong>d: Epidendrum carolii Schltr. (Wercklé 101),<br />
Epidendrum flexicaule Schltr. (C. Wercklé s.n.),<br />
Epidendrum prostratum Schltr. (Wercklé - 683 <strong>in</strong> Herb.<br />
O. Jiménez), Epilyna jimenezii Schltr. (Wercklé – 670 <strong>in</strong><br />
Herb. O. Jiménez), Habenaria plantantheroides Schltr.<br />
(C. Wercklé s.n.), Masdevallia cyathogastra Schltr.<br />
(Wercklé - 842 <strong>in</strong> Herb. O. Jiménez), Masdevallia<br />
diantha Schltr. (Wercklé- 673 & 843 <strong>in</strong> Herb. O.<br />
Jiménez), Pleurothallis bifalcis Schltr. (C. Wercklé<br />
s.n.), Scaphyglottis jimenezii Schltr. (Wercklé - 682 <strong>in</strong><br />
Herb. O. Jiménez), Sigmatostalix hymenantha Schltr.<br />
(C. Wercklé s.n.), Stelis nutantiflora Schltr. (Wercklé -<br />
840 <strong>in</strong> Herb. O. Jiménez), <strong>and</strong> Stelis rhodochila Schltr.<br />
(Wercklé - 839, 845 & 857 <strong>in</strong> Herb. O. Jiménez).<br />
Many others were dedicated to him by Schlechter<br />
<strong>and</strong> other authors: Chondrorhyncha wercklei (Schltr.)<br />
C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f., Dichaea wercklei Schltr., Elleanthus<br />
wercklei Schltr., Epidendrum wercklei Schltr.,<br />
Eriopsis wercklei Schltr., Habenaria wercklei Schltr.,<br />
Keferste<strong>in</strong>ia wercklei Schltr., Lepanthes wercklei<br />
Schltr., Malaxis wercklei Ames, Maxillaria wercklei<br />
(Schltr.) L. O. Williams, Oncidium wercklei Schltr.,<br />
Pleurothallis wercklei Schltr., Scaphyglottis wercklei<br />
Schltr., Schiedeella wercklei (Schltr.) Garay, <strong>and</strong><br />
Sobralia wercklei (Schltr.) L. O. Williams .<br />
At some po<strong>in</strong>t Ames wanted to hire Wercklé as a<br />
collector <strong>and</strong> sought <strong>in</strong>formation from Lankester, who<br />
answered: “Wercklé is a dipsomaniac, an appall<strong>in</strong>g<br />
wreck of a f<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>telligence, but has still a good<br />
local knowledge <strong>and</strong> might be of use yet” (Letter to<br />
Ames, October 11, 1922). “Towards the end of his<br />
life, Wercklé f<strong>org</strong>ot all moderation <strong>and</strong> like any other<br />
alcoholic, roamed through the city, <strong>in</strong> rags <strong>and</strong> without<br />
a place to live... Some tell that he spend the nights <strong>in</strong> an<br />
unoccupied niche of the General Cemetery, to which<br />
he ga<strong>in</strong>ed access at nightfall, others that he passed<br />
his deliriums <strong>in</strong> a shed <strong>in</strong> the property of the Zeledón<br />
149<br />
family, or now <strong>and</strong> then <strong>in</strong> the always open house<br />
of Alfredo Brade, a German gardener who always<br />
showed towards him hospitality <strong>and</strong> warmth” (Gómez,<br />
1978: 364).<br />
Alberto Manuel Brenes (1870-1948) (Fig. 48A) was<br />
born <strong>in</strong> San Ramón, Alajuela, <strong>and</strong> studied <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica<br />
until 1890, when he left Central America for Europe on<br />
a government grant. He spent a short time <strong>in</strong> Paris <strong>and</strong><br />
from there went on to Lausanne, Switzerl<strong>and</strong>, where he<br />
studied dur<strong>in</strong>g one year at the university followed by<br />
a time <strong>in</strong> Geneva, where he stayed until 1898, tak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
courses <strong>in</strong> Botany <strong>and</strong> Natural History (Jenny, 2000:<br />
20). Botanist of the National Museum for many years,<br />
he cont<strong>in</strong>ued botanical explorations after Pittier left<br />
the country <strong>in</strong> 1903. When St<strong>and</strong>ley wrote his Flora<br />
of Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1937, Brenes had accumulated an<br />
herbarium of over 20,000 specimens which, for the<br />
quantity <strong>and</strong> quality of its materials, did not f<strong>in</strong>d its equal<br />
<strong>in</strong> Central America. His collections came primarily from<br />
the region of San Ramón de Alajuela. From there he sent<br />
Schlechter a large collection of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1922. In 1919<br />
Schlechter made contact with Brenes after receiv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a letter from Tonduz, suggest<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>orchids</strong> should<br />
be collected for a Costa Rican orchid flora (Jenny,<br />
2000: 20). Schlechter described this collection <strong>in</strong> his<br />
Additamenta ad Orchideologiam Costaricensem under<br />
the title of Orchidaceae Brenesianae <strong>and</strong> highlighted<br />
the good quality of the <strong>in</strong>cluded specimens. Only the<br />
collections <strong>org</strong>anized by doña Amparo de Zeledón could<br />
st<strong>and</strong> up to those of Brenes, among which Schlechter<br />
identified some 90 new species”. In 1920 Brenes<br />
became the head of the section of botany at the Museo<br />
Nacional, a position he held until 1935.<br />
Schlechter named a new genus after him: Brenesia<br />
(Fig. 48B) <strong>and</strong> a great number of species, among which<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g are worthy to be mentioned: Barbosella<br />
brenesii Schltr., Brachystele brenesii (Schltr.) Schltr.,<br />
Campylocentrum brenesii Schltr., Catasetum brenesii<br />
Schltr., Dichaea brenesii Schltr., Elleanthus albertii<br />
Schltr., Encyclia brenesii Schltr., Epidendrum brenesii<br />
Schltr., Habenaria brenesii Schltr., Lepanthes brenesii<br />
Schltr., Maxillaria brenesii Schltr., Notylia brenesii<br />
Schltr., Oncidium brenesii Schltr., Pleurothallis brenesii<br />
Schltr., Ponthieva brenesii Schltr., Stelis brenesii Schltr.,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Trichocentrum brenesii Schltr.<br />
Of difficult character, Brenes often avoided contact<br />
with his botanist colleagues, <strong>and</strong> rejected several times<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
150<br />
Ames’ approaches. Ames always wanted Brenes to<br />
collect for him but compla<strong>in</strong>ed to Lankester: “Brenes is<br />
as dumb as a turtle <strong>and</strong> behaves like one. He belongs,<br />
I imag<strong>in</strong>e, to that human group that is characterized<br />
by an unlimited capacity to take offense at well meant<br />
attentions...” (Letter to Lankester, May 2, 1925). Pittier<br />
compla<strong>in</strong>ed also: “I must state that when I departed from<br />
Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1900, I left a herbarium of several thous<strong>and</strong>s<br />
of plants [...] In 1939, [...] this collection still existed <strong>in</strong><br />
perfect conditions. Therefore, I cannot underst<strong>and</strong> the<br />
title of ‘founder of the Costa Rican Herbarium’, which<br />
Mr. Brenes attributes to himself <strong>in</strong> several publications.<br />
I say this without dim<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g his merits as an active<br />
collector, but mak<strong>in</strong>g clear that this does not constitute<br />
a botanist...” (Letter to Mariano Montealegre, October<br />
13, 1943). Brenes taught at the best schools of Costa<br />
Rica <strong>and</strong> wanted to retire to Switzerl<strong>and</strong>, where he<br />
planned to write a great flora of Costa Rica. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
Echavarría Campos, he had a girlfriend <strong>in</strong> Switzerl<strong>and</strong>,<br />
Edda by name, <strong>and</strong> he had promised to marry her <strong>and</strong><br />
br<strong>in</strong>g her to Costa Rica once he had made enough<br />
money. However, he lost everyth<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the earthquake<br />
of Cartago (1910) <strong>and</strong> told his friend afterwards that<br />
“he wanted Edda to believe him dead, because he had<br />
noth<strong>in</strong>g more to offer…” (Echavarría Campos, 1966: 21,<br />
61). His name is still respected <strong>in</strong> the country. Brenesia,<br />
the scientific journal of the Department of Natural<br />
History of the National Museum, was named after him.<br />
Schlechter praised Brenes’ collections, because they<br />
conta<strong>in</strong>ed not only precise references as to the localities<br />
of collection, but also <strong>in</strong>dications of the color of the<br />
flowers, an <strong>in</strong>formation of great value for the scientist.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Schlechter, this data gives us “for the first<br />
time a more precise image of the plants <strong>in</strong> question,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce previous collectors considered this <strong>in</strong>dications to<br />
be superfluous” (Schlechter, 12923: 159). We conclude<br />
with St<strong>and</strong>ley: “How fortunate botanical science would<br />
be if only there were more collectors of equal <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
<strong>and</strong> discrim<strong>in</strong>ation!” (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1937: 53).<br />
Costa Rican f<strong>in</strong>e arts dur<strong>in</strong>g the first decades of the<br />
century were equally attracted by the magic of <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
The famous poet Lisímaco Chavarría (1878-1913)<br />
wrote <strong>in</strong> 1913 his romantic poem Manojo de Guarias 36<br />
(= ‘A h<strong>and</strong>ful of Guarias’): “To you I offer the delicate<br />
bouquet of fresh native parasites…” Chavarría <strong>in</strong>curs<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
<strong>in</strong> the popular error of confus<strong>in</strong>g epiphytes with<br />
parasites. The German pa<strong>in</strong>ter Emilio Span (1869-<br />
1944) came to Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1906, after hav<strong>in</strong>g spent<br />
several years <strong>in</strong> Guatemala. A teacher at the Faculty<br />
of F<strong>in</strong>e Arts, Span traveled through Costa Rica’s<br />
countryside, portray<strong>in</strong>g the beauties of nature, among<br />
them many <strong>orchids</strong> (Loaiza, 1973: 41) (Fig. 48C). As<br />
Lankester wrote to Ames <strong>in</strong> 1927: “…Emilio Span,<br />
an elderly artist who has recently made with Brade’s<br />
help a really f<strong>in</strong>e collection of ‘botanical’ <strong>orchids</strong>…”<br />
Together with Enrique Ech<strong>and</strong>i <strong>and</strong> Tomás Povedano,<br />
Span was chosen, <strong>in</strong> 1925, to represent Costa Rica at<br />
the Pan<strong>america</strong>n Art Exposition, sponsored by the Los<br />
Angeles Museum.<br />
We know very little about Guillermo Acosta<br />
Piepper (1878-1955) (Fig. 48D). He was a farmer,<br />
merchant, m<strong>in</strong>er <strong>and</strong> Political Chief of San Ramón.<br />
His gr<strong>and</strong>father, August Piepper, had arrived <strong>in</strong> Costa<br />
Rica <strong>in</strong> 1854 on board of the Anto<strong>in</strong>ette, together with<br />
Hoffmann, von Frantzius, <strong>and</strong> Carmiol, to form part<br />
of the German colony which Baron von Bülow had<br />
founded <strong>in</strong> La Angostura. He had been sent by his family<br />
to London, where he studied bus<strong>in</strong>ess adm<strong>in</strong>istration,<br />
return<strong>in</strong>g to San Ramón to manage the family’s fortune,<br />
which was considerable. Acosta sporadically collected<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> sent a small collection to Schlechter, who<br />
described it <strong>in</strong> his Additamenta ad Orchideologiam<br />
Costaricensem (1923) under the title of Orchidaceae<br />
novae et rariores collectorum variorum <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica<br />
collectae. In this collection, Schlechter found a new<br />
genus, that he dedicated to don Guillermo: Acostaea.<br />
It is surpris<strong>in</strong>g that Reichenbach made no reference<br />
whatsoever to this species, hav<strong>in</strong>g seen the magnificent<br />
illustration <strong>and</strong> detailed description that had been sent<br />
to him by Endrés (Fig. 49A). Other species were also<br />
dedicated to Acosta by Schlechter: Dichaea acostaei<br />
Schltr., Lepanthes acostaei Schltr., Maxillaria acostaei<br />
Schltr., Pleurothallis acostaei Schltr., Scaphyglottis<br />
acostaei (Schltr.) C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f., <strong>and</strong> Stelis acostaei<br />
Schltr. We don’t know how Acosta made contact with<br />
Schlechter. It might have been through Alberto M. Brenes<br />
(who was also a native of San Ramón), or through his<br />
family’s contacts <strong>in</strong> Germany (Acosta’s mother, Adel<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Piepper, was a German citizen, <strong>and</strong> don Guilermo<br />
married another German, Herm<strong>in</strong>ia Beer). Acosta was<br />
36 ‘Guaria is <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica the vernacular name for <strong>orchids</strong>, especially Cattleyas. Guarianthe sk<strong>in</strong>neri Dressler & W. E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s,<br />
Costa Rica’s National flower, is commonly known as ‘Guaria Morada’, the ‘Purple Guaria’.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
also a friend of Otón Jiménez, who remembers how don<br />
Guillermo helped him dur<strong>in</strong>g one of Adolphe Tonduz’<br />
‘alcoholic journeys’: “Don Anastasio Alfaro, director of<br />
the National Museum, asked me to br<strong>in</strong>g back Tonduz<br />
[who was <strong>in</strong> San Ramón], to avoid sanction<strong>in</strong>g him for<br />
ab<strong>and</strong>on<strong>in</strong>g his duties. A Roman enterprise! I had to ask<br />
the Political Chief of San Ramón, Guillermo Acosta<br />
Piepper, for help, <strong>and</strong> through his paternal <strong>in</strong>tervention<br />
I managed to put him on a horse <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> a ten-hour<br />
journey, step by step, we reached Grecia <strong>and</strong> from there,<br />
<strong>in</strong> another similar journey, Alajuela. It was then easy for<br />
me to br<strong>in</strong>g him to the house of my neighbor, David<br />
Mora” (Jiménez, 1971: 63).<br />
It is sad that the three emblematic species which<br />
Schlechter dedicated to the Costa Rican collectors of<br />
the first years of the XX century: Amparoa, Brenesia<br />
y Acostaea costaricensis have disappeared, by the<br />
<strong>in</strong>exorable rules of botanical nomenclature, hav<strong>in</strong>g been<br />
converted <strong>in</strong> synonyms of Rhynchostele beloglossa,<br />
Pleurothallis johnsonii <strong>and</strong> Speckl<strong>in</strong>ia mirifica. To the<br />
town of San Ramón de Alajuela, from where he obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
so much material dur<strong>in</strong>g many years, Schlechter<br />
dedicated the genus Ramonia, with one s<strong>in</strong>gle species:<br />
Ramonia pulchella (“the beautiful”), that was later<br />
transferred to Scaphyglottis. From the region around<br />
San Ramón Schlechter said that it was an “Eldorado for<br />
the orchid collectors” (Schlechter, 1923).<br />
Tonduz was the great <strong>in</strong>termediary between<br />
Schlechter <strong>and</strong> those who collected <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the first years of the last century. This seems to<br />
have been the case of the relation between Schlechter<br />
<strong>and</strong> the exceptional orchid collections made between<br />
the years of 1908 <strong>and</strong> 1910 by the brothers Alex<strong>and</strong>er<br />
C. <strong>and</strong> Alfred Brade, German nationals who had<br />
established themselves <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica.<br />
Alex<strong>and</strong>er Curt Brade (1881-1971) (Fig. 49B), by<br />
profession an architect, was the driv<strong>in</strong>g force beh<strong>in</strong>d<br />
those collections. Alex<strong>and</strong>er Curt came to Costa<br />
Rica <strong>in</strong> 1908 <strong>in</strong>vited by his brother but stayed only<br />
for a short time, travel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> August of 1910 Brazil,<br />
where he reached glory as one of South America’s<br />
greatest orchidologists. His collection of the type<br />
of Epidendrum p<strong>in</strong>niferum C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth (A. C.<br />
Brade 335, may 1936) is however evidence that Brade<br />
returned at some po<strong>in</strong>t to Costa Rica, probably to visit<br />
his brother. Dur<strong>in</strong>g his stay <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, the brothers<br />
explored the surround<strong>in</strong>gs of San José, the mounta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
151<br />
of Tablazo, C<strong>and</strong>elaria, Carp<strong>in</strong>tera <strong>and</strong> the natural<br />
paradise of La Palma. Longer trips followed to the<br />
Miravalles volcano, the Barva <strong>and</strong> to the Atlantic Coast.<br />
The great variety of ferns drew Alex<strong>and</strong>er’s <strong>in</strong>terest,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluenced by the writ<strong>in</strong>gs of several European<br />
specialists he started to study them, discover<strong>in</strong>g<br />
over 60 species new to science, described by Christ,<br />
Rosenstock <strong>and</strong> Hieronymus (Pabst, 1967: 161). In the<br />
meantime, his brother Alfred dedicated himself almost<br />
exclusively to <strong>orchids</strong>. Guido Pabst (1914-1980), the<br />
great Brazilian orchidologist, founded <strong>in</strong> 1958 the<br />
‘Herbario Bradeanum’ <strong>in</strong> Rio de Janeiro <strong>and</strong> began<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1969 the publication of the journal Bradea, thus<br />
honor<strong>in</strong>g the name of who had been his teacher for<br />
more than thirty years.<br />
Alfred Brade (1867-1955) had arrived at Puerto<br />
Limón <strong>in</strong> 1893 <strong>and</strong> after two years of work <strong>in</strong> the<br />
banana plantations of the Atlantic region found a<br />
position <strong>in</strong> the nurseries of Julian Carmiol <strong>in</strong> San José.<br />
With Carmiol he shared his enthusiasm for Botany <strong>and</strong><br />
he dedicated himself for years to explore all accessible<br />
regions <strong>in</strong> the country. After several years he made<br />
himself <strong>in</strong>dependent from Carmiol <strong>and</strong> founded the<br />
Brade Nurseries (Jiménes, 1957: 2). With the years he<br />
dedicated himself more <strong>and</strong> more to horticulture <strong>and</strong><br />
f<strong>in</strong>ally ab<strong>and</strong>oned botanical exploration completely.<br />
He was however “famously generous, <strong>and</strong> his personal<br />
garden was <strong>in</strong> many ways more of a botanical garden<br />
than a commercial enterprise” (Grayum et al.,<br />
2004: 14). Rudolf Schlechter, <strong>in</strong> his Additamenta<br />
ad Orchideologiam Costaricensem dedicated an<br />
entire chapter to the collections that he had received<br />
from the Brade brothers: Orchidaceae Bradeanae<br />
Costaricenses (Schlechter, 1923). Schlechter<br />
described there over 50 new species for Costa Rica,<br />
a number that gives us an idea of the importance of<br />
those collections. Schlechter praised the great quality<br />
<strong>and</strong> excellent preparation of the Brade’s herbarium<br />
specimens <strong>and</strong> called the collection “a milestone <strong>in</strong><br />
the botanical exploration of the country ”(Markgraf,<br />
1973: 4). Among the many new species discovered by<br />
the Brades we f<strong>in</strong>d: Habenaria irazuensis Schltr. (A. u.<br />
C. Brade 1069), Lepanthes blephariglossa Schltr. (C.<br />
Brade s.n.), Lepanthes bradei Schltr. (C. Brade s.n.),<br />
Osmoglossum convallarioides Schltr. (A. & C. Brade<br />
1292), Pleurothallis schulzeana Schltr. (C. Brade s.n.),<br />
Pogonia nitida Schltr. (C. Brade s.n.), Sarcoglottis<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
152<br />
bradei Schltr. (C. Brade s.n.), Stelis bradei Schltr. (C.<br />
Brade s.n.), Sarcoglottis costaricensis Schltr. (C. Brade<br />
s.n.), <strong>and</strong> Warrea costaricensis Schltr. (A. Brade 16327).<br />
As could be expected, numerous species where named<br />
<strong>in</strong> honor of the Brades: Barbosella bradeorum Schltr.,<br />
Cranichis bradei Schltr., Cyclopogon bradei Schltr.,<br />
Dichaea bradeorum Schltr., Dipteranthus bradei<br />
Schltr., Elleanthus bradeorum Schltr., Epidendrum<br />
bradeanum Kraenzl., Goodyera bradeorum Schltr.,<br />
Habenaria bradei Schltr., Laelia bradei Pabst,<br />
Lepanthes bradei Schltr., Lycaste bradeorum Schltr.,<br />
Masdevallia bradei Schltr. ex Hoehne, Maxillaria<br />
bradeorum (Schltr.) L. O. Williams, Octomeria bradei<br />
Schltr., Pleurothallis bradeorum (Schltr.) Ames, Hubb.<br />
& Schwe<strong>in</strong>f., Pogonia bradeana Kraenzl., Polystachya<br />
bradei Schltr. ex Mansf., Sarcoglottis bradei Schltr.,<br />
Sobralia bradeorum Schltr., Sophronitis bradei (Pabst)<br />
Van den Berg & M. W. Chase, Stelis bradei Schltr.,<br />
Stenorrhynchos bradei Schltr., Trichosalp<strong>in</strong>x bradei<br />
(Schltr.) Luer, <strong>and</strong> Zygostates bradei (Schltr.) Garay.<br />
‘Bradei’, ‘Bradeorum’, ‘Bradeanum’... are all normal<br />
epithets that remember <strong>and</strong> honor the Brade brothers.<br />
But only a few know that Liparis fratrum Schltr. was<br />
also dedicated to them (from the Lat<strong>in</strong> fratrum =<br />
‘belong<strong>in</strong>g to the brothers’).<br />
Otón Jiménez<br />
One of the most vivacious <strong>and</strong> enjoyable<br />
gentlemen (<strong>and</strong> botanists) to be met anywhere<br />
Louis O. Williams (1972: 206)<br />
Schlechter wrote: “a young collector st<strong>and</strong>s out<br />
lately <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, O. Jiménez, who <strong>in</strong> a short period<br />
of activity has already found a series of new species<br />
<strong>and</strong>, through his efforts, promises to enrich <strong>in</strong> an<br />
important way our knowledge about the flora of that<br />
country, especially of the Orchidaceae” (Schlechter,<br />
1918: 325). Otón Jiménez (1895-1988) (Fig. 49C) had<br />
the good fortune to study at the Liceo de Costa Rica<br />
<strong>in</strong> its golden age, with teachers like Emel Jiménez, Dr.<br />
Michaud <strong>and</strong> Biolley. Of a precocious <strong>in</strong>telligence, he<br />
was only 17 years of age when he was appo<strong>in</strong>ted as<br />
director of the Herbarium of the National Museum,<br />
a position he held until 1914. He remembers his first<br />
encounter with Charles H. Lankester <strong>in</strong> 1911: “I still<br />
remember his smile while shak<strong>in</strong>g h<strong>and</strong>s with me,<br />
observ<strong>in</strong>g my youngster-look due to the short trousers,<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
long socks <strong>and</strong> occasionally a sailor-type blouse,<br />
the usual attire of the students of those years ...”<br />
(Jiménez, 1967: 248). His friendship with Lankester,<br />
that lasted throughout their lives, converted him <strong>in</strong>to a<br />
lover of <strong>orchids</strong>, accompany<strong>in</strong>g the great Englishman<br />
on many of his collect<strong>in</strong>g trips, dur<strong>in</strong>g which he<br />
found several new species: Epidendrum obliquifolium<br />
Ames, Hubb. & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Jiménez 972), Habenaria<br />
jimenezii Schltr. (Jiménez 631), Stelis jimenezii Schltr.<br />
(Jiménez 621), <strong>and</strong> Stelis tonduziana Schltr. (Jiménez<br />
618). He had the privilege to grow up dur<strong>in</strong>g a period<br />
when the botanical exploration of Costa Rica was <strong>in</strong><br />
full effervescence. “By 1914 Costa Rica had become<br />
the center of scientific research <strong>in</strong> tropical America”<br />
(Evans, 1999: 20). Jiménez knew personally the great<br />
botanists of his time: Wercklé, Pittier, Tonduz, the<br />
Brade brothers, Donnell Smith, Britton, Dr. Patiño<br />
(Colombia), Wilson Popenoe, Maxon (with whom<br />
he collected <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> the region of Varablanca),<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley, Williams <strong>and</strong> Allen, <strong>and</strong> furthermore<br />
married a daughter of Anastasio Alfaro. In 1915, Pittier<br />
described him as follows: “... a disciple of Tonduz<br />
<strong>and</strong> a student of pharmacy, who has already done a<br />
large amount of collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> may yet surpass” his<br />
master (Letter from Pittier to J. H. Barnhart, 1915).<br />
Because of the ups <strong>and</strong> downs of the Museum after<br />
the departure of Pittier, <strong>and</strong> because of his studies <strong>in</strong><br />
Pharmacy, ‘Oto’ could not cont<strong>in</strong>ue with the Botany,<br />
as he wished. However, dur<strong>in</strong>g the rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g years<br />
of his life, he dedicated to Botany as much time as he<br />
could (which unfortunately was not much). After this<br />
period, s<strong>in</strong>ce the collections at the Museum were not<br />
well <strong>org</strong>anized <strong>and</strong> sometimes were lost, he started<br />
to send his collections abroad, I believe for the rest<br />
of his lifetime. I know that <strong>in</strong> the process many got<br />
lost, especially those dest<strong>in</strong>ed to Europe.his later<br />
work, besides collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> taxonomy, was oriented<br />
to the <strong>in</strong>vestigation of the nourish<strong>in</strong>g properties of<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> plants, or to the study of certa<strong>in</strong> drugs (Silvia<br />
Troyo, pers. comm.). Together with Lankester, he had<br />
to suffer Ames’ impatience: “When may I expect the<br />
specimens that Jimenez has <strong>in</strong> h<strong>and</strong>? Now is the time<br />
to get this material under the lens” “‘Otón’ has not<br />
sent me a scrap. I th<strong>in</strong>k it will be wise if you rem<strong>in</strong>d<br />
him of my needs <strong>and</strong> accompany him to the post office<br />
with the package” (Ames to Lankester, <strong>in</strong> letters from<br />
August <strong>and</strong> December, 1923). But it was not Ames
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
but Schlechter <strong>and</strong> several other scientists who really<br />
valued Jiménez’ work, nam<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> his honor a series<br />
of new species: Epidendrum jimenezii E. Hágsater,<br />
Epilyna jimenezii Schltr., Habenaria jimenezii Schltr.,<br />
Lepanthes jimenezii Schltr., Masdevallia jimenezii<br />
Königer, Pachystele jimenezii Schltr., Scaphyglottis<br />
jimenezii Schltr., <strong>and</strong> Stelis jimenezii Schltr. In<br />
addition to be<strong>in</strong>g an excellent botanist, Jiménez was a<br />
prolific writer, who left <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g articles about Von<br />
Frantzius, Humboldt, Wercklé, Tonduz, Brade, <strong>and</strong><br />
Lankester; an important bibliographical source for the<br />
study of scientific life <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica dur<strong>in</strong>g the XIX<br />
<strong>and</strong> the first half of the XX century. “It is much to<br />
be regretted that the dem<strong>and</strong>s of bus<strong>in</strong>ess affairs have<br />
precluded a greater amount of personal field work<br />
on the part of one who has such a keen perception<br />
of facts <strong>and</strong> the ability to discover them <strong>in</strong> strange<br />
places” (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1937: 53).<br />
Amelia Smith Calvert (1876-1966) <strong>and</strong> Philip Powell<br />
Calvert (1871-1961) came to Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1909 <strong>and</strong><br />
stayed one year <strong>in</strong> the country. As entomologists,<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> purpose of their visit was the study of the<br />
seasonal distribution of dragonflies. However, they<br />
were <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> all fields of natural history <strong>and</strong><br />
published an account of their travels throughout the<br />
country, under the title of A Year of Costa Rican Natural<br />
History (Calvert & Calvert, 1917). Although <strong>orchids</strong> are<br />
frequently mentioned <strong>in</strong> their work, the book is of some<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest because the Calverts met <strong>and</strong> became friends<br />
of several of the characters that are now part of our<br />
orchid history. One of the Calvert’s first acqua<strong>in</strong>tances<br />
was Alfred Brade, whom they visited at his home<br />
where he had a “flower garden, with a few animals <strong>in</strong><br />
captivity, which formed one of the sights of San José<br />
at this time” (Calvert & Calvert, 1917: 30). They set up<br />
their headquarters <strong>in</strong> Cartago, from where they made<br />
excursions <strong>in</strong> all directions, start<strong>in</strong>g to explore the flanks<br />
of the Irazú volcano <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g than to the south, to<br />
the foothills of the Cordillera of Talamanca, where they<br />
often found great numbers of Epidendrum radicans.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, <strong>in</strong> March of 1910, they met the Lankesters, who<br />
<strong>in</strong>vited them to their house <strong>in</strong> Cachí. The <strong>in</strong>vitation was<br />
accepted <strong>and</strong> the Calverts went by tra<strong>in</strong> to Paraíso <strong>and</strong><br />
then rode to Lankester’s farm. “Mr. Lankester’s house<br />
was beautifully situated half a mile from the Reventazón<br />
153<br />
River <strong>and</strong> about a hundred <strong>and</strong> fifty feet above it. It<br />
was not a typical Costa Rica residence, for although<br />
built of adobe it was two-storied <strong>and</strong> had no patio. A<br />
wide ver<strong>and</strong>a or “corridor” ran across the entire front<br />
on the first <strong>and</strong> second floors, charm<strong>in</strong>g places, for they<br />
were set with plants <strong>and</strong> hung with baskets of <strong>orchids</strong>,<br />
some of which were <strong>in</strong> full flower when we were there”<br />
(Calvert & Calvert, 1917: 160) (Fig. 49D). In many of<br />
their excursions the Calverts traveled <strong>in</strong> the company<br />
of Costa Rican naturalist José Fidel Tristán (1874-<br />
1932), who was a magnificent guide <strong>and</strong> became their<br />
best friend <strong>in</strong> the country. The also received help from<br />
naturalist Anastasio Alfaro <strong>and</strong> well know ornithologist<br />
José Cástulo Zeledón. Near Guápiles, on the Atlantic<br />
side of the mounta<strong>in</strong>s, they were the guests of Mr. R.<br />
E. Woodbrigde, manager of the United Fruit Company,<br />
who was extremely fond of flowers. “All around the<br />
balconies were numerous potted plants <strong>and</strong> hang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
baskets of <strong>orchids</strong>, ferns, caladiums <strong>and</strong> begonias”<br />
(Calvert & Calvert, 1917: 284). And while climb<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
Poás volcano, they found that “all trunks <strong>and</strong> branches,<br />
even the stems of small bushes, were thickly covered<br />
with soft bright green moss, <strong>and</strong> the epiphytes were<br />
mostly green bromeliads <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchids</strong>.” F<strong>in</strong>ally, near the<br />
Tempisque River, <strong>in</strong> Guanacaste, they passed “a number<br />
of trees bear<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> with medium-sized p<strong>in</strong>kish<br />
flowers, which were called ‘guarias’; the same name<br />
is applied to Cattleya <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>terior of the country, but<br />
these <strong>orchids</strong> were not Cattleya” (Calvert & Calvert,<br />
1917: 354, 418). On May 4, 1910, while prepar<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
return to Limón <strong>and</strong> to their ship to the United States,<br />
the Calverts were caught by the terrible earthquake that<br />
destroyed Cartago, <strong>and</strong> barely saved their lives <strong>and</strong> their<br />
collections.<br />
Harvey Elmer Stork (1890-1959) was a U. S.<br />
botanist who made important collections of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Costa Rica. He collected <strong>in</strong> the country from 1920 to<br />
1932, <strong>and</strong> was also <strong>in</strong> Peru, Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Guatemala<br />
(1938-1939) where he collected with Oliver Butler<br />
Horton (Habenaria bractescens L<strong>in</strong>dl. –Stork &<br />
Horton 8832 – Guatemala). Many years later, <strong>in</strong> 1956,<br />
he returned to Costa Rica. He had met Lankester <strong>in</strong><br />
1923: “On Friday past I had the pleasure to take two<br />
botanists for a short woodl<strong>and</strong> ramble (Dr. Stevens<br />
37 ... <strong>and</strong> Mr. Stork..) (Letter to Ames, June 25, 1923).”<br />
37 Frank L<strong>in</strong>coln Stevens (1871-1934), was professor of Biology at the North Carol<strong>in</strong>a College of Agriculture <strong>and</strong> Mechanic <strong>and</strong> a<br />
botanical collector who did NOT collect <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
154<br />
Professor of Botany at Carleton College (M<strong>in</strong>nesota),<br />
Stork collected <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica over 1,200 specimens of<br />
plants. “The material gathered by Prof. H. E. Stork is<br />
just about f<strong>in</strong>ished. Two new Epidendrums <strong>and</strong> what I<br />
take to be a new Stelis” (Letter from Ames to Lankester,<br />
November 8, 1923). Some of the new species of<br />
Orchidaceae collected by Stork were: Epidendrum<br />
l<strong>in</strong>ifolium Ames (Stork 417), Epidendrum storkii Ames<br />
(Stork 460), Oncidium storkii Ames & Schw. (Stork<br />
s.n.), Stelis storkii Ames (Stork 2103), <strong>and</strong> Telipogon<br />
storkii Ames & Schw. (Stork 2101). Rafael Lucas<br />
Rodríguez described him as follows: “Harvey Stork<br />
was a North American of gigantic stature who, when he<br />
first visited the isthmus, walked all the way from David<br />
to Bocas del Toro, <strong>in</strong> Panama, to ga<strong>in</strong> knowledge of<br />
the country. I went everywhere with him the last time<br />
he visited Costa Rica, <strong>and</strong> although he was already<br />
very old, I had problems try<strong>in</strong>g to walk as he did”<br />
(Rodríguez, 1972: 14). The list of localities reveals<br />
that Stork collected primarily <strong>in</strong> the Central Valley,<br />
near Cartago <strong>and</strong> Orosi, mak<strong>in</strong>g some excursions <strong>in</strong>to<br />
Guanacaste, Pérez Zeledón <strong>and</strong> Puerto Limón. At<br />
some po<strong>in</strong>t he collected together with Willard W<strong>in</strong>field<br />
Rowlee (1861-1923) to whom we owe Pleurothallis<br />
rowleei Ames (W. W. & H. E. Rowlee 236). Rowlee<br />
made important <strong>in</strong>vestigations on balsa wood <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Canal Zone, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras <strong>and</strong><br />
Nicaragua.<br />
Carroll William Dodge (1895-1988) came to<br />
Harvard University as Instructor <strong>in</strong> Botany <strong>and</strong> was<br />
made Assistant Professor <strong>and</strong> Curator of the Farlow<br />
Library <strong>and</strong> Herbarium <strong>in</strong> 1924. While at Farlow<br />
from 1924 to 1931, Dodge doubled the herbarium<br />
collections by purchase <strong>and</strong> collection. Some of<br />
his collections came from expeditions to the Gaspe<br />
Pen<strong>in</strong>sula, Canada (1923) <strong>and</strong> parts of Lat<strong>in</strong> America.<br />
In 1925 he was briefly <strong>in</strong> Panamá <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica, a<br />
country where he returned <strong>in</strong> 1929, to study tropical<br />
mycoses on a Guggenheim Fellowship. Dodge<br />
received a second Guggenheim Fellowship for studies<br />
<strong>in</strong> Europe, <strong>and</strong> after his return <strong>in</strong> 1931, he became<br />
Professor of Botany at Wash<strong>in</strong>gton University <strong>and</strong><br />
Mycologist at the Missouri Botanical Garden. It was<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g his years <strong>in</strong> St. Louis that medical mycology<br />
<strong>and</strong> lichenology became his major research <strong>in</strong>terests.<br />
He taught <strong>and</strong> visited <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> America <strong>in</strong> Panama<br />
(1934-1935); Costa Rica (1936); Guatemala (1940-<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
1942); Chile (1950, 1960); <strong>and</strong> Brazil (1959). In<br />
Costa Rica he collected throughout the country on<br />
two occasions (November 1929 - May 1930 <strong>and</strong><br />
July 1936 - May 1937), often <strong>in</strong> the company of<br />
the brothers Juvenal <strong>and</strong> Remo Valerio. Among his<br />
specimens we f<strong>in</strong>d a good number of Orchidaceae,<br />
among others Oncidium bryolophotum Rchb. f.<br />
(Dodge 4781), Masdevallia striatella Rchb. f. (Dodge<br />
4786), Masdevallia reichenbachiana Endres ex<br />
Rchb. f. (Dodge 6145), Oncidium ascendens L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Dodge 6388), Hexisea bidentata L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Dodge<br />
6389), Psygmorchis pusilla (L.) Dodson & Dressler<br />
(Dodge 16510) <strong>and</strong> Malaxis soulei L.O. Williams<br />
(Dodge 9080). While <strong>in</strong> Panama, he led a botanical<br />
expedition with Julian Steyermark <strong>in</strong> 1934-35, <strong>and</strong><br />
collected <strong>in</strong> the company of Paul H. Allen <strong>and</strong> Abel<br />
A. Hunter. Brassavola nodosa (L.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Dodge<br />
16903) <strong>and</strong> Sobralia decora Batem. (Dodge 106a) are<br />
among his Panamanian specimens.<br />
Charles Herbert Lankester<br />
“Twenty three years ago today, the good ship<br />
‘Atrato’ (now alas asleep <strong>in</strong> the depths off the<br />
N. Irish coast) left Southampton with myself on<br />
board en route for C.R., <strong>and</strong> here I am still ...”<br />
Charles H. Lankester<br />
(letter to Ames, December 12, 1923)<br />
Of only 21 years of age, Charles Herbert Lankester<br />
(1879-1969) (Fig. 50A), arrived at Puerto Limón <strong>in</strong><br />
December, 1900 <strong>and</strong> went on by tra<strong>in</strong> to the capital<br />
of Costa Rica, arriv<strong>in</strong>g just <strong>in</strong> time to take part <strong>in</strong> the<br />
“Ball of the New Century” offered by Costa Rica’s<br />
President Rafael Yglesias <strong>in</strong> the National Theater of<br />
San José. Better known as ‘don Carlos’, Lankester had<br />
been born <strong>in</strong> Southampton, Engl<strong>and</strong>, <strong>and</strong> came to Costa<br />
Rica to occupy a position as assistant <strong>in</strong> the “Sarapiquí<br />
Coffee Estates Company”. His contract was for three<br />
years, with free travel from <strong>and</strong> to London, <strong>and</strong> with<br />
a salary of one hundred <strong>and</strong> fifty ‘colones’ (a stately<br />
sum at that time) (Urb<strong>in</strong>a Vargas, 2005: 9). Sarapiquí<br />
proved too humid for the commercial production of<br />
coffee <strong>and</strong> the plantations had to be ab<strong>and</strong>oned three<br />
years after the arrival of don Carlos <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica. It<br />
was here, however, surrounded by the most exuberant<br />
tropical vegetation, that his <strong>in</strong>terest arose for plants,<br />
<strong>in</strong>sects <strong>and</strong> birds. “Don Carlos Lankester arrived at
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
the right place at the right time to jo<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>to the active<br />
biological exploration of Costa Rica, perhaps the most<br />
excit<strong>in</strong>g place biologically on our cont<strong>in</strong>ent (Williams,<br />
1969: 860).” “He had the opportunity to meet<br />
professor Pittier when he visited this <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g region,<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g a friendship which lasted dur<strong>in</strong>g all of his<br />
life” (Jiménez, 1967: 252). When his contract expired,<br />
Lankester returned to Engl<strong>and</strong>, but came back to<br />
Costa Rica a few months later, called by Pittier to take<br />
over the experimental station which the United Fruit<br />
Company planned to establish <strong>in</strong> Zent, a project that<br />
never became reality. In the follow<strong>in</strong>g years he worked<br />
<strong>in</strong> several farms, collected <strong>in</strong>sects for doctor Schaus<br />
<strong>and</strong> birds for the Carnegie Institute <strong>in</strong> Pittsburgh. In<br />
1908 he accepted the adm<strong>in</strong>istration of a coffee farm<br />
<strong>in</strong> Cachí, owned by Cecil V. L<strong>in</strong>do, where he lived for<br />
n<strong>in</strong>e years with his wife Dorothea Hawker (Fig. 50B)<br />
<strong>and</strong> his young family. It was dur<strong>in</strong>g those years that<br />
don Carlos began his collections <strong>in</strong> the nearby woods,<br />
which <strong>in</strong> many cases proved to be new species. He sent<br />
his first specimens for identification to Rolfe, at Kew.<br />
One of them (Lankester 021, 1915, neighborhood of<br />
Cachí) is probably the first new species of Orchidaceae<br />
discovered by Lankester: Pleurothallis costaricensis<br />
Rolfe.<br />
Robert Allen Rolfe (1855-1921) (Fig. 50C), who<br />
had stepped <strong>in</strong>to the position of world master of<br />
<strong>orchidology</strong> after the death of Reichenbach, was<br />
Lankester’s logical contact, who <strong>in</strong> a journey to<br />
Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1920 brought an important collection<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong> to Kew. Rolfe’s sudden death left this<br />
collection unstudied, as happened to another<br />
collection of Panamanian <strong>orchids</strong>, prepared by C. W.<br />
Powell. Rolfe died at the age of 65, just when he was<br />
about to set out on his first trip to Tropical America<br />
(Panama <strong>and</strong> Costa Rica) (Re<strong>in</strong>ikka, 1995: 278). “Kew<br />
had promised f<strong>in</strong>ancial help <strong>and</strong> extended his term of<br />
service to <strong>in</strong>clude this field work, <strong>and</strong> the untimely<br />
end of a cherished wish was a great disappo<strong>in</strong>tment<br />
to Powell <strong>and</strong> the writer, both of whom had derived<br />
much encouragement <strong>and</strong> help from his k<strong>in</strong>dly cooperation<br />
<strong>and</strong> guidance” (Lankester, 1944: 10-11).<br />
One of Rolfe’s fundamental achievements was the<br />
foundation of the Orchid Review <strong>in</strong> 1893, of which he<br />
was the editor until his death <strong>in</strong> 1921. Shortly before<br />
his death he was awarded the Victoria Medal of the<br />
Royal Horticultural Society (Stapf, 1921: 8).<br />
155<br />
After a brief <strong>in</strong>terlude <strong>in</strong> Engl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Africa<br />
(1920–1922), Lankester returned to Costa Rica<br />
<strong>and</strong> moved later (1924) to live at “Las Cóncavas”,<br />
a coffee farm that he had acquired <strong>in</strong> the vic<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
of Cartago. The year 1922 was an turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong><br />
Lankester’s career as an orchidologist: it brought the<br />
first contact with Oakes Ames, that would develop<br />
<strong>in</strong>to a deep friendship. Ames, after return<strong>in</strong>g from a<br />
trip to Europe, wrote to Lankester: “At Kew I saw<br />
many specimens collected by you <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica,<br />
the greater part unnamed. As it will take some time<br />
for Kew to recover from the loss of Rolfe <strong>and</strong> as<br />
the Germans are mak<strong>in</strong>g great efforts to assemble<br />
Costa Rican material through Wercklé, Jimenez <strong>and</strong><br />
Tonduz, it seemed to me that you might be will<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to co-operate with me by stimulat<strong>in</strong>g orchidological<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest among your neighbors” (Letter from Ames to<br />
Lankester, September 17, 1922). Lankester answered<br />
immediately <strong>and</strong> became so, for the next 25 years,<br />
the favorite collector of Ames, who discovered<br />
among the specimens received from Las Cóncavas<br />
more than 100 new species. Many were dedicated<br />
to Lankester, such as: Campylocentrum lankesteri<br />
Ames, Cranichis lankesteri Ames, Dichaea<br />
lankesteri Ames, Dipterostele lankesteri (Ames)<br />
Garay & G. A. Romero-González, Epidendrum<br />
lankesteri Ames, Habenaria lankesteri Ames,<br />
Hexisea lankesteri Ames, Lockhartia lankesteri<br />
Ames, Malaxis lankesteri Ames, Maxillaria<br />
lankesteri Ames, Notylia lankesteri Ames, Oncidium<br />
lankesteri Ames, Ornithocephalus lankesteri Ames,<br />
Stelis lankesteri Ames, Stellilabium lankesteri<br />
(Ames) Dressler, Telipogon lankesteri Ames, <strong>and</strong><br />
Trigonidium lankesteri Ames. He also found a new<br />
genus amongst Lankester’s collections: “There<br />
seems to be a new genus among your specimens.<br />
Lankesterella would be a good name (Letter from<br />
Ames to Lankester, April 18, 1923). The new genus<br />
was published <strong>in</strong> May, 1923. Ames never stopped<br />
express<strong>in</strong>g his admiration <strong>and</strong> gratitude: “... for what<br />
you have done my gratitude is immeasurable. I am<br />
m<strong>in</strong>dful of the great service you have done <strong>in</strong> my<br />
behalf <strong>and</strong> I realize that there was no need for you<br />
to regard me as anyth<strong>in</strong>g more than a pestiferous<br />
nuisance; a botanical mendicant reach<strong>in</strong>g out toward<br />
you, a greedy h<strong>and</strong>” (Letter to Lankester, December<br />
16, 1923).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
156<br />
In Las Cóncavas, dur<strong>in</strong>g the next 33 years <strong>and</strong><br />
while he cont<strong>in</strong>ued send<strong>in</strong>g plants to Ames, Lankester<br />
created the orchid garden that would become the<br />
Mecca of all botanists who passed through Costa<br />
Rica, not only because of the plants, but also for<br />
don Carlos’ vast knowledge of the country <strong>and</strong> its<br />
nature (Fig. 50D). “Generous to a fault, hospitable to<br />
all, he was counselor to all scientists who came to<br />
Costa Rica. His <strong>in</strong>terests were catholic - butterflies,<br />
birds, but most especially epiphytic plants, <strong>orchids</strong>,<br />
bromeliads <strong>and</strong> aroids” (Williams, 1972: 207). “A<br />
naturalist <strong>in</strong> the best <strong>and</strong> widest sense of that word”<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1925: 274). His bus<strong>in</strong>ess affairs suffered<br />
many ups <strong>and</strong> downs, <strong>and</strong> he often thought about<br />
return<strong>in</strong>g to Engl<strong>and</strong>. “It is just possible I may<br />
complete sale of this place dur<strong>in</strong>g the com<strong>in</strong>g week;<br />
if so Costa Rica will soon see me no more” (Letter<br />
to Ames, December 17, 1925). But he cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
<strong>and</strong> never ab<strong>and</strong>oned the country. In July of 1925,<br />
Lankester was elected as an honorary member of the<br />
American Orchid Society.<br />
After 1932, the correspondence between Ames<br />
<strong>and</strong> Lankester became less frequent. Ames was<br />
approach<strong>in</strong>g 60 years of age <strong>and</strong> Lankester already<br />
passed 50. The <strong>in</strong>itial passion gives way to a more<br />
serene <strong>and</strong> calm relationship. But their friendship<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ued until the death of the great American<br />
orchidologist <strong>in</strong> 1950.In 1956, when Lankester<br />
could not manage his farm because of his age, he<br />
sold “Las Cóncavas”. His wife had died, his children<br />
were far away, <strong>and</strong> don Carlos had no success <strong>in</strong><br />
f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g someone to care for his garden. He then<br />
moved his garden to a nearby property known as<br />
“Silvestre”. It was on this property where, years later,<br />
the Lankester Botanical Garden of the University<br />
of Costa Rica was established. However, despite<br />
of his age, he cont<strong>in</strong>ued collect<strong>in</strong>g. One of his last<br />
specimens has the number 1761, a plant of Warrea<br />
costaricensis Schltr., collected <strong>in</strong> February of 1960,<br />
when Lankester was already 81 years old. In the last<br />
years of his life Lankester lived <strong>in</strong> Moravia, where<br />
he cont<strong>in</strong>ued cultivat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> to the last day. It is<br />
said that shortly before pass<strong>in</strong>g away he confessed to<br />
his daughter Dorothy: “I am only sorry that, with all<br />
the opportunities I had, I never made enough money”<br />
(R. Lankester, pers. comm., 2004). In the words of<br />
Rafael Lucas Rodríguez, one of his close friends, “...<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
his friends have at least the consolation that he had no<br />
long agony, <strong>and</strong> that his last days were rather happy,<br />
with a celebration of his 90 th birthday <strong>in</strong> June <strong>and</strong><br />
the Garden Club award<strong>in</strong>g him a gold medal only last<br />
week” (In a letter to Robert Dressler, July 10, 1969.<br />
Except for a few articles, Lankester left a very<br />
limited amount of publications. He prepared a<br />
manual about the <strong>orchids</strong> of Costa Rica, that was<br />
approved for publication by the American Orchid<br />
Society <strong>in</strong> 1968, a year before his death, but the<br />
project was never completed (Lankester, 1944). The<br />
manuscript, with the title Costa Rican Orchids, is<br />
now part of the library of the Lankester Botanical<br />
Garden, await<strong>in</strong>g to be published together with a<br />
biography of the great naturalist. Lankester’s only<br />
son, John Maurice Hawker Lankester (1913—),<br />
became also <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1952<br />
collected a new species, Epidendrum puteum St<strong>and</strong>l.<br />
& L.O. Williams, that flowered at Las Cóncavas<br />
(John M.H. Lankester, 1606).<br />
Alfredo Sancho (1876-1929) was Lankester’s<br />
good friend <strong>and</strong> companion on many collect<strong>in</strong>g trips.<br />
Brother of the writer Mario Sancho <strong>and</strong> of Francisco<br />
<strong>and</strong> Carlos Sancho, who owned farms <strong>in</strong> Peralta <strong>and</strong><br />
La Estrella (to the East <strong>and</strong> South of Cartago), he<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced Lankester to the orchidaceous flora of the<br />
regions where his brothers worked. Lankester himself<br />
owned for a short period of time a farm <strong>in</strong> Peralta, a<br />
project he ab<strong>and</strong>oned for economic reasons. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their collect<strong>in</strong>g trips, Lankester <strong>and</strong> Sancho collected<br />
a great number of new species, that were named <strong>in</strong><br />
honor of Sancho <strong>and</strong> his favorite collect<strong>in</strong>g sites:<br />
Epidendrum sanchoi Ames, Lepanthes sanchoi Ames,<br />
Pleurothallis sanchoi Ames, Stelis sanchoi Ames,<br />
Encyclia peraltensis (Ames) Dressler, Pleurothallis<br />
peraltensis Ames, Chondrorhyncha estrellensis<br />
Ames, Epidendrum estrellense Ames, <strong>and</strong> Lepanthes<br />
estrellensis Ames. In a letter to Ames, Lankester<br />
shows the great affection he felt for the Sanchos:<br />
“I hope you may have time to meet Mario Sancho<br />
[at that time Consul of Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> Chicago]. His<br />
brother Alfredo, to whom you dedicated a Lepanthes<br />
<strong>and</strong> a Pleurothallis, has at various times helped on the<br />
good cause, <strong>and</strong> we had the pleasure of see<strong>in</strong>g them<br />
both here last night... they are worthy representatives<br />
of the best of the old Cartago gente” (Letter to Ames,<br />
July 30, 1924).
A<br />
C<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 48. A — Alberto Manuel Brenes (1870-1948). Courtesy of J<strong>org</strong>e Gómez Laurito. B — Brenesia costaricensis<br />
Schltr. Illustration by Fritz Hamer <strong>in</strong> Jenny, 2000: 21. C — Trichopilia galeottiana A. Rich. & Galeotti. Oil on canvas<br />
by Emilo Span. In Loaiza, 1973. D — Guillermo Acosta Piepper (1878-1955) <strong>and</strong> his wife Herm<strong>in</strong>ia Beer. Courtesy of<br />
Albán Cambronero Acosta.<br />
B<br />
D<br />
157<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
158<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
C D<br />
Figure 49. A — Acostaea costaricensis Schltr. Illustration by A.R. Endrés. Courtesy of the Natural History Museum <strong>in</strong><br />
Vienna. B — Alex<strong>and</strong>er Curt Brade (1881-1971). In Pabst, 1967: 61. C — Otón Jiménez (1895-1988) <strong>in</strong> 1919. Courtesy<br />
of Silvia Troyo. D — Orchids <strong>in</strong> Lankester’s house <strong>in</strong> Cachí. Courtesy of Ricardo Lankester.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B
A<br />
C<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 50. A — Charles Herbert Lankester (1879-1969). Courtesy of Ricardo Lankester. B — Dorothea Hawker, Lankester’s<br />
wife. Courtesy of Ricardo Lankester. C — Robert Allen Rolfe (1855-1921). Courtesy of the Oakes Ames Herbarium,<br />
Harvard University. D — Lankester <strong>in</strong> ‘Las Cóncavas’, 1936. Courtesy of Ricardo Lankester.<br />
B<br />
D<br />
159<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
160<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
C D<br />
Figure 51. A — Panama Canal under construction (1907). B — Barro Colorado Isl<strong>and</strong> as seen from Gatún Lake. Courtesy<br />
of the Missouri Botanical Garden. C — William Ralph Maxon (1877-1948). In the frontispiece of Fern Bullet<strong>in</strong>, 1903,<br />
vol. 11. Courtesy of Dr. Gustavo Romero. D — Charles Wesley Powell (1854-1927). Courtesy of the Hunt Institute for<br />
Botanical Documentation.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
The orchIds of The panama canal<br />
“S<strong>in</strong>ce its completion <strong>in</strong> 1914, the Panama<br />
Canal has been Panama’s economic base,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the United States presence has been the<br />
republic’s major source of frustration”<br />
(http://www.canalmuseum.com/<br />
stories/history_of_panama_001.htm)<br />
“Completely different from Suez, where the desert<br />
hardly provoked any naturalistic concerns, the tropical<br />
nature of Panama was a complex challenge to Science....<br />
At the center of these concerns about the impact of the<br />
canal on the surround<strong>in</strong>g environment was the formation<br />
of Lake Gatún. Its waters, while flood<strong>in</strong>g the lower<br />
course of the Chagres River, would drown or drive<br />
away the majority of the plants <strong>and</strong> animals <strong>and</strong> would<br />
ext<strong>in</strong>guish many unknown species.... Other unknowns<br />
were the changes that could take place once the waters<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>org</strong>anisms of both watersheds came together...”<br />
(Heckadon-Moreno, 1998: 74) (Fig. 51, A—B). There<br />
was also a practical <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> undertak<strong>in</strong>g a biological<br />
survey of such importance: to enrich the collections of<br />
Panamanian flora <strong>and</strong> fauna <strong>in</strong> the museums of natural<br />
science <strong>in</strong> the United States. Leaders among those<br />
who undertook the biological exploration not only of<br />
Panama, but of the whole American cont<strong>in</strong>ent, where<br />
two <strong>in</strong>stitutions which had been founded fifty years<br />
earlier: the Smithsonian Institution <strong>and</strong> the Missouri<br />
Botanical Garden.<br />
The biological exploration of the Smithsonian<br />
Institution. “... When the floodgates of the great earth<br />
dam which impounded the Chagres River started to<br />
close <strong>in</strong> April of 1910... the world’s largest artificial lake<br />
started to form: Lake Gatún. Suddenly, with the imm<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
flood<strong>in</strong>g of over 60 villages <strong>and</strong> hundreds of square miles<br />
of jungle, the biological study of the region affected by<br />
the canal works became a scientific priority. Never before<br />
had the biologists had the unexpected possibility of<br />
explor<strong>in</strong>g the highest tree tops by simply row<strong>in</strong>g a boat<br />
[...] In this odyssey of knowledge that took place on the<br />
isthmus, the Smithsonian Institution of Wash<strong>in</strong>gton D.<br />
C., which undertook the first great biological survey of<br />
Panama between 1910 <strong>and</strong> 1912, played a pr<strong>in</strong>cipal role”<br />
(Heckadon-Moreno, 1998: 73-74).<br />
The first group of a great number of specialists <strong>in</strong><br />
different branches of biological sciences which would<br />
161<br />
visit the canal dur<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g years, gather<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation <strong>and</strong> extensive collections, disembarked <strong>in</strong><br />
Colón on December 28, 1910. In charge of the Botany was<br />
Henri Pittier, from the U. S. Department of Agriculture,<br />
who resided <strong>in</strong> Panama from 1910 to1912. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
the orig<strong>in</strong>al plan, the study would require one year <strong>and</strong><br />
would be limited to the immediate neighborhood of the<br />
canal excavations. However, the need to extend the area<br />
of study became clear very soon, <strong>and</strong> the explorations<br />
were extended to the whole territory of Panama. Field<br />
work, which lasted until March of 1912, began after<br />
Pittier’s request was granted <strong>and</strong> he could count on the<br />
help of William R. Maxon, who arrived <strong>in</strong> Panama <strong>in</strong><br />
February, 1911. Pittier collected <strong>and</strong> classified 1,750<br />
species of plants <strong>in</strong> 154 different localities, among<br />
them many <strong>orchids</strong>. “After he returned to Wash<strong>in</strong>gton<br />
[1912], Henri <strong>and</strong> his young assistant Paul C. St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
attacked the gigantic task of analyz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> publish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the scientific data of the vast collection of Panamanian<br />
plants [with the help of European specialists], many of<br />
them new to science. The publications were to appear<br />
under the jo<strong>in</strong>t seal of the U. S. National Herbarium <strong>and</strong><br />
the Smithsonian Institution” (Heckadon-Moreno, 1998:<br />
84). Pittier wanted to write his f<strong>in</strong>al report <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong>, the<br />
classical language of Botany, employed by n<strong>in</strong>e tenths of<br />
the systematic botanists, but he encountered resistance<br />
among the members of the Editorial Committee, who<br />
wanted everyth<strong>in</strong>g to be written <strong>in</strong> English. F<strong>in</strong>ally, the<br />
Secretary of the Smithsonian decided salomonically to<br />
publish the manuscripts part <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> part <strong>in</strong> English.<br />
The quarrel with the languages delayed the publications<br />
<strong>and</strong> upset the relations between the American <strong>and</strong><br />
European naturalists. These difficulties paled however at<br />
the outbreak of World War I, when the relations among<br />
the <strong>in</strong>ternational scientific community were f<strong>in</strong>ally <strong>and</strong><br />
completely disrupted (Heckadon-Moreno, 1998: 85).<br />
William Ralph Maxon (1877-1948) (Fig. 51C)<br />
worked dur<strong>in</strong>g his whole life for the New York<br />
Botanical Garden <strong>and</strong> the U. S. National herbarium. He<br />
had collected plants with Pittier <strong>in</strong> Chiriquí as early as<br />
1900. In 1905 he visited Guatemala <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1906 Costa<br />
Rica (Maxon, 1906). He arrived <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica at Puerto<br />
Limon <strong>and</strong> collected <strong>in</strong> the prov<strong>in</strong>ces of San José,<br />
Cartago <strong>and</strong> Alajuela. Some of the <strong>orchids</strong> of the Maxon<br />
herbarium were given to him by Pablo Biolley, who<br />
cultivated them <strong>in</strong> his garden <strong>in</strong> San José (Nash, 1907).<br />
Maxon spent a time dur<strong>in</strong>g 1911 <strong>in</strong> Panama, where he<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
162<br />
formed a large collection of <strong>orchids</strong> together with Pittier,<br />
explor<strong>in</strong>g not only the Canal Zone but also Chiriquí <strong>and</strong><br />
other regions. Pittier remembered the collections <strong>in</strong> El<br />
Boquete (Chiriquí): “The district is wonderfully rich <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>orchids</strong>… We hope to have soon <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton liv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
specimens of many of the specific types collected by<br />
Warscewicz <strong>in</strong> the same region” (Heckadon-Moreno,<br />
1998: 108). Somewhat later (1923) he was aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Panama, Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Nicaragua, where he collected<br />
<strong>in</strong> the company of Harvey <strong>and</strong> Valent<strong>in</strong>e. In Costa Rica<br />
he became a friend of Lankester <strong>and</strong> Otón Jiménez:<br />
“Maxon has just advised his departure from CR. Am<br />
regretful not to have seen him aga<strong>in</strong>. He + Otón Jiménez<br />
went to Varablanca, a wonderful orchid region...”<br />
(Letter from Lankester to Ames, July 27, 1923). He<br />
discovered several new species of <strong>orchids</strong>, described<br />
<strong>in</strong>itially by Schlechter (who had worked together with<br />
Pittier <strong>in</strong> the identification of the specimens from the<br />
Smithsonian’s exploration) <strong>and</strong> later by Ames, many of<br />
which were dedicated to him: Cranichis pseudociliata<br />
Schltr. (Maxon & Hay 3208, Guatemala), Elleanthus<br />
caricoides Nash. (Maxon 692, Costa Rica), Lepanthes<br />
maxonii Schltr. (Maxon 5494, Panama), Malaxis<br />
maxonii Ames, (Maxon, Harvey & Valent<strong>in</strong>e 7770,<br />
Nicaragua), Pelexia maxonii Ames, Pleurothallis<br />
monstrabilis Ames (Maxon & Harvey 8096, Costa<br />
Rica), Pleurothallis prop<strong>in</strong>qua Ames (Maxon & Harvey<br />
8268, Costa Rica), <strong>and</strong> Stelis maxonii Schltr. (Maxon<br />
5697, Panama). Several species that were <strong>in</strong> the<br />
private collections ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the Canal Zone by<br />
Mrs. D. D. Gaillard <strong>and</strong> Mrs. H. H. Rousseau <strong>and</strong> which<br />
Schlechter described as new species, were <strong>in</strong>corporated<br />
to the Panamanian collection of <strong>orchids</strong> by Maxon<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pittier: Aspasia rousseauae Schltr., Epidendrum<br />
rousseauae Schltr., <strong>and</strong> Maxillaria rousseauae Schltr.<br />
The orchid garden of Charles Wesley Powell<br />
“The Powell orchid garden at Balboa is one of<br />
the most <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g sights of the Canal Zone,<br />
<strong>and</strong> botanically by far the most remarkable<br />
th<strong>in</strong>g to be seen there. It is someth<strong>in</strong>g unique<br />
<strong>in</strong> tropical America, if not <strong>in</strong> the whole world.”<br />
Paul C. St<strong>and</strong>ley (1925: 359)<br />
In 1915, Charles Wesley Powell (1854-1927), <strong>in</strong><br />
charge of a dispensary <strong>in</strong> the Canal Zone, became<br />
seriously <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> began to amass<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
a complete collection of Panamanian species. “Mr.<br />
Powell’s idea was to accumulate as representative a<br />
Panamanian collection of <strong>orchids</strong> as possible <strong>and</strong> take<br />
them to Engl<strong>and</strong>, where he contemplated mak<strong>in</strong>g his<br />
home...” (Anonymous, 1929: 335). Powell had lived<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g a short time <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>and</strong> went to Panama<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1907, shortly after the construction of the canal had<br />
been <strong>in</strong>itiated. Dur<strong>in</strong>g many years, often <strong>in</strong> the company<br />
of A. A. Hunter, he undertook a systematic exploration<br />
of many regions throughout the country, <strong>and</strong> especially<br />
of the high mounta<strong>in</strong>s of Chiriquí. What began as a<br />
pastime became with the years a true passion. A layman<br />
<strong>in</strong> botanical matters, Powell began cultivat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> his garden (Fig. 51D) <strong>and</strong> form<strong>in</strong>g a good specialized<br />
library. From 1916 onwards, he had the support of<br />
Christopher Cheeseman, who collected <strong>orchids</strong> for<br />
Powell until the former’s death <strong>in</strong> 1927 (Pr<strong>in</strong>g, 1927:<br />
75). As soon as he realized that many of his plants were<br />
not described <strong>in</strong> his books, he made contact with Rolfe<br />
at Kew, to whom he sent <strong>in</strong> 1920 a series of herbarium<br />
specimens, but Rolfe died before he had a chance to<br />
study Powell’s collection (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1925: 359). Powell<br />
sent then another collection to the German orchidologist<br />
Dr. Rudolf Schlechter, who published a work about the<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> of Panama (Schlechter, 1922). In this work<br />
he described 184 species, of which 75 were new to<br />
science. Schlechter wrote to Powell <strong>in</strong> 1921: “Your<br />
exploration of the orchid flora of Panama is one of the<br />
most important facts <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g the later<br />
years” (Letter to Powell, 14 December, 1921). Shortly<br />
thereafter Schlechter made an attempt to ga<strong>in</strong> Lankester<br />
as a collector: “Do try to <strong>in</strong>duce Mr. Lankester to send<br />
materials to me too” (Letter to Powell, 21 November,<br />
1922).<br />
In 1922 Powell began his relation with Ames, who<br />
wrote triumphantly: “Mr. Powell is now collect<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
me. He will send noth<strong>in</strong>g more to Schlechter” (Letter<br />
to Lankester, January 13, 1923). It is true that s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
that year Powell sent only duplicates to Schlechter.<br />
In addition, he kept Ames <strong>in</strong>formed by transcrib<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to Ames every letter he wrote to or received from the<br />
German orchidologist. One of the species that Ames<br />
had looked for, for years, was Selenipedium chica<br />
Rchb. f. Great was his joy when he received, shortly<br />
before embark<strong>in</strong>g for Europe, a cablegram from<br />
Powell confirm<strong>in</strong>g that he had found the desired plant<br />
(Fig. 52A).
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
With the specimens that Powell sent to Ames, the<br />
number of Panamanian species known to science<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased to 341. Ames, try<strong>in</strong>g to play his cards on<br />
both sides of the ocean, wrote to Powell <strong>in</strong> 1922:<br />
“Notwithst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g my friendly relations with Schlechter,<br />
nobody would receive with greater joy the news that<br />
you decided to keep America free from Germany <strong>in</strong> the<br />
realm of Panama <strong>orchids</strong>” (Letter to Powell, October<br />
10,1922). And Ames cont<strong>in</strong>ued a few months later: “I<br />
wish we could keep Schlechter out of the American<br />
field” (Letter to Powell, December 12,1922). Ames<br />
went so far as to sign with Powell a formal contract<br />
<strong>in</strong> which the latter would collect <strong>orchids</strong> for him for<br />
US $100,00 per month. “There can scarcely be for<br />
any tropical country a record of one person who has<br />
contributed so much to the knowledge of the orchid<br />
flora” (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1925: 359). Ames praised the quality<br />
of his work: “His <strong>in</strong>defatigable zeal is one of the joys<br />
<strong>in</strong> my contemplation of Central American <strong>orchidology</strong>.<br />
His specimens are often works of art” (Letter from<br />
Ames to Lankester, August 24, 1923). Ge<strong>org</strong>e H.<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>g, dur<strong>in</strong>g a visit to Powell <strong>in</strong> 1923, wrote that “<strong>in</strong><br />
exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Mr. Powell’s herbarium specimens I was<br />
particularly <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the retention of the natural<br />
color of foliage <strong>and</strong> flowers” (Anonymous, 1924: 179).<br />
Powell collected an endless number of new species<br />
that <strong>in</strong> many cases were dedicated to him (especially<br />
by Schlechter), among them: Coryanthes powellii<br />
Schltr., Cycnoches powellii Schltr., Dichaea powellii<br />
Schltr., Dresslerella powellii (Ames) C. A. Luer,<br />
Encyclia powellii Schltr., Epidendrum powellii Schltr.,<br />
Gongora powellii Schltr., Govenia powellii Schltr.,<br />
Leochilus powellii Schltr., Lycaste powellii Schltr.,<br />
Maxillaria powellii Schltr., Mormodes powellii Schltr.,<br />
Ornithocephalus powellii Schltr., Palmorchis powellii<br />
(Ames) Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. & Correll, Polystachya powellii<br />
Ames, Restrepia powellii Schltr., Rossioglossum<br />
powellii (Schltr.) Garay, Sarcoglottis powellii Schltr.,<br />
Scaphyglottis powellii Schltr., Sobralia powellii Schltr.,<br />
Stelis powellii Schltr., Trichopilia powellii Schltr., <strong>and</strong><br />
Xylobium powellii Schltr. In 1925 he visited Lankester<br />
<strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, who <strong>in</strong> turn traveled to Panama <strong>in</strong> 1927:<br />
“I have just spent a fortnight with my fellow sufferer<br />
from orchiditis, CWP, + it was a very delightful time<br />
of talk <strong>and</strong> talk <strong>and</strong> then talk. I wish we could have<br />
had you there as High Priest of our cult” (Letter from<br />
Lankester to Ames, July 17, 1927).<br />
163<br />
Powell died shortly thereafter, be<strong>in</strong>g 72 years of age,<br />
on August 18, 1927. “... his friend, A. A. Hunter,<br />
chief of the postal office of Balboa, was put <strong>in</strong> charge<br />
of Powell’s orchidarium that had been bequeathed<br />
by him, <strong>in</strong> 1926, to the Missouri Botanical Garden”<br />
(Heckadon-Moreno, 1998: 153). A lectotypification<br />
of Powell’s Panamanian <strong>orchids</strong> was undertaken by<br />
Christenson <strong>in</strong> 1991.<br />
Abel Aken Hunter ( —1936) was Powell’s great<br />
friend <strong>and</strong> had collected <strong>orchids</strong> with him s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
1915. In his Orchidaceae Powellianae Panamenses,<br />
Schlechter dedicated five new species to him:<br />
Coryanthes hunteriana Schltr., Encyclia hunteriana<br />
Schltr., Epidendrum hunterianum Schltr., Pleurothallis<br />
hunteriana Schltr., <strong>and</strong> Sarcoglottis hunteriana Schltr.<br />
After Powell’s death, Hunter took over the direction<br />
of the Tropical Station that the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden had established <strong>in</strong> Panama, <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
this position until his own death <strong>in</strong> 1936. In 1935 he<br />
collected <strong>in</strong>tensively with Paul Allen, discover<strong>in</strong>g no<br />
less than four new species: Epidendrum cocleense<br />
Ames, Hubb. & Schw. (Hunter & Allen 389):<br />
Masdevallia tenuissima C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Hunter & Allen<br />
587): Ornithocephalus cochleariformis C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.<br />
(Hunter & Allen 383), <strong>and</strong> Pleurothallis rotundata C.<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Hunter & Allen 561).<br />
The Tropical Station of the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden<br />
“Plans have been perfected by the Missouri<br />
Botanical Garden of St. Louis, Missouri,<br />
U.S.A., for the establish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
of an Orchid Botanical Garden on the Isthmus<br />
of Panama. It is designed to have sent there<br />
from all parts of the world the desirable plants<br />
from abroad, to cultivate, propagate, <strong>and</strong> have<br />
their flowers on display for the knowledge <strong>and</strong><br />
pleasure of the people resident <strong>in</strong> the Canal<br />
Zone, <strong>and</strong> Republic of Panama”<br />
(Anonymous, 1926: 227)<br />
Early <strong>in</strong> the 20th century, the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden began send<strong>in</strong>g its researchers <strong>in</strong>to tropical<br />
climates, seek<strong>in</strong>g to catalogue the diverse species <strong>in</strong><br />
these rich environments. The English horticulturist<br />
Ge<strong>org</strong>e Henry Pr<strong>in</strong>g (1885-1974), who had served an<br />
apprenticeship at Kew, had arrived at the Garden <strong>in</strong> 1906<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
164<br />
as responsible for the orchid collection <strong>and</strong> with the goal<br />
to raise it to a level even higher than the collection at<br />
Kew. Dur<strong>in</strong>g Pr<strong>in</strong>g’s 63 years <strong>in</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t Louis, the orchid<br />
collection of Missouri <strong>in</strong>creased from 300 to over 50,000<br />
plants. When the First World Orchid Conference was<br />
<strong>in</strong>augurated <strong>in</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t Louis <strong>in</strong> 1954, Pr<strong>in</strong>g, then 69 years of<br />
age, had the honor to preside. Pr<strong>in</strong>g made trips to remote<br />
locations <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1923 visited the Panama Canal<br />
Zone, where he spent six months <strong>and</strong> met Powell. Pr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
collected together with A. A. Hunter <strong>in</strong> Chiriquí, try<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to <strong>in</strong>crease Powell’s collection (Pr<strong>in</strong>g, 1927). Famous<br />
for one of the world’s f<strong>in</strong>est collections of liv<strong>in</strong>g plants, a<br />
great <strong>in</strong>terest arose for Panama <strong>in</strong> the Garden, especially<br />
because of the orchid collection of C. W. Powell <strong>and</strong> his<br />
offer to donate it to the <strong>in</strong>stitution. In 1926 the Missouri<br />
Botanical Garden created a ‘tropical station’ at the foot<br />
of Ancón Hill, on l<strong>and</strong>s granted by the Canal Zone<br />
government. Powell retired this same year <strong>and</strong> when his<br />
collection passed <strong>in</strong>to the custody of the Tropical Station,<br />
he was appo<strong>in</strong>ted as its first director (Fig. 52B).<br />
A. A. Hunter, Powell’s great friend, took over<br />
Powell’s position <strong>in</strong> 1927 <strong>and</strong> kept it until his death <strong>in</strong><br />
1936. Due to the high costs of operation, the Tropical<br />
Station was transferred <strong>in</strong> 1939 to the Canal Zone<br />
Government. Paul Allen was its last director. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
its almost 13 years of existence, the Tropical Station<br />
supplied the greenhouses <strong>in</strong> Sa<strong>in</strong>t Louis with a constant<br />
flow of liv<strong>in</strong>g plants. Powell’s collection marked<br />
the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of the Garden’s reputation <strong>in</strong> orchid<br />
horticulture. Among its collections of plants no less<br />
than 75 new orchid species were described, the majority<br />
of which had been collected by Hunter <strong>and</strong> Allen.<br />
Ge<strong>org</strong>e Pr<strong>in</strong>g returned to Panama <strong>in</strong> 1928 <strong>and</strong> made<br />
several collections of <strong>orchids</strong>, among others: Catasetum<br />
warczewitzii L<strong>in</strong>dl. & Paxt., Ac<strong>in</strong>eta chrysantha (Morr.)<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl., Oncidium anthocrene Rchb. f., Peristeria elata<br />
Hook., <strong>and</strong> Odontoglossum schlieperianum Rchb. f.<br />
The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute<br />
“Let us propose to ourselves to f<strong>in</strong>d an area<br />
of tropical forest, large enough <strong>and</strong> unaltered,<br />
where men of science can come to study.”<br />
James Zetek (Heckadon-Moreno, 1998: 141)<br />
“When the Panama Canal was built, Lake Gatún<br />
was formed by the impound<strong>in</strong>g of the Chagres River,<br />
the waters flooded the valleys <strong>and</strong> the hills became<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
isl<strong>and</strong>s. The highest peak, Barro Colorado…, became<br />
the largest isl<strong>and</strong> of the new lake” (Heckadon-Moreno,<br />
1998: 139). The isl<strong>and</strong> was declared a protected area <strong>in</strong><br />
1923 <strong>and</strong> a small biological station was established on<br />
it. The Institute for the Research of Tropical America<br />
was established <strong>in</strong> order to manage the isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the<br />
station. Diverse scientific <strong>and</strong> academic <strong>in</strong>stitutions<br />
of the United States, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the Smithsonian<br />
Institution, were part of the Institute, that was directed<br />
by the National Research Council. James Zetek was<br />
appo<strong>in</strong>ted as the resident adm<strong>in</strong>istrator.<br />
James Zetek (1886-1959), North American<br />
entomologist of Czech orig<strong>in</strong>, had arrived <strong>in</strong><br />
Panama <strong>in</strong> 1911 to research on malaria. A passionate<br />
conservationist, Zetek fought dur<strong>in</strong>g twelve years<br />
for support, <strong>in</strong> Panama <strong>and</strong> abroad, to convert Barro<br />
Colorado <strong>in</strong>to a natural park, an area of jungle <strong>in</strong><br />
good condition, with many plants <strong>and</strong> animals, where<br />
the naturalists could exp<strong>and</strong> their knowledge <strong>in</strong> all<br />
areas of the biological sciences. With the support of<br />
Panamanian President, Belisario Porras, <strong>and</strong> of the<br />
Governor of the Canal Zone, Jay J. Morrow, as well<br />
as of Thomas Barbour, from Harvard University,<br />
Zetek f<strong>in</strong>ally reached his goal (Croat, 1978: 49).<br />
From 1923 to 1956, Zetek would be the dedicated<br />
<strong>and</strong> visionary adm<strong>in</strong>istrator of the Biological Station<br />
at Barro Colorado. His work was paramount. Fight<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with limited budgets, surviv<strong>in</strong>g the years of the Great<br />
Depression <strong>and</strong> World War II, Zetek was called, with<br />
justice, the ‘guardian of Barro Colorado’ (Fig. 52C).<br />
In 1946 the United States Congress transferred Barro<br />
Colorado to the Smithsonian Institution, that has<br />
managed it ever s<strong>in</strong>ce. Zetek cont<strong>in</strong>ued as resident<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istrator until his retirement <strong>in</strong> 1956. In 1964 the<br />
station was named “Smithsonian Tropical Research<br />
Institute”.<br />
A large number of researchers have passed through<br />
Barro Colorado <strong>and</strong> by 1930, one hundred eighteen<br />
scientific papers had been published by naturalists<br />
who had studied on the isl<strong>and</strong>. Besides be<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
excellent adm<strong>in</strong>istrator, Zetek cont<strong>in</strong>ued with his<br />
scientific activities, becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terested also <strong>in</strong> plants.<br />
“He collected fewer plants than most collectors of his<br />
time but his collections are among the most selective.<br />
Though Zetek was not a botanist by profession,<br />
his correspondence with St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>in</strong>dicates that he<br />
had a keen botanical awareness” (Croat, 1978: 51).
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
He collected several <strong>orchids</strong>, among which we can<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d Catasetum bicolor Klotzsch, Chondrorhyncha<br />
lipscombiae Rolfe, <strong>and</strong> Trigonidium egertonianum<br />
Batem. St<strong>and</strong>ley dedicated to him several species<br />
<strong>in</strong> other plant families, such as Eugeniea zetekiana<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Myrtaceae <strong>and</strong> Saurauia zetekiana <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Act<strong>in</strong>idiaceae.<br />
Other American collectors, 1900-1930. Other great<br />
North American <strong>in</strong>stitutions were also of importance<br />
for the biological exploration of Central America<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the first decades of the XX century. Among<br />
them are the New York Botanical Garden, the U. S.<br />
National Museum <strong>and</strong> the Field Museum of Natural<br />
History of Chicago.<br />
Robert Statham Williams (1859-1945) was a selfeducated<br />
naturalist who began his botanical collections<br />
<strong>in</strong> the m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g fields of Alaska dur<strong>in</strong>g the years of<br />
1898 <strong>and</strong> 1899. A short time later, Williams came to<br />
the New York Botanical Garden with a position as<br />
an assistant. In 1901 he was sent by the Garden to<br />
South America, return<strong>in</strong>g with a large collection of<br />
plants from Bolivia <strong>and</strong> Peru. Schlechter wrote about<br />
his collections <strong>in</strong> Bolivia: “The few <strong>orchids</strong> which I<br />
have seen are proof that the collection must conta<strong>in</strong><br />
many <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g th<strong>in</strong>gs” (Schlechter, 1922b: 13). In<br />
1903 he was sent to the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> he made his<br />
last excursion <strong>in</strong> the first months of 1908, to Panama,<br />
where he collected <strong>in</strong> the region of Penonomé <strong>and</strong><br />
the eastern prov<strong>in</strong>ces (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1928: 45-46). Ames<br />
described <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g new species of <strong>orchids</strong> among his<br />
collections <strong>in</strong> Panama: Oncidium ebrachiatum Ames<br />
& C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth (Williams 975), Pleurothallis<br />
canae Ames (Williams 971), Pleurothallis praegr<strong>and</strong>is<br />
Ames (Williams 973), Pleurothallis williamsii Ames<br />
(Williams 976), Stelis parvibracteata Ames (Williams<br />
s.n.), <strong>and</strong> Stelis williamsii Ames (Williams 970).<br />
Ellsworth Pa<strong>in</strong>e Killip (1890-1968) (Fig. 52D),<br />
a botanist, was raised <strong>in</strong> the State of New York<br />
<strong>and</strong> graduated from Rochester University <strong>in</strong> 1911.<br />
From 1919 he was part of the staff of the U. S.<br />
National Museum, becom<strong>in</strong>g head curator <strong>in</strong> 1946,<br />
after Maxon’s retirement. Killip specialized <strong>in</strong> the<br />
taxonomy of South American plants <strong>and</strong> traveled<br />
several times to Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Brazil,<br />
Argent<strong>in</strong>a, Chile <strong>and</strong> the Antilles. He collected<br />
on several occasions together with Maxon <strong>and</strong><br />
165<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley. He lived <strong>in</strong> Balboa from September 1917<br />
to May 1918, <strong>and</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g this time he made botanical<br />
collections to the east of Panama City. In the spr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of 1922, while on his return from Colombia, he<br />
prepared another collection of plants <strong>in</strong> the area<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1938: 46-47). Dur<strong>in</strong>g his last excursion<br />
to Panama he collected some plants <strong>in</strong> Barro<br />
Colorado (1948). Killip made numerous collections<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong> from which some new species were<br />
described: Camaridium gr<strong>and</strong>iflorum Ames (Killip<br />
3565, Panama), Erythrodes killipii Ames (Killip<br />
3561, Panama), Habenaria patentiloba Ames (Killip<br />
3124, Panama), Ornithocephalus lanug<strong>in</strong>osus Ames<br />
(Killip 3314, Panama), Pleurothallis falcatiloba<br />
Ames (Killip 3540, Panama), Pleurothallis killipii<br />
Garay, <strong>and</strong> Scaphyglottis laevilabia Ames (Killip<br />
3113, Panama). Other species were dedicated to him,<br />
such as Elleanthus killipii Garay <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum<br />
killipii Hágsater & L. Sánchez Saldaña. In 1929<br />
Killip worked for a period of time <strong>in</strong> Madrid, where<br />
he opened the old boxes conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the collections<br />
of the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada<br />
of José Celest<strong>in</strong>o Mutis (1783-1808), until then<br />
f<strong>org</strong>otten <strong>and</strong> never studied. His ‘rediscovery’ led to<br />
the distribution of parts of the collections to different<br />
museums around the world <strong>and</strong> to a renewed <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
<strong>in</strong> the work of Mutis.<br />
Leslie Alva Kenoyer (1883 - ) came to Panama<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1927 <strong>and</strong> worked for some time at Barro Colorado,<br />
where he made important studies <strong>and</strong> published an<br />
important work on the ecology of the tropical ra<strong>in</strong><br />
forest of Barro Colorado. Dur<strong>in</strong>g his stay on the isl<strong>and</strong><br />
he collected some 700 plants, that were the base<br />
for the publication of a supplement to the flora that<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley had previously published <strong>in</strong> 1927 (Kenoyer<br />
& St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1929). He collected some <strong>orchids</strong>,<br />
such as Habenaria alata Hook. (Kenoyer 249) <strong>and</strong><br />
Scaphyglottis longicaulis S. Wats. (Kenoyer 251).<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley dedicated to him Solanum kenoyeri, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Solanaceae.<br />
Although important collections were made <strong>in</strong><br />
Panama dur<strong>in</strong>g the first three decades of the XX century,<br />
“until 1930 the collectors who came to Panama visited<br />
only a relatively small portion of the country <strong>and</strong>, with<br />
the notable exception of Henri Pittier, most collected <strong>in</strong><br />
a relatively restricted area, many of them never leav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the region of the isthmus” (Croat, 1978: 49-50).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
166<br />
Paul C. St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>and</strong> the Central American floras<br />
“When we remember the <strong>in</strong>credible number of<br />
seeds produced by <strong>orchids</strong>, we wonder only that<br />
they do not dom<strong>in</strong>ate vegetation everywhere <strong>in</strong><br />
the Tropics.”<br />
Paul C. St<strong>and</strong>ley (1925: 377)<br />
Paul Carpenter St<strong>and</strong>ley (1884-1963) (Fig. 53A),<br />
botanist of the U. S. National Museum, arrived at the<br />
port city of La Libertad, El Salvador, on December 19,<br />
1921. Thus arrived for the first time <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
the man who was probably the most important figure <strong>in</strong><br />
the history of botanical exploration of the region dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the first half of the XX century. In a conversation with<br />
Otón Jiménez, Pittier said: “Much can be expected<br />
from such a young <strong>and</strong> capable element” (Jiménez,<br />
1963: 2). For over forty years, St<strong>and</strong>ley collected<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensively <strong>in</strong> all of the countries of Central America<br />
<strong>and</strong> published a series of fundamental works about<br />
their floras. He acquired an <strong>in</strong>timate knowledge about<br />
the region, not only about its botanical aspects, but also<br />
about its culture <strong>and</strong> traditions. He was a friend of all<br />
Central American scientists of his time <strong>and</strong> contributed<br />
like no other person to further the study <strong>and</strong> research<br />
among the local naturalists <strong>and</strong> collectors, contribut<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the development of the exist<strong>in</strong>g herbaria <strong>and</strong> to<br />
the creation of many new ones. “...St<strong>and</strong>ley hoped<br />
that every Central American country would have a<br />
botanical library adequate for the study of its flora,<br />
<strong>and</strong> a comprehensive herbarium, formed by local<br />
collectors” (McCook, 1999: 119).<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley was an <strong>in</strong>defatigable worker. “Noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrupted his work when he collected, except for the<br />
few seconds he needed to light a new cigarette on the<br />
butt of the old one” (Jiménez, 1963: 4). As a collector<br />
he was able to amass collections of hundreds of plants<br />
<strong>in</strong> only a few days <strong>and</strong> as a writer he produced more<br />
publications about the flora of Central America than<br />
any other botanist before or after him. “He spoke good<br />
Spanish <strong>and</strong> wrote even better <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong>…” (Heckadon-<br />
Moreno, 1998: 167). He had a devilish work schedule<br />
of 12 to 14 hours a day, never married <strong>and</strong> was a<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>-smoker: thus he spent his life. St<strong>and</strong>ley’s Trees<br />
<strong>and</strong> Shrubs of Mexico (1920-1926) is still one of the<br />
most important books on the subject, a publication<br />
“that alone exceeded the lifetime achievement of most<br />
botanists” (Williams, 1963: 27).<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley published a short article <strong>in</strong> 1924 (‘The<br />
Republic of El Salvador’), but the Lista prelim<strong>in</strong>ar<br />
de las plantas de El Salvador (St<strong>and</strong>ley & Calderón,<br />
1925) was St<strong>and</strong>ley’s first work about Central<br />
American flora. Published together with Dr. Salvador<br />
Calderón (1879-1940), the list was based on more than<br />
4,600 specimens that St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>and</strong> Calderón collected<br />
over a period of five months, from December 1921 to<br />
May 1922 (with the help of Dr. José Ma. Carrillo) <strong>and</strong><br />
described more than 2,000 plants, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g 63 species<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong> distributed <strong>in</strong> 28 genera. Among them we<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d Corymborkis forcipigera (Rchb. f. & Warsz.) L.<br />
O. Wms. (St<strong>and</strong>ley 20132 – Ahuachapán), Cattleya<br />
aurantiaca (Bateman ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.) P. N. Don (St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
19977 – Ahuachapán) <strong>and</strong> Barkeria obovata (C. Presl.)<br />
Christenson (St<strong>and</strong>ley 19429 – San Salvador). Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g decades, St<strong>and</strong>ley returned often to El<br />
Salvador, where he had doctor Mario Levy van Severen<br />
as assistant <strong>and</strong> companion. Van Severen prepared a<br />
personal orchid herbarium that was later sent to Louis<br />
O. Williams <strong>and</strong> is now deposited at ‘El Zamorano’,<br />
<strong>in</strong> Honduras. Salvador Calderón (Fig. 53B) cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
with St<strong>and</strong>ley’s work <strong>and</strong> to his efforts we owe the<br />
creation of the Salvadorian Herbarium, housed <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Salvadorian Directorate of Agriculture. This herbarium<br />
comprised, <strong>in</strong> 1922, over 2,000 collections of local<br />
plants. The genus Calderonia, from the family of the<br />
Rubiaceae, was dedicated by St<strong>and</strong>ley to Dr. Calderón.<br />
As <strong>in</strong> all works written by St<strong>and</strong>ley, it was Oakes Ames<br />
who identified the species of Orchidaceae conta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
<strong>in</strong> this list. While <strong>in</strong> El Salvador, St<strong>and</strong>ley went to<br />
Guatemala (1922), from where we have his collection<br />
of Pleurothallis purpusii Schlechter (St<strong>and</strong>ley 23901).<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley had his first experience with the <strong>orchids</strong> of<br />
Panama <strong>in</strong> the years of 1912-1914, when, as an assistant<br />
to Pittier, he was <strong>in</strong> charge of the classification <strong>and</strong><br />
identification of the plants collected dur<strong>in</strong>g the great<br />
expedition of the Smithsonian. Therefore, when the<br />
Governor of the Canal Zone wrote to the Secretary of<br />
Agriculture of the United States <strong>in</strong> 1921, ask<strong>in</strong>g for the<br />
best expert <strong>in</strong> tropical plants to prepare a book about<br />
the vegetation of the canal, St<strong>and</strong>ley seemed to be the<br />
most logical choice (Heckadon Moreno, 1998: 167).<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley arrived <strong>in</strong> Panama <strong>in</strong> November of 1923<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the follow<strong>in</strong>g five months collected 7,<strong>500</strong><br />
plant specimens <strong>in</strong> the Canal Zone. On January<br />
17, 1924 <strong>and</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g a week <strong>in</strong> November of 1925
A<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
C D<br />
Figure 52. A — “Have found Selenipedium chica plant. Pleasant voyage. Powell”. Courtesy of Dr. Gustavo Romero. B —<br />
The Tropical Station of the Missouri Botanical Garden <strong>in</strong> 1928. Courtesy of the Missouri Botanical Garden. C — Aerial<br />
view of Barro Colorado. Courtesy of the Missouri Botanical Garden. D — Ellsworth Pa<strong>in</strong>e Killip (1890-1968). Courtesy<br />
of the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation.<br />
B<br />
167<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
168<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
C D<br />
Figure 53. A — Paul Carpenter St<strong>and</strong>ley (1884-1963). Courtesy of J<strong>org</strong>e Gómez Laurito. B — Dr. Salvador Calderón<br />
(1879-1940). Frontispiece of Revista de la Escuela de Farmacia 3(37-38). C — Juvenal Valerio Rodríguez (1900-1971).<br />
Courtesy of his son, Juvenal Valerio. D — Wilhelm He<strong>in</strong>rich Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Nevermann (1881-1938). Courtesy of Helga<br />
Nevermann.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
(dur<strong>in</strong>g his second stay <strong>in</strong> Panama), St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
collected 800 additional plants on the isl<strong>and</strong> of Barro<br />
Colorado, recently established as a protected area.<br />
He also studied the specimens obta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the XIX<br />
century by Fendler along the Chagres River <strong>and</strong> the<br />
collections of R. S. Williams, Pittier <strong>and</strong> Maxon.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley’s first work about the Panamanian flora<br />
was his Flora of Barro Colorado Isl<strong>and</strong>, published<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1927 by the Smithsonian Institution. As was<br />
previously mentioned, the collections by Kenoyer<br />
were the base for the publication of a first supplement<br />
to this flora (1929). A second supplement was<br />
published by St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>in</strong> 1930. “A botanist from the<br />
north can f<strong>in</strong>d no better place than Barro Colorado<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> which to make his acqua<strong>in</strong>tance with the<br />
luxuriant tropical vegetation that is so unlike the<br />
plant life of the temperate regions..... Except for the<br />
lack of the expected brilliant flowers, which seldom<br />
or never materialize <strong>in</strong> lowl<strong>and</strong> tropical forest, the<br />
newcomer will f<strong>in</strong>d his dreams of tropical plant life<br />
fully realized” (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1927: 7). “When St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
collected it was always with a view to writ<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
flora, <strong>and</strong> he tried to obta<strong>in</strong> as large a representation<br />
of species as possible” (Williams, 1963: 27). The<br />
monumental Flora of the Panama Canal Zone<br />
was published <strong>in</strong> 1928. In this flora, the section<br />
on Orchidaceae was aga<strong>in</strong> the work of Ames, who<br />
described 134 species <strong>in</strong> 57 genera.<br />
The two visits by St<strong>and</strong>ley to Panama were<br />
followed by extensive collect<strong>in</strong>g trips to Costa<br />
Rica, a country that St<strong>and</strong>ley visited dur<strong>in</strong>g the first<br />
months of 1924 <strong>and</strong> then aga<strong>in</strong> between December<br />
of 1925 <strong>and</strong> March of 1926. St<strong>and</strong>ley collected <strong>in</strong><br />
Costa Rica an enormous amount of material (over<br />
15,000 plant specimens) with the result of no less<br />
than 30 orchid species that were new to science.<br />
Worthy of mention are the follow<strong>in</strong>g: Brachionidium<br />
pusillum Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio<br />
49068), Brachionidium valerioi Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio 50759), Dichaea st<strong>and</strong>leyi<br />
Ames (St<strong>and</strong>ley 37440), Epidendrum anoglossoides<br />
Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio 50731),<br />
Epidendrum exiguum Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley &<br />
Valerio 47036), Epidendrum guanacastense Ames &<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio 45089), Epidendrum<br />
triangulabium Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio<br />
45970), Eurystyles st<strong>and</strong>leyi Ames (St<strong>and</strong>ley 33747),<br />
169<br />
Habenaria aviculoides Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
& Valerio 42118), Lepanthes acoridilabia Ames &<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley 42717), Lepanthes st<strong>and</strong>leyi<br />
Ames (St<strong>and</strong>ley 33800), Lockhartia <strong>in</strong>tegra Ames<br />
& Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio 44675), Maxillaria<br />
chartacifolia Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio<br />
45989), Maxillaria parvilabia Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley 32939), Maxillaria valerioi Ames &<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio 46940), Octomeria<br />
valerioi Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio<br />
44769), Pleurothallis casualis Ames (St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
36517), Pleurothallis qu<strong>in</strong>queseta Ames (St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
36283), Pleurothallis simplex Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio 44023), Pleurothallis st<strong>and</strong>leyi<br />
Ames (St<strong>and</strong>ley 33607), Scaphosepalum st<strong>and</strong>leyi<br />
Ames (St<strong>and</strong>ley 34447), Stelis st<strong>and</strong>leyi Ames<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley 39483), Stenorrhynchos st<strong>and</strong>leyi Ames<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley 34429), Telipogon ampliflorus Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley 42021), <strong>and</strong> Telipogon st<strong>and</strong>leyi Ames<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley 34120). In Costa Rica, St<strong>and</strong>ley became<br />
acqua<strong>in</strong>ted with the most relevant naturalists of his<br />
time: Anastasio Alfaro, Alberto M. Brenes, Amparo<br />
de Zeledón, Otón Jiménez, Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Nevermann<br />
<strong>and</strong> Charles Lankester. He always remembered the<br />
gesture of the Lankesters <strong>in</strong> December of 1925, while<br />
he was collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region of Santa María de<br />
Dota: “The writer has not f<strong>org</strong>otten that they sent a<br />
special messenger upon a two days’ journey to br<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a greet<strong>in</strong>g at Christmas time”(St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1937: 59).<br />
Of special importance for the success of St<strong>and</strong>ley’s<br />
excursions <strong>and</strong> for his grow<strong>in</strong>g relationship with<br />
Central America was the figure of Juvenal Valerio<br />
Rodríguez (1900-1971). Recommended <strong>in</strong>itially by<br />
Otón Jiménez, Valerio was St<strong>and</strong>ley’s companion<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g his first visit to Costa Rica dur<strong>in</strong>g a short tour<br />
to the Bajo de la Hondura. When St<strong>and</strong>ley returned<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1925, Valerio never left his side, be<strong>in</strong>g his guide to<br />
the region of Santa María de Dota <strong>and</strong> the Cerro de<br />
las Vueltas, <strong>in</strong> an extensive tour through Guanacaste<br />
<strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally to the lowl<strong>and</strong>s of the Atlantic coast.. The<br />
botanist Rubén Torres Rojas (1890-1978) was also a<br />
frequent companion of St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>and</strong> Valerio dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
their excursions across the country (Grayum et al.,<br />
2004: 20). Juvenal Valerio (Fig. 53C) was born <strong>in</strong><br />
Santo Dom<strong>in</strong>go de Heredia. He showed a true passion<br />
for nature s<strong>in</strong>ce he was a boy <strong>and</strong> so clear was his<br />
vocation that <strong>in</strong> 1919 <strong>and</strong> 1920, dur<strong>in</strong>g a leave of<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
170<br />
absence of the professor of Natural Sciences at the<br />
Normal School, Valerio was called to substitute for<br />
him, be<strong>in</strong>g at the same time a student <strong>and</strong> the teacher<br />
of his classmates.<br />
In 1924 Juvenal Valerio was called by the M<strong>in</strong>istry<br />
of Education to assist St<strong>and</strong>ley dur<strong>in</strong>g his excursions<br />
<strong>in</strong> Costa Rica. St<strong>and</strong>ley wrote <strong>in</strong> 1926: “I have great<br />
hopes <strong>in</strong> what Valerio will collect <strong>in</strong> Guanacaste. He<br />
knows now how to make collections <strong>and</strong> when he has<br />
gone out alone, he has made the greatest collections,<br />
larger than those of any botanist that I know” (Letter<br />
to Otón Jiménez, 1926). In 1937, Valerio was Director<br />
of the National Museum of Costa Rica. Through his<br />
relation with St<strong>and</strong>ley, he was <strong>in</strong>vited <strong>in</strong> 1940 as a<br />
special guest to the VIII Pan-American Scientific<br />
Congress <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, D.C. A short time later, <strong>in</strong><br />
1942, he became, together with St<strong>and</strong>ley, one of the<br />
founders of the Pan-American Agricultural School<br />
“El Zamorano”, <strong>in</strong> Honduras. Don Juvenal returned<br />
to Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ued until his death dedicated<br />
to the study of the national flora, as a researcher at<br />
the Tropical Agricultural Center for Research <strong>and</strong><br />
Education (CATIE), <strong>in</strong> Turrialba, <strong>and</strong> as a teacher at<br />
the University of Costa Rica. When he died, his body<br />
was carried to his home town, where he had asked to<br />
be buried. The whole country reacted <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dignation<br />
when the local priest refused to let Valerio’s rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the church, for the only reason that he had<br />
been a mason. Many orchid species carry his name:<br />
Brachionidium valerioi Ames & C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.,<br />
Lepanthes valerioi Luer, Maxillaria valerioi Ames<br />
& C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f., Octomeria valerioi Ames & C.<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>f., Ornithocephalus valerioi Ames & C.<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. <strong>and</strong> Schiedeella valerioi (Ames & C.<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.) Szlach. & C. J. Sheviak .<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>and</strong> Valerio planned to publish a flora of<br />
Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> Spanish. Valerio argued to his superiors<br />
that a Spanish edition was essential so that it would<br />
be accessible to naturalists, students <strong>and</strong> the public<br />
of Costa Rica. But Valerio’s hopes vanished after the<br />
elections <strong>in</strong> the spr<strong>in</strong>g of 1936. Although the first<br />
fascicles were published, the new government, due<br />
to the economic crisis, cancelled the publications of<br />
all works of general <strong>in</strong>terest, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the Flora de<br />
Costa Rica. The Field Museum of Chicago published<br />
the Flora of Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> four parts, between<br />
October of 1937 <strong>and</strong> November of 1938. 979 species<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
of Orchidaceae were mentioned <strong>in</strong> its Part I (1937).<br />
“[Valerio] was a tireless worker, always patient <strong>and</strong><br />
considerate, even when he had frequent reason for<br />
provocation to quite other moods. His k<strong>in</strong>dness <strong>and</strong><br />
friendship will always be treasured by one who often<br />
has sorely tried both” (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1937: 60-61).<br />
From November 1927 to March 1928 St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
explored the region of Tela, <strong>in</strong> the northeastern coast<br />
of Honduras, us<strong>in</strong>g as his headquarters the Experiment<br />
Station of Lancetilla, of the Tela Railroad Company.<br />
With the collaboration of Wilson Popenoe, director<br />
of the station, <strong>and</strong> of Victor M. Cutter, president of<br />
the United Fruit Company, St<strong>and</strong>ley wrote a Flora of<br />
Lancetilla Valley that was published <strong>in</strong> 1931. St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
enumerated <strong>in</strong> this work 50 species of Orchidaceae<br />
<strong>in</strong> 25 genera. Oakes Ames was aga<strong>in</strong> responsible<br />
for the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the <strong>orchids</strong>, as was usual<br />
<strong>in</strong> all of St<strong>and</strong>ley’s floras. One year earlier, <strong>in</strong> 1930,<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley had published a Flora of Yucatán (St<strong>and</strong>ley,<br />
1930b), <strong>in</strong> which he mentioned 21 species of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> 13 genera. However, St<strong>and</strong>ley admitted that he<br />
had never visited the region <strong>and</strong> that his work was<br />
based solely on herbarium specimens. “Of the various<br />
floras prepared by the present writer, this is the only<br />
one cover<strong>in</strong>g a region <strong>in</strong> which he has not himself<br />
collected. His personal experience with the Yucatan<br />
flora is a remote <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tangible one, consist<strong>in</strong>g as it<br />
does of a view of the low green shore from the deck<br />
of a ship bound southwards to Guatemala” (St<strong>and</strong>ley,<br />
1930b: 166). In fact, the <strong>orchids</strong> enumerated by<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley were those collected by Ge<strong>org</strong>e Gaumer<br />
some years earlier. F<strong>in</strong>ally, St<strong>and</strong>ley prepared, <strong>in</strong><br />
collaboration with his good friend S. J. Record, The<br />
forest <strong>and</strong> flora of British Honduras (1936). Samuel<br />
Jones Record (1881-1945) collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala,<br />
Belize <strong>and</strong> Honduras between 1926 <strong>and</strong> 1927 <strong>and</strong><br />
was <strong>in</strong> Belize with St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>in</strong> 1936. In this work,<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>and</strong> Record mentioned 21 species of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> 13 genera. One of the few specimens of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
collected by Record was Erythrodes querceticola<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Ames (Record s.n., Belize). The story of<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>and</strong> the <strong>orchids</strong> of Central America does not<br />
end here. We will come back to this great character <strong>in</strong><br />
the next chapters, because St<strong>and</strong>ley would cont<strong>in</strong>ue to<br />
be an outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g figure <strong>in</strong> the history of the Central<br />
American flora until his death <strong>in</strong> 1963.<br />
Wilhelm He<strong>in</strong>rich Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Nevermann (1881-
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
1938) (Fig. 53D), was born <strong>in</strong> Hamburg <strong>and</strong> arrived<br />
<strong>in</strong> Costa Rica on board of the steamer “Reventazón”,<br />
of the United Fruit Company’s Great White Fleet<br />
<strong>in</strong> October 1909, hav<strong>in</strong>g graduated with honors<br />
as a mechanical eng<strong>in</strong>eer a few years earlier. After<br />
explor<strong>in</strong>g the whole country <strong>and</strong> hav<strong>in</strong>g formed a<br />
family, Nevermann acquired <strong>in</strong> 1918 a farm which he<br />
called ‘Hamburgo’, <strong>in</strong> El Cairo de Siquirres, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Atlantic region of Costa Rica. While <strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
<strong>in</strong>sects that attacked his banana plantations, an <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
arose <strong>in</strong> Nevermann by which he became not only<br />
one of Costa Rica’s most important entomologists,<br />
but a world authority on this subject. The call by the<br />
German government after World War I to all German<br />
citizens liv<strong>in</strong>g abroad to help refurbish the collections<br />
of the German museums that had been destroyed<br />
was followed by Nevermann, who with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
frequency sent his <strong>in</strong>sect collections to Germany. In<br />
these years he established close relations with Berl<strong>in</strong>’s<br />
Museum <strong>and</strong> Botanical Garden. But Nevermann<br />
“not only sent <strong>in</strong>sects but also plants. There is a<br />
beautiful white orchid, Coryanthes nevermannii,<br />
which we owe to him” (Anonymous, 1938: 341). This<br />
reference is curious because there is no record of an<br />
epithet ‘nevermannii’ <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ternational registers<br />
of botanical nomenclature. The answer to this riddle<br />
can be found <strong>in</strong> a letter by Rudolf Schlechter to<br />
Nevermann dated May 8, 1925: “The two <strong>orchids</strong><br />
which were sent to me <strong>in</strong>terested me vividly. The<br />
double <strong>in</strong>florescence with the big pendent flowers<br />
is a new species of Coryanthes, which I will soon<br />
describe as Coryanthes nevermannii Schltr. It is the<br />
first species of Coryanthes that until now I have<br />
known from Costa Rica. It is for me a special pleasure<br />
to dedicate this plant to you. Not smaller <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
raised the slender-leaved Vanilla. This one also has<br />
not yet received a name. It will carry your name as<br />
Vanilla nevermannii Schltr.” (Letter from Schlechter<br />
to Nevermann, May 8, 1925). Schlechter died six<br />
months later, <strong>in</strong> November 1925, <strong>and</strong> the species<br />
dedicated to Nevermann were never published. When<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1943 Schlechter’s herbarium was consumed by<br />
the bombs, all evidences of Nevermann’s collections<br />
disappeared. Thus we will never know for sure<br />
which species correspond to Coryanthes <strong>and</strong> Vanilla<br />
nevermannii. Last mentioned was Coryanthes<br />
nevermannii by Charles Lankester <strong>in</strong> his manuscript<br />
171<br />
Costa Rican Orchids, when he writes about the<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> of the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica: “Another<br />
<strong>500</strong> feet of elevation br<strong>in</strong>gs Stanhopea ecornuta,<br />
Aspasia epidendroides <strong>and</strong> rarities like Coryanthes<br />
nevermannii <strong>in</strong>to the picture, …” (Lankester, 1944:<br />
16). <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> a letter to Ames from 1928: “Coryanthes<br />
nevermannii - I cannot f<strong>in</strong>d publication of this name,<br />
but Nevermann certa<strong>in</strong>ly told me Schlechter had<br />
dedicated it to him. I … will write to Nevermann<br />
for confirmation” (Letter from Lankester to Ames,<br />
December 4, 1928).<br />
Schlechter had previously described a new<br />
orchid species based on a collection by Nevermann:<br />
Gongora unicolor Schltr. (Las Mercedes, Ebene<br />
von Limon - Nevermann, im November 1921) <strong>and</strong><br />
mentioned another of his collections: Trichocentrum<br />
brenesii Schltr. (Nevermann s.n., without <strong>in</strong>dication<br />
of locality).<br />
In 1936 Nevermann took over the Chair of<br />
Entomology at the National School of Agriculture.<br />
A short time later he died <strong>in</strong> an unfortunate accident.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the night of June 30, 1938, while study<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
nocturnal behavior of a species of ant, he was shot by<br />
the son of a neighbor who mistook him for an <strong>in</strong>truder.<br />
He died three days later <strong>in</strong> the United Fruit Company’s<br />
hospital <strong>in</strong> Puerto Limón <strong>and</strong> his rema<strong>in</strong>s were buried<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Lutheran Cemetery of San José (Anonymous,<br />
1938: 334). St<strong>and</strong>ley visited Nevermann <strong>in</strong> his farm,<br />
where he collected several species of <strong>orchids</strong>. “To Mr.<br />
Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Nevermann there are special obligations for<br />
a most pleasant <strong>and</strong> profitable visit to his f<strong>in</strong>cas <strong>in</strong> the<br />
lowl<strong>and</strong>s along the Reventazón River. Enviable is the<br />
botanist who receives a welcome from so considerate<br />
a host, or visits the forest with so competent a guide”<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1937: 59). Among St<strong>and</strong>ley’s orchid<br />
specimens we f<strong>in</strong>d at least one new species collected<br />
at the f<strong>in</strong>ca ‘Hamburgo’ of Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Nevermann:<br />
Lepanthes confusa Ames & Schw. (St<strong>and</strong>ley & Valerio<br />
48709, Costa Rica: Limón: Hamburg F<strong>in</strong>ca, on the<br />
Rio Reventazón below Cairo, alt. 55 m).St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
dedicated to Nevermann several species <strong>in</strong> other plant<br />
families, among them Dichapetalum nevermannianum<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Dichapetalaceae <strong>and</strong> Ardisia nevermannii <strong>in</strong><br />
the Myrs<strong>in</strong>aceae. Other botanists visited Nevermann,<br />
among them Carroll W. Dodge, who <strong>in</strong> 1930 collected<br />
<strong>in</strong> his farm a specimen of Cryptarrhena lunata R. Br.<br />
(C.W. Dodge 7757).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
172<br />
norThern cenTral amerIca: 1900-1930<br />
“Poor Mexico, so far from God <strong>and</strong> so close to<br />
the United States.”<br />
Porfirio Díaz, Mexican dictator<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the first decades of the XX century, El<br />
Salvador, Honduras <strong>and</strong> Nicaragua rema<strong>in</strong>ed largely<br />
unexplored, with the exception of the regions<br />
where the United Fruit Company established its<br />
experimental stations <strong>in</strong> the banana plantations of<br />
the Atlantic. After St<strong>and</strong>ley, these three countries<br />
were completely f<strong>org</strong>otten by <strong>orchidology</strong> for<br />
nearly fifty years. If one observes the collections<br />
of the ma<strong>in</strong> herbaria, it becomes clear that the<br />
number of specimens collected was ridiculously<br />
small as compared with the work that was done <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala, Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Panama. And leav<strong>in</strong>g out<br />
L. O. Williams’ list of 1956, noth<strong>in</strong>g was published<br />
about the <strong>orchids</strong> of these countries until well <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the second half of the XX century.<br />
After St<strong>and</strong>ley’s Flora of the Lancetilla Valley,<br />
<strong>and</strong> with the sole exception of a brief account <strong>in</strong><br />
the work by Yuncker (1938), noth<strong>in</strong>g else was ever<br />
written about the orchidaceous flora of Honduras.<br />
El Salvador did not fare much better, with the<br />
exception of the works of David Joaquín Guzmán<br />
Martorell (1843-1927). Guzmán received his<br />
doctorate <strong>in</strong> Medic<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> Paris (1863-1868), which<br />
he concluded with his Essai de topographie physique<br />
et médicale de la République de El Salvador,<br />
Amérique Centrale (1869). He was founder <strong>and</strong> first<br />
director of the National Museums of El Salvador<br />
<strong>and</strong> Nicaragua (<strong>in</strong> the company of the naturalist<br />
Diocleciano Chaves, 1897), as well as of the<br />
Botanical Garden of San Salvador, <strong>in</strong> May of 1886.<br />
The first National Exhibition <strong>in</strong> 1904, which took<br />
place <strong>in</strong> the Model Farm of San Salvador (today the<br />
National Zoo) was also <strong>org</strong>anized by him. Guzmán<br />
wrote Especies útiles de la flora salvadoreña (San<br />
Salvador, 1918 <strong>and</strong> 1926), <strong>in</strong> which he described 900<br />
species of the flora <strong>and</strong> mentioned fifteen species<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong> native to his country (the showier ones),<br />
which he considered only from the po<strong>in</strong>t of view<br />
of their usefulness (as Vanilla pompona Schiede)<br />
or ornamental value, add<strong>in</strong>g some <strong>in</strong>structions for<br />
their cultivation. The list of <strong>orchids</strong> of El Salvador<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
of David Guzmán is based on a previous study by<br />
Dr. Darío González (1833-1910), who, together<br />
with Guzmán, was a pioneer of the botanical study<br />
of the country. Both were loyal followers of the<br />
liberal philosophy, anticlericals who believed <strong>in</strong> laic<br />
education as the pr<strong>in</strong>cipal tool for the development<br />
of the country <strong>and</strong> who held important positions<br />
<strong>in</strong> El Salvador’s educational <strong>in</strong>stitutions. Guzmán<br />
<strong>and</strong> González played an active role <strong>in</strong> the campaign<br />
that led to the expulsion of the Order of the Jesuits<br />
from El Salvador (1872). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to González,<br />
the most important Salvadorian orchid species were<br />
Epidendrum atropurpureum, Epidendrum radicans,<br />
Epidendrum ciliare, Arpophyllum spicatum,<br />
Cattleya sk<strong>in</strong>neri, Cattleya aurantiaca, Lycaste<br />
suaveolens, Stanhopea bucefalus, Odontoglossum<br />
gr<strong>and</strong>e, Oncidium ampliatum, Trichopilia tortilis,<br />
Trichopilia suavis, Vanilla pompona, Odontoglossum<br />
salvadorense <strong>and</strong> Laelia rubescens. Additionally<br />
he mentions several species that are grown <strong>in</strong><br />
El Salvador <strong>and</strong> were <strong>in</strong>troduced from Mexico,<br />
Guatemala, Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Panama. Guzmán had a<br />
close relation to the Costa Rican naturalists of his<br />
time <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> his works he frequently mentions Pittier<br />
<strong>and</strong> Wercklé. The French Félix Choussy, an eng<strong>in</strong>eer<br />
of the National Agronomy Institute of Paris, directed<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the first years of the century the School of<br />
Agronomy of San Salvador. Several fascicles on the<br />
Salvadorian flora, based on Choussy’s herbarium,<br />
were published years later (Choussy, 1976). Four<br />
species of <strong>orchids</strong> were mentioned: Habenaria<br />
alata Hook., Cattleya sk<strong>in</strong>neri Batem., Sobralia<br />
macrantha L<strong>in</strong>dl <strong>and</strong> Stanhopea costaricensis Rchb.<br />
f. The Lista prelim<strong>in</strong>ar de las plantas de El Salvador<br />
(1925) by St<strong>and</strong>ley <strong>and</strong> Calderón was published <strong>in</strong><br />
1925, but it was Hamer, <strong>in</strong> 1974, who began the<br />
systematic study of the <strong>orchids</strong> of the country, with<br />
the publication of his Orquídeas de El Salvador<br />
(Hamer, 1974 & 1981).<br />
In Nicaragua, Diocleciano Chaves (1844-1936),<br />
together with the Brothers of La Salle Antonio Garnier<br />
<strong>and</strong> Artemio René, accomplished great botanical<br />
work <strong>in</strong> the area around Managua (1923-1929),<br />
gather<strong>in</strong>g over 6,000 collections, some of them <strong>in</strong> the<br />
company of William R. Maxon. In 1886 he received<br />
the commission from President Zelaya to establish<br />
the National Museum. The museum was <strong>in</strong>augurated
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1900 <strong>and</strong> its first director was the aforementioned<br />
Salvadorian David J. Guzmán. Antonio Garnier<br />
would cont<strong>in</strong>ue his botanical collections until 1938.<br />
Under his specimens we f<strong>in</strong>d Maxillaria tenuifolia<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl., Epidendrum lacustre L<strong>in</strong>dl., Prosthechea<br />
chacaoensis (Rchb. f.) W.E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s, Cyclopogon<br />
elatus (Sw.) Schltr., Cattleya aurantiaca (Bateman<br />
ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.) P.N. Don <strong>and</strong> Lockhartia amoena Endres<br />
& Rchb. f. Miguel Ramírez Goyena (1857-1927),<br />
third director of the National Museum of Nicaragua,<br />
published 1909 a Flora nicaragüense (1909) <strong>in</strong><br />
which he mentioned 94 species of <strong>orchids</strong>. “A flora<br />
of Nicaragua published <strong>in</strong> 1909-1911 probably is not<br />
really a flora of Nicaragua, <strong>and</strong> so far as I know was<br />
not based on specimens. A persistent rumor has it that<br />
this ‘flora’ was written <strong>in</strong> Honduras but funds could<br />
not be found to publish it there. The title was changed<br />
<strong>and</strong> funds found for publication <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua. Many<br />
plant names do not represent plants found <strong>in</strong> any<br />
Central American country” (Williams, 1972: 205).<br />
However, Ramírez Goyena was important <strong>in</strong> the<br />
development of the natural sciences <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua. The<br />
herbarium of the Autonomous National University of<br />
Nicaragua-León carries his name. After this, seventyfive<br />
years had to pass until F. Hamer began his long<br />
series of publications (beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1982) about<br />
Nicaraguan <strong>orchids</strong>, with the first fascicle of Icones<br />
Plantarum Tropicarum (Hamer, 1982-1985). One<br />
of the few collections of Orchidaceae that we know<br />
from Nicaragua dur<strong>in</strong>g this period is that of Franz<br />
Eccarius Schramm (1873-1949), a missionary of the<br />
Moravian Evangelical Church who <strong>in</strong> 1924 collected<br />
the type of Campylocentrum sullivannii Fawc. &<br />
Rendle (Schramm s.n., Costa de los Mosquitos).<br />
The cause for the slow advance of the botanical<br />
sciences dur<strong>in</strong>g this period can perhaps be found <strong>in</strong><br />
the statement of Pérez Brignoli: “Education played<br />
a secondary role. The ambitious plans of common<br />
education, typical of the liberal period, rema<strong>in</strong>ed,<br />
with the exception of Costa Rica, on paper. The<br />
vast majority of the rural population never escaped<br />
illiteracy. In the national budgets, the assignments<br />
for ‘Public Instruction’ were always surpassed by<br />
the expenses of the military. The universities had<br />
a mediocre existence, reduced to the formation of<br />
lawyers <strong>and</strong> a few other liberal professions...” (Pérez<br />
Brignoli, 1985: 140).<br />
173<br />
Yucatan, Guatemala, Belize <strong>and</strong> Honduras. One of<br />
the largest collections of plants from Yucatán was that of<br />
Ge<strong>org</strong> Eduard Seler (1849-1922) <strong>and</strong> his wife Caecilie<br />
Seler-Sachs (1855-1933). Eduard Seler, without doubt,<br />
st<strong>and</strong>s out among the numerous German researchers<br />
who dedicated their life to the study of the national <strong>and</strong><br />
cultural history of Mexico <strong>and</strong> Central America. S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
the last years of the XIX century, Seler’s writ<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
were fundamental to the study of the autochthonous<br />
Meso<strong>america</strong>n cultures, so much that Seler became<br />
the ‘father of American studies’, both <strong>in</strong> Germany <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> Mexico. The merits of his wife Caecilie must also<br />
be credited. She was Seler’s companion on all of his<br />
travels, which could be f<strong>in</strong>anced thanks to her personal<br />
wealth. Caecilie Seler made important <strong>in</strong>vestigations,<br />
complementary to those of her husb<strong>and</strong>, wrote <strong>and</strong><br />
published the travel journals <strong>and</strong> edited the works of her<br />
husb<strong>and</strong> after his death. She was also an extraord<strong>in</strong>ary<br />
pioneer <strong>in</strong> natural <strong>and</strong> archeological photography. The<br />
Selers collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>and</strong> Chiapas between<br />
1887 <strong>and</strong> 1899; <strong>in</strong> Yucatán <strong>in</strong> 1902-1903; <strong>in</strong> Yucatán<br />
<strong>and</strong> Campeche <strong>in</strong> 1907 <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Yucatán <strong>in</strong> 1911.<br />
Th. Loesener published an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g account of their<br />
travels <strong>in</strong> Plantae Selerianae (Loesener, 1899 & 1906)<br />
with descriptions of the <strong>orchids</strong> by R. Schlechter.<br />
Among their Guatemalan collections Schlechter<br />
described four new species: Epidendrum papyriferum<br />
Schltr. (Seler 2316, Huehuetenango), Microstylis<br />
m<strong>in</strong>utiflora Schltr. (Seler 2347, Huehuetenango),<br />
Habenaria selerorum Schltr. (Seler 2492, Alta<br />
Verapaz), named <strong>in</strong> his honor, <strong>and</strong> Stelis guatemalensis<br />
Schltr. Other collections by Seler mentioned by Ames<br />
were: Epidendrum cochleathum L. (Seler 2328),<br />
Epidendrum diffusum Sw. (Seler 2320), Habenaria<br />
limosa (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Hemsl. (Seler 2294), Nageliella<br />
angustifolia (Booth ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Ames & Correll (Seler<br />
2623), Odontoglossum bictoniense (Batem.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Seler 2326), Oncidium suttoni Batem. ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Seler<br />
2454), <strong>and</strong> Spiranthes c<strong>in</strong>nabar<strong>in</strong>a (Llave & Lex.)<br />
Hemsl. (Seler 2396).<br />
Albert Wendt (1887-1958), a collector of German<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>, was <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>in</strong> 1900 <strong>and</strong> collected the<br />
type of Lepanthes oreocharis Schltr. (A. Wendt s.n.).<br />
The botanist Orator Fuller Cook (1867-1949) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
geologist Robert Fiske Griggs (1881-1962) collected<br />
<strong>in</strong> Guatemala between 1902 <strong>and</strong> 1906. In the year<br />
of 1903 Cook spent a brief time <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>and</strong><br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
174<br />
visited also Chiapas <strong>in</strong> 1906. Cook had graduated from<br />
Syracuse University <strong>and</strong> was later employed by the<br />
New York State Colonization Society, mak<strong>in</strong>g three<br />
trips to Liberia to prepare for the ‘repatriation of the<br />
American Negro’. In 1898 he entered the service of<br />
the United States Agricultural Department <strong>and</strong> was <strong>in</strong><br />
charge of the <strong>in</strong>troduction of tropical plants. He was an<br />
authority on pre-Columbian agriculture.<br />
Robert F. Griggs would later be famous for direct<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the expeditions to Alaska of the National Geographic<br />
Society between 1915 <strong>and</strong> 1919. From Cook <strong>and</strong> Griggs<br />
we have several collections of Orchidaceae, all made <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala: Cyrtopodium punctatum (L.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Cook<br />
& Griggs 368), Leochilus labiatus (Sw.) O. Ktze.<br />
(Cook & Griggs 24), Pleurothallis circumplexa L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Cook & Griggs 456), Scaphyglottis confusa (Schltr.)<br />
Ames & Correll (Cook & Griggs 401), Scaphyglottis<br />
m<strong>in</strong>utiflora Ames & Correll (Cook & Griggs 267),<br />
Scaphyglottis prolifera Cogn. (Cook & Griggs 840),<br />
<strong>and</strong> Spiranthes funckiana A. Rich. & Gal. (Cook &<br />
Griggs 66).<br />
“... A young botanist from the United States<br />
collected nearly a thous<strong>and</strong> numbers <strong>in</strong> Belize between<br />
1905 <strong>and</strong> 1907… Morton E. Peck (1871-1959)<br />
probably doubled the number of Belize specimens<br />
which then existed <strong>in</strong> the world’s herbaria” (Balick<br />
et al., 2000: 15). It was the first large collection to<br />
come from the colony (Williams, 1972: 203). Before<br />
Peck’s arrival, the region was practically unknown<br />
botanically. Peck came to Belize sponsored by the<br />
Iowa State College <strong>and</strong> collected ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region of the Manatee River (district of Belize). His<br />
specimens were identified by B. Rob<strong>in</strong>son of the Gray<br />
Herbarium <strong>and</strong> we f<strong>in</strong>d among them 53 species of<br />
plants new to science. Among Peck’s collections we<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d Corymborkis forcipigera (Rchb. f. & Warsz.) L.O.<br />
Williams (Peck 610), Habenaria mesodactyla Griseb.<br />
(Peck 966) Huntleya fasciata Fowlie (Peck s.n.), <strong>and</strong><br />
Huntleya lucida (Rolfe) Rolfe (Peck s.n.).<br />
Charles Clemons Deam (1871-1959) began<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g plants <strong>in</strong> the last years of the XIX century,<br />
when his doctor ordered long walks to counteract ill<br />
effects of his job. From then on he dedicated most of<br />
his time to botanical <strong>in</strong>terests. At first he considered<br />
the whole world his subject <strong>and</strong> made some trips to<br />
Central America at the turn of the century to collect<br />
plants there. Soon after, though, he decided to<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
concentrate on Indiana <strong>and</strong> by the end of his career<br />
claimed that he had been <strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> collected plants from<br />
every township of the state. By the time he gave<br />
his herbarium to Indiana University it conta<strong>in</strong>ed at<br />
least 63,000 specimens, some of which he was first<br />
to identify. Deam traveled to México <strong>in</strong> 1900 (he<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> Oaxaca <strong>and</strong> Morelos) <strong>and</strong> to Guatemala<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1904 <strong>and</strong> 1909, where his collections centered on<br />
the regions of Zacapa, Izabal <strong>and</strong> Petén. In Guatemala<br />
he discovered the type of Epidendrum deamii Schltr.<br />
(Deam 6198, Guatemala) <strong>and</strong> collected many other<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>, such as: Epidendrum adenocarpum La Llave<br />
& Lex. (Deam 6249B), Epidendrum aromaticum<br />
Batem. (Deam 6073), Epidendrum ch<strong>in</strong>ense (L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
Ames (Deam 212), Nageliella purpurea (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) L.<br />
O. Williams (Deam 6084), <strong>and</strong> Spiranthes tonduzii<br />
Schltr. (Deam 96). Charles Deam had a strong,<br />
frequently violent temper. He became a botanist of<br />
world fame although he never earned a university<br />
degree. In his honor, his admirers named Lake Deam,<br />
<strong>in</strong> Hoosier National Park. Three universities gave him<br />
honorary titles.<br />
William Ashbrook Kellerman (1850-1908) was the<br />
first professor of Botany at the University of Eastern<br />
Ohio <strong>and</strong> founded the herbarium of this learn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
center <strong>in</strong> 1891. In 1905 he began a series of travels to<br />
Guatemala, conv<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g the University to approve the<br />
idea of a School of Tropical Botany. Unfortunately,<br />
Kellerman’s career ended abruptly, a fatal victim<br />
of a tropical disease dur<strong>in</strong>g his fourth excursion to<br />
Guatemala. Ames & Correll mention some of his<br />
collections of Orchidaceae <strong>in</strong> Guatemala: Epidendrum<br />
clowesii Batem. ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Kellerman 6036), Laelia<br />
glauca (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Benth. (Kellerman 5566), Maxillaria<br />
densa L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Kellerman 6703), Maxillaria variabilis<br />
Batem. (Kellerman 7043), Prescottia tubulosa (L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
L. O. Williams (Kellerman 5577), <strong>and</strong> Spiranthes<br />
hemichrea L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Kellerman 6564).<br />
In 1904, U. S. botanist Ge<strong>org</strong>e P. Goll ( - ), who<br />
worked for the Smithsonian Institution, collected<br />
several species of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, among them<br />
the type of Cranichis pseudociliata Schltr. (Goll 205).<br />
Goll also collected: Campylocentrum micranthum<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Rolfe (Goll 71), Cranichis sylvatica A. Rich.<br />
& Gal. (Goll 205), Habenaria monorrhiza (Sw.) Rchb.<br />
f. (Goll 172), Oncidium ensatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Goll 135), <strong>and</strong><br />
Sobralia decora Batem. (Goll 48).
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Frederick Lewis Lewton (1874-1959), collaborator<br />
of the Smithsonian Institution, made several<br />
collections of Orchidaceae <strong>in</strong> Guatemala dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the year 1906, among which we f<strong>in</strong>d specimens of:<br />
Dichaea hystric<strong>in</strong>a Rchb. f. (Lewton 439), Dichaea<br />
panamensis L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Lewton 272), Notylia barkeri<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Lewton 276), Oncidium pusillum (L.) Rchb. f.<br />
(Lewton 293), Oncidium sphacelatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Lewton<br />
305), <strong>and</strong> Scaphyglottis m<strong>in</strong>utiflora Ames & Correll<br />
(Lewton 268). In 1912, Lewton was named curator<br />
of the Division of Textile Plants of the U. S. National<br />
Museum. He is remembered <strong>in</strong> Polygala lewtonii<br />
Small (Polygalaceae), collected by him <strong>in</strong> 1894.<br />
Theodore Dru Alison Cockerell (1866-1948), a man<br />
who was an <strong>in</strong>ternationally known scientist, a prolific<br />
writer, <strong>and</strong> a highly regarded teacher at the University<br />
of Colorado <strong>in</strong> Boulder, was the elder brother of the<br />
noted British scholar Sir Sydney Cockerell <strong>and</strong> labored<br />
<strong>in</strong> relative obscurity <strong>in</strong> America while his brothers <strong>and</strong><br />
their families were bask<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the limelight of smart<br />
British society. He became the greatest specialist on<br />
bees <strong>in</strong> the world. His contribution to the underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
of wild bees is monumental <strong>and</strong> by 1938 he had<br />
published the names <strong>and</strong> descriptions of 5,480 new<br />
species <strong>and</strong> subspecies. Of special <strong>in</strong>terest to this<br />
story is his discovery of “the orchid bee” Euglossa<br />
imperialis Cockerell (1922), the most abundant orchid<br />
bee <strong>in</strong> lowl<strong>and</strong> forest <strong>in</strong> Panama. Cockerell published<br />
his Notes on Lycaste (1919), where he described<br />
Lycaste alba (Dombra<strong>in</strong>) Cockerell as a new species,<br />
based on liv<strong>in</strong>g plants that his wife had brought from<br />
Guatemala several years earlier. Rolfe refuted the<br />
new species, that has s<strong>in</strong>ce then been ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed as a<br />
variety of Lycaste sk<strong>in</strong>neri (Bateman ex L<strong>in</strong>dl.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
Sidney Fay Blake (1892-1959) was a precocious<br />
botanist, who at the age of 18 had already written<br />
three important papers on botanical matters. He<br />
graduated from Harvard University <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1918 was<br />
named assistant botanist of the U. S. Department of<br />
Agriculture. He traveled <strong>in</strong> this position to Honduras<br />
<strong>and</strong> Guatemala <strong>in</strong> 1919. In this last country he<br />
collected some <strong>orchids</strong>: Spiranthes guyanensis (L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
Cogn. (Blake 7609), <strong>and</strong> Spiranthes tortilis (Sw.) L. C.<br />
Rich. (Blake 7567). Blake became famous for his work<br />
Geographical Guide to the Floras of the World , which<br />
he published together with Alice Cary Atwood (Blake,<br />
1942-1961).<br />
175<br />
Joseph Harry Johnson (1894-1987) arrived <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala <strong>in</strong> December of 1919 <strong>and</strong> made very<br />
important collections <strong>in</strong> the region of Alta Verapaz. A<br />
dozen new species were described among Johnson’s<br />
collections: Epidendrum neurosum Ames (Johnson<br />
141), Epidendrum pachyrachis Ames (Johnson<br />
305), Epidendrum prorepens Ames (Johnson 234),<br />
Lepanthes appendiculata Ames (Johnson 879),<br />
Lepanthes <strong>in</strong>aequalis Schltr. (Johnson 886), Lepanthes<br />
johnsonii Ames (Johnson 420), Pleurothallis abjecta<br />
Ames (Johnson 905), Pleurothallis amethyst<strong>in</strong>a Ames<br />
(Johnson 878), Pleurothallis johnsonii Ames (Johnson<br />
901), Pleurothallis samacensis Ames (Johnson 765),<br />
Stelis chihobensis Ames (Johnson 939), <strong>and</strong> Stelis<br />
johnsonii Ames (Johnson 252).<br />
Herbert Sp<strong>in</strong>den (1879-1967) was born <strong>in</strong> South<br />
Dakota. Dur<strong>in</strong>g his teen years, he worked on the<br />
railroad <strong>and</strong> eventually went to Alaska <strong>in</strong> search of<br />
gold. Sp<strong>in</strong>den went on to attend Harvard University<br />
from 1902 until 1909, where he received his Ph.D. <strong>in</strong><br />
Anthropology. In 1920 he took the position of curator<br />
at the American Indian Art <strong>and</strong> Primitive Cultures<br />
Museum at the Brooklyn Institute <strong>and</strong> spent the rest<br />
of his life study<strong>in</strong>g the Mayan civilization. He visited<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> archeological sites <strong>in</strong> Yucatán, Guatemala,<br />
Honduras <strong>and</strong> Belize. He tried unsuccessfully<br />
to conv<strong>in</strong>ce Ames to travel with him to Yucatan.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g one of his trips to Central America <strong>in</strong> 1923,<br />
<strong>and</strong> probably <strong>in</strong>duced by Ames, he collected several<br />
species of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> the north coast of Honduras <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> Guatemala: Brassia caudata (L.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den<br />
s.n., Honduras), Chysis bractescens L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den<br />
s.n., Guatemala), Epidendrum cochelatum L. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den<br />
s.n., Guatemala), Epidendrum condylochilum Lehm.<br />
& Kraenzl. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den s.n., Guatemala), Epidendrum<br />
stamfordiaunum Batem. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den s.n., Guatemala),<br />
Ionopsis utricularioides (Sw.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den s.n.,<br />
Honduras), Maxillaria densa L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den s.n.,<br />
Guatemala), Maxillaria tenuifolia L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den<br />
s.n., Guatemala), Meyracyllium tr<strong>in</strong>asutum Rchb. f.<br />
(Sp<strong>in</strong>den s.n., Guatemala), Oncidium sphacelatum<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den s.n., Guatemala), Scaphyglottis behrii<br />
(Rchb. f.) Benth. & Hook. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den s.n., Honduras),<br />
Stelis perplexa Ames (Sp<strong>in</strong>den s.n., Honduras), <strong>and</strong><br />
Pleurothallis ophiocephala L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Sp<strong>in</strong>den s.n.,<br />
Guatemala). Later, <strong>in</strong> 1924, he published a work on<br />
which he had been work<strong>in</strong>g on for four years <strong>and</strong> with<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
176<br />
the subject of the reduction of the Maya dates. In this,<br />
he gave the correlation of dates with our calendar <strong>and</strong><br />
the Maya calendar. In 1930, John E. Teeple proved the<br />
dates to be wrong, a devastat<strong>in</strong>g blow to Sp<strong>in</strong>den. He<br />
spent the rest of his life defend<strong>in</strong>g his correlation.<br />
W<strong>in</strong>slow Roper Hatch (1908- ) <strong>and</strong> Carl Louis<br />
Wilson (1897-) collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>in</strong> 1926. We<br />
know their specimens of Habenaria qu<strong>in</strong>queseta<br />
(Michx.) Sw. (Wilson 39B), Brassavola nodosa (L.)<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Wilson s.n.), Pleurothallis dolichopus Schltr.<br />
(Hatch & Wilson 369), Pleurothallis gl<strong>and</strong>ulosa<br />
Ames (Hatch & Wilson 344) <strong>and</strong> Maxillaria purpurea<br />
(Spreng.) Ames & Correll (Hatch s.n.). Hatch collected<br />
later <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica (1937).<br />
Clayton Diss<strong>in</strong>ger Mell (1875-1945), who had<br />
worked with Record on Timbers of Tropical America<br />
(1924), collected <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Mexico (Oaxaca,<br />
Veracruz <strong>and</strong> Chiapas) between 1923 <strong>and</strong> 1945. From<br />
Chiapas we have his collection of Bletia tenuifolia<br />
(Mell 2084, 1933).<br />
Duncan Stevenson collected from 1927 until 1929<br />
together with J. N. Oliphant ( - ) <strong>in</strong> the Cayo district<br />
of Belize <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Cockscomb Mounta<strong>in</strong>s. Among<br />
his collections we f<strong>in</strong>d Sobralia bradeorum Schltr.<br />
(Stevenson s.n.).<br />
Of much greater importance was Cyrus Longworth<br />
Lundell (1907-1994) who collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala,<br />
Belize, Yucatán, Qu<strong>in</strong>tana Roo <strong>and</strong> Honduras <strong>in</strong> the<br />
years of 1928-1938. Lundell collected a large number<br />
of specimens <strong>and</strong> the plants of Belize <strong>and</strong> Guatemala<br />
constitute an important base for his numerous<br />
publications of the plants of the Maya regions,<br />
especially his monumental work The Vegetation of<br />
Peten (1937). Types of new species of Orchidaceae<br />
discovered by Lundell were: Pleurothallis yucatanensis<br />
Ames & C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Lundell 912, Yucatán), <strong>and</strong><br />
Ponthieva parviflora Ames & C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Lundell<br />
1213, Campeche). Among other collections of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> by Lundell we f<strong>in</strong>d: Habenaria bractescens<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Lundell 3324, Guatemala), Dichaea muricata<br />
(Lundell 6552, Belize), Vanilla planifolia Andrews<br />
(Lundell 164, Guatemala), Sobralia decora Batem.<br />
(Lundell 2961, Guatemala), Spiranthes guyanensis<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Cogn. (Lundell 3704, Guatemala), Spiranthes<br />
orchioides (Sw.) A. Rich. (Lundell 3484, Guatemala)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Stelis ciliaris L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Lundell 2141, Guatemala).<br />
In 1933 Lundell was <strong>in</strong> charge of supervis<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
collections of Percival Gentle <strong>in</strong> Belize (see later).<br />
Thus he became one of the foremost experts <strong>in</strong> the<br />
flora of the region. His later explorations <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
of Petén were fundamental for the completion of Ames<br />
& Correll’s work on the <strong>orchids</strong> of Guatemala <strong>and</strong><br />
Belize. Of great importance was also the botanical<br />
expedition to Yucatán <strong>and</strong> Qu<strong>in</strong>tana Roo, undertaken<br />
by Lundell from May through August, 1938 (See<br />
Lundell, 1938).<br />
Conrad Vernon Morton (1905-1972), botanist <strong>and</strong><br />
a world authority <strong>in</strong> ferns, collected dur<strong>in</strong>g a period<br />
of time <strong>in</strong> Guatemala (1928), from where we know<br />
of his specimens of: Epidendrum ch<strong>in</strong>ense (L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
Ames (Morton 425), <strong>and</strong> Isochilus major Cham. &<br />
Schlecht. var. amparoanus (Schltr.) Correll (Morton<br />
263). Morton came to the Smithsonian as assistant of<br />
the Division of Plants of the U. S. National Museum.<br />
In 1948 he was appo<strong>in</strong>ted Curator of the newly<br />
established Division of Ferns, Department of Botany.<br />
Morton was made Senior Botanist <strong>in</strong> 1970, a position<br />
he reta<strong>in</strong>ed until his death.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the same period (1928) Hugh Charles<br />
Sampson (1878-1953) <strong>and</strong> John Sidney Karl<strong>in</strong>g (1898-<br />
1995) came to Belize, where they collected some<br />
specimens of Orchidaceae: Catasetum <strong>in</strong>tegerrimum<br />
Hook (Sampson s.n.), Clowesia russelliana (Hook.)<br />
Dodson (Sampson s.n.), Encyclia bractescens (L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
Hoehne (Sampson s.n.), Encyclia chacaoensis (Rchb.<br />
f.) Dressler & Pollard (Sampson s.n.), <strong>and</strong> Oncidium<br />
carthagenense (Jacq.) Sw. (Karl<strong>in</strong>g s.n.).<br />
Avery significant series of collections of plants were<br />
made by William A. Schipp (1891-1967), beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1929 <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g for many years. Schipp, of<br />
Australian orig<strong>in</strong>, came to Belize determ<strong>in</strong>ed to make<br />
his liv<strong>in</strong>g as a botanical explorer. His Flora of British<br />
Honduras, Price List of Seeds <strong>and</strong> Herbarium Material<br />
(1933-34) is really only a list of his collections <strong>and</strong><br />
emphasizes items for sale (Balick et al., 2000: 18).<br />
Schipp had among his clients the ma<strong>in</strong> herbaria of<br />
Europe <strong>and</strong> the United States. Determ<strong>in</strong>ations were<br />
made by Paul C. St<strong>and</strong>ley at The Field Museum <strong>in</strong><br />
Chicago <strong>and</strong> forwarded to Schipp <strong>in</strong> exchange for a<br />
set of duplicates.He collected several <strong>orchids</strong> (all <strong>in</strong><br />
Belize), among which we f<strong>in</strong>d: Bletia purpurea (Lam.)<br />
DC. (Schipp 782), Brassia maculata R. Br. (Schipp<br />
S-843), Campylocentrum micranthum (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Maury<br />
(Schipp 8-841), Campylocentrum poeppigii (Rchb.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
f.) Rolfe (Schipp S-39), Chysis laevis L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Schipp<br />
S-838), Corymborkis forcipigera (Rchb. f. & Warsz.)<br />
L. O. Williams (Schipp 8-302), Ionopsis utricularioides<br />
(Sw.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Schipp 917), Jacqu<strong>in</strong>iella equitantifolia<br />
(Ames) Dressler (Schipp 852), Masdevallia tubuliflora<br />
Ames (Schipp S-102), Oncidium ensatum L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Schipp 780), Ornithocephalus bicornis L<strong>in</strong>dl. ex<br />
Benth. (Schipp S-839), Pleurothallis marg<strong>in</strong>ata L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Schipp 918), <strong>and</strong> Psygmorchis pusilla (L.) Dodson &<br />
Dressler (Schipp 879). Shipp’s collections <strong>in</strong> Belize<br />
<strong>and</strong> Guatemala were of excellent quality <strong>and</strong> as many<br />
as 154 were types for new taxa. His departure from<br />
Belize <strong>in</strong> 1937 marked the end of a golden age of<br />
sorts. Dur<strong>in</strong>g his tenure a Department of Forestry was<br />
active <strong>and</strong> numerous articles <strong>and</strong> several books were<br />
published about the flora.<br />
Joseph Charles Comeille Bequaert (1886-1982),<br />
a Belgian naturalist who would become years later<br />
the foremost expert <strong>in</strong> the freshwater mollusks of the<br />
Belgian Congo, collected <strong>in</strong> Yucatán, near the famous<br />
ru<strong>in</strong>s of Chichén Itzá, dur<strong>in</strong>g the year of 1929. Shortly<br />
thereafter he went on to Guatemala, where he collected,<br />
among others: Dichaea muricata (Sw.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Bequaert 47), Habenaria repens Nutt. (Bequaert 50),<br />
Spiranthes tril<strong>in</strong>eata var. thelymitra (Rchb. f.) L. O.<br />
Williams (Bequaert 6), <strong>and</strong> Stelis bidentata Schltr.<br />
(Bequaert 48).<br />
The first known collection of Orchidaceae by James<br />
Beach Edwards is the type of Octomeria hondurensis<br />
Ames (Edwards 304, Lago Yojoa, Honduras), that is<br />
dated October 29, 1929. From then on <strong>and</strong> until March<br />
1934, we f<strong>in</strong>d at least thirteen new species which<br />
Edwards discovered, most of them described by Ames,<br />
for whom Edwards worked: Bletia edwardsii Ames<br />
(Edwards 24), Bletia papillifera Ames (Edwards<br />
277), Epidendrum comayaguense Ames (Edwards<br />
333), Epidendrum cystosum Ames (Edwards 675),<br />
Epidendrum dick<strong>in</strong>sonianum Withner (Edwards<br />
400), Epidendrum edwardesii Ames (Edwards<br />
122), Habenaria hondurensis Ames (Edwards<br />
267), Hexadesmia hondurensis Ames (Edwards<br />
334), Oncidium hondurense Ames (Edwards 101),<br />
Pleurothallis comayaguensis Ames (Edwards 338),<br />
Pleurothallis oscitans Ames (Edwards 515), Sobralia<br />
177<br />
edwardsii Ames (Edwards 299), <strong>and</strong> Vanilla <strong>in</strong>signis<br />
Ames (Edwards 407). Edwards spent apparently a<br />
short time <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, from where we know of only<br />
one collection: Maxillaria elatior (Rchb. f.) Rchb.<br />
f. (Edwards 609, November 1933). In a letter from<br />
Ames to Lankester we read: “Mr. J. B. Edwards has<br />
been f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g some <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Honduras,<br />
near Tegucigalpa, He has turned up some of the f<strong>in</strong>e<br />
old th<strong>in</strong>gs that used to appear <strong>in</strong> collections forty years<br />
ago but have given way to the unpraiseworthy craze<br />
for hybrids” (June 11, 1933). He seems to have been a<br />
discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> careful collector. After almost four<br />
years of collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Honduras, he gathered no more<br />
than 750 <strong>orchids</strong>; however, the number of new species<br />
is proportionally very high.<br />
Other collectors <strong>in</strong> Mexico dur<strong>in</strong>g the first years of<br />
the XX century<br />
“…a good many German <strong>and</strong> Belgian<br />
collectors have been here; I would have found<br />
more plants if it was not for that”.<br />
C. A. Purpus<br />
(In a letter to Br<strong>and</strong>egee, January 1907)<br />
The botanical exploration of southern Mexico<br />
stopped almost completely for a long time, due to<br />
the chaos that reigned <strong>in</strong> the country <strong>and</strong> the perils<br />
to which naturalists (especially U. S. citizens after<br />
1916 38 ) were exposed dur<strong>in</strong>g the violent years of<br />
the Mexican Revolution. Dur<strong>in</strong>g a great part of the<br />
history of Mexico, a small m<strong>in</strong>ority had control of<br />
both power <strong>and</strong> the largest part of the country’s wealth,<br />
while the majority of the population lived <strong>in</strong> misery.<br />
As the gap between rich <strong>and</strong> poor widened dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
dictatorship of General Porfirio Díaz, the low classes<br />
lost their political voice. Opposition to Díaz surged<br />
when Francisco Madero, educated <strong>in</strong> Europe <strong>and</strong><br />
California, <strong>in</strong>itiated a series of strikes throughout the<br />
country. Díaz was forced to hold elections <strong>in</strong> 1910, <strong>and</strong><br />
although he tried to ignore the results, he was forced<br />
to resign <strong>in</strong> 1911. Madero became president but found<br />
opposition <strong>in</strong> Emiliano Zapata, who was not will<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to wait for the orderly implementation of the agrarian<br />
reform that Madero proposed. Thus began a time <strong>in</strong><br />
38 In response to an attack by the troops of Pancho Villa to the city of Columbus (New Mexico), the United States sent troops to<br />
<strong>in</strong>vade Mexico. This generated a strong anti-American feel<strong>in</strong>g among the Mexican population <strong>and</strong> was often the cause for violent<br />
actions aga<strong>in</strong>st citizens of this country.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
178<br />
which the country divided itself <strong>in</strong> the support of<br />
different factions, <strong>and</strong> groups of ‘guerrilleros’ swept<br />
the countryside, destroy<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> burn<strong>in</strong>g haciendas<br />
<strong>and</strong> ranches. Madero was taken prisoner <strong>and</strong> executed<br />
<strong>and</strong> the country lived <strong>in</strong> a state of chaos <strong>and</strong> disorder<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g many years. Pancho Villa dom<strong>in</strong>ated the north<br />
<strong>and</strong> several groups fought for political power. F<strong>in</strong>ally,<br />
Venustiano Carranza came to the Presidency <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>org</strong>anized an important convention that promulgated<br />
the Constitution of 1917, still <strong>in</strong> force, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> which<br />
the agrarian reform played an important role. Carranza<br />
was followed by others who cont<strong>in</strong>ued his reforms <strong>and</strong><br />
who founded, years later, the ‘Partido Revolucionario<br />
Institucional’ (=‘Revolutionary Institutional Party’),<br />
that became the dom<strong>in</strong>ant political force dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g 70 years. The Botanical Garden of the Forest<br />
of Chapultepec was founded <strong>in</strong> 1922, with Alfonso<br />
Herrera as director. It would become over the years<br />
one of the fundamental <strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>in</strong> the botanical<br />
research of Mexico.<br />
Cyrus Guernsey Pr<strong>in</strong>gle (1838-1911) (Fig. 54A)<br />
was one of the first North American <strong>and</strong> European<br />
botanists who arrived <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>in</strong> the last years of the<br />
XIX century <strong>and</strong> first decades of the XX, <strong>and</strong> collected<br />
extensively <strong>in</strong> the Pacific states of the United States,<br />
Cuba (1903) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Mexico (between 1880 <strong>and</strong> 1909).<br />
In 1902, Pr<strong>in</strong>gle was appo<strong>in</strong>ted curator of the herbarium<br />
at the University of Vermont, where he deposited his<br />
large collection of plants. At the time of his death he<br />
had accomplished a surpris<strong>in</strong>g amount of botanical<br />
work. He had distributed to various herbaria over<br />
<strong>500</strong>,000 specimens of some 20,000 different species.<br />
Among these, 29 new genera <strong>and</strong> over 1,200 new<br />
species could be found. Pr<strong>in</strong>gle was called “the Pr<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
of botanical collectors”. His Mexican collections were<br />
described <strong>in</strong> Plantae Mexicanae, published <strong>in</strong> parts<br />
<strong>in</strong> the periods between 1885-1887 <strong>and</strong> 1889-1906. In<br />
our area of study, Pr<strong>in</strong>gle collected two new species<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong>: Pelexia pr<strong>in</strong>glei Fernald (Pr<strong>in</strong>gle 8122,<br />
Veracruz), Spiranthes pr<strong>in</strong>glei S. Watson (Pr<strong>in</strong>gle 8197,<br />
Veracruz). Many others were dedicated to him, among<br />
them: Corallorhiza pr<strong>in</strong>glei Greenm., Cyclopogon<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>glei (S. Watson) Soto Arenas, Encyclia pr<strong>in</strong>glei<br />
(Rolfe) Schltr., Epipactis pr<strong>in</strong>glei G<strong>and</strong>., Habenaria<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>glei B.L. Rob., Malaxis pr<strong>in</strong>glei Ames, Microstylis<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>glei S. Watson, <strong>and</strong> Pleurothallis pr<strong>in</strong>glei Schltr.<br />
The first <strong>orchids</strong> collected by Pr<strong>in</strong>gle were described<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
by Benjam<strong>in</strong> L<strong>in</strong>coln Rob<strong>in</strong>son (1864-1935), who had<br />
been assistant to Sereno Watson at the Gray Herbarium<br />
<strong>and</strong> whom he succeeded as curator <strong>in</strong> 1892. Rob<strong>in</strong>son<br />
held this position with almost no <strong>in</strong>terruptions until<br />
his death. Rob<strong>in</strong>son described Habenaria pr<strong>in</strong>glei <strong>in</strong><br />
1892 <strong>in</strong> Descriptions of new plants collected <strong>in</strong> Mexico<br />
by C. G. Pr<strong>in</strong>gle <strong>and</strong> Isochilus unilateralis <strong>in</strong> 1894<br />
<strong>in</strong> Descriptions of new <strong>and</strong> hitherto imperfectly known<br />
plants collected <strong>in</strong> Mexico by C. G. Pr<strong>in</strong>gle.<br />
In the history of the Missouri Botanical Garden Jesse<br />
More Greenman (1867-1961) played a preem<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
role. Greenman made important collections <strong>in</strong> Mexico<br />
<strong>in</strong> the years of 1906-1912 <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1922 traveled through<br />
Central America, where he collected between January<br />
<strong>and</strong> April <strong>in</strong> Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua <strong>and</strong><br />
Guatemala. From this journey we have the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
specimens of <strong>orchids</strong>: Pleurothallis floribunda Poepp.<br />
& Endl. (Greenman 5481, Costa Rica), Stelis sp.<br />
(Greenman 5492, Costa Rica), Sobralia powellii Schltr.<br />
(Greenman 5788, Nicaragua), <strong>and</strong> Cohniella cebolleta<br />
(Jacq.) Christenson (Greenman 5906, Guatemala).<br />
But Greenman’s importance is not primarily based on<br />
his collections, but on his position of curator of the<br />
herbarium of the Missouri Botanical Garden, a position<br />
he held from 1913 until 1948, a period <strong>in</strong> which he<br />
gave enormous support to students <strong>and</strong> collectors to<br />
collect <strong>in</strong> the American tropics, us<strong>in</strong>g as headquarters<br />
the Tropical Station which the Garden had founded <strong>in</strong><br />
Panama <strong>in</strong> 1926 (Riley, 1995: 20). Under Greenman’s<br />
supervision students were formed of the stature of<br />
Mildred Mathias <strong>and</strong> above all Julian Steyermark,<br />
who with the years would become an important figure<br />
<strong>in</strong> our history. The herbarium <strong>in</strong>creased dur<strong>in</strong>g his<br />
tenure from 600,000 to 1,<strong>500</strong>,000 specimens. Robert<br />
Woodson, assistant <strong>and</strong> successor of Greenman, began<br />
the project of the Flora of Panama , that was published<br />
between the years of 1943 to 1980 <strong>and</strong> gave a great<br />
impulse to the <strong>orchidology</strong> of the southern part of our<br />
region (D’Arcy, 1980). Greenman was honored by L.<br />
O. Williams <strong>in</strong> his description of Bletia greenmaniana,<br />
a new species described from a specimen collected by<br />
Bourgeau <strong>in</strong> 1865 <strong>in</strong> the region of Orizaba, Mexico<br />
(Bourgeau 2812). In 1898 Greenman described several<br />
new species of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Diagnoses of new <strong>and</strong> critical<br />
Phanerogams: Corallorhiza <strong>in</strong>voluta Greenm., <strong>and</strong><br />
Corallorhiza pr<strong>in</strong>glei Greenm., <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1900, <strong>in</strong> New<br />
species <strong>and</strong> varieties of Mexican plants (Orchidaceae):
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Spiranthes pr<strong>in</strong>glei var. m<strong>in</strong>or Greenm., Spiranthes<br />
nelsonii Greenm., <strong>and</strong> Spiranthes tenuiflora Greenm.<br />
“Without any doubt, Carlos Alberto Purpus [1851-<br />
1942] figures among the most productive of collectors<br />
who have been <strong>in</strong> our country. His collections <strong>in</strong><br />
Mexico possibly exceed 17,000 examples…” (Sousa<br />
Sánchez, 2002). After hav<strong>in</strong>g completed his studies<br />
<strong>in</strong> Pharmacy, Purpus traveled <strong>in</strong> 1887 to the United<br />
States, to collect plants for a nursery <strong>in</strong> Darmstadt,<br />
Germany, the city where he had studied. He visited<br />
Mexico for the first time <strong>in</strong> 1898, collect<strong>in</strong>g on the<br />
pen<strong>in</strong>sula of Baja California <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1905 he arrived<br />
at Veracruz, at the Hacienda El Mirador of Florent<strong>in</strong>o<br />
Sartorius <strong>in</strong> Zacuapam, Veracruz. Zacuapam would<br />
be his residence <strong>and</strong> center of operations for the rest<br />
of his days. In 1907, Purpus was named a botanical<br />
collector, without pay, of the University of California,<br />
Berkeley. His collections of Mexican plants would be<br />
<strong>in</strong> charge of Townshend Stith Br<strong>and</strong>egee, who would<br />
make the determ<strong>in</strong>ations. The collections by Purpus<br />
led to a series of articles published by Br<strong>and</strong>egee,<br />
between 1909 <strong>and</strong> 1912, under the title of Plantae<br />
Mexicanae Purpusianae. The Mexican Revolution<br />
broke out shortly after Purpus had settled <strong>in</strong> Veracruz.<br />
Purpus wrote: “Because of the conditions of <strong>in</strong>security<br />
that prevail <strong>in</strong> many states, I could only explore <strong>in</strong><br />
Veracruz <strong>and</strong> part of Puebla. Thus, I visited Tehuacán<br />
<strong>and</strong> Esperanza. It would have been very risky to<br />
make more distant excursions. The Zapatistas were<br />
everywhere” (In a letter to Br<strong>and</strong>egee, 1914). The<br />
year 1908 was one of the pleasantest of Purpus’ life <strong>in</strong><br />
Mexico: he was visited by his brother, Joseph Anton,<br />
who worked as an <strong>in</strong>spector of the Botanical Garden<br />
of Darmstadt (Germany) <strong>in</strong> the company of his chief,<br />
director of said garden, <strong>and</strong> by his friend Br<strong>and</strong>egee.<br />
“In 1913 he made a series of trips to Chiapas, a state <strong>in</strong><br />
which there are data [from his collections] until 1925.<br />
His localities <strong>in</strong> Chiapas are always related to coffee<br />
plantations, property of Germans who emigrated from<br />
Guatemala dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1890’s, especially to the region<br />
of Soconusco” (Sousa Sánchez, 2002). In 1915 a period<br />
of recession beg<strong>in</strong>s, ow<strong>in</strong>g to lack of communication,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to the dangers implicit <strong>in</strong> the Revolution. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
this period the letters of Purpus are a series of dreams<br />
that the normal l<strong>in</strong>es of communication may return<br />
soon, of unrealized plans of future visits to Chiapas<br />
<strong>and</strong> even to South America. Otto Nagel, of whom<br />
179<br />
we will talk later <strong>and</strong> who became a good friend of<br />
Purpus, came to Veracruz <strong>in</strong> 1925 <strong>and</strong> stayed at his<br />
house for several years (Hartmann, 1968: 191). But<br />
Purpus never left El Mirador. There he died, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
hacienda that will always have a place of honor <strong>in</strong><br />
the history of the <strong>orchids</strong> of northern Meso<strong>america</strong>,<br />
on January 17, 1941, be<strong>in</strong>g 90 years of age. Purpus<br />
collected many <strong>orchids</strong>, among them the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ones, new to science. Many of them carry his name:<br />
Encyclia purpusii Schltr. (Purpus s.n.), Epidendrum<br />
<strong>in</strong>comptoides Ames (Purpus 299), Govenia purpusii<br />
Schltr. (Purpus 2613), Lepanthes congesta R. E.<br />
Schultes (Purpus 1355), Odontoglossum purpusii<br />
Schltr. (Purpus s.n.), Pleurothallis purpusii Schltr.<br />
(Purpus s.n.), Sarcoglottis purpusiorum Schltr.<br />
(Purpus s.n.), Scaphyglottis purpusii Schltr. (Purpus<br />
2153), Stanhopea purpusii Schltr. (Purpus s.n.),<br />
Stelis confusa Schltr. (Purpus 2122), <strong>and</strong> Stelis<br />
purpusii Schltr. (Purpus 2111). His friend <strong>and</strong> mentor<br />
Br<strong>and</strong>egee honored him with a genus of the Rosaceae:<br />
Purpusia.<br />
Johann He<strong>in</strong>rich Rudolf Schenck (1860-1927) had<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> Namibia (German West Africa) <strong>in</strong> 1885<br />
<strong>and</strong> Brazil (1885-1887), from where we know of his<br />
collection of the type of Pogoniopsis schenckii Cogn.<br />
(Schenck 2765, Rio de Janeiro). In 1908-1909 he<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>in</strong> the company of Joseph Anton<br />
Purpus, brother of C. A. Purpus. Dur<strong>in</strong>g a short time<br />
they co<strong>in</strong>cided at the hacienda El Mirador with T. S.<br />
Br<strong>and</strong>egee. Schenck was known for his Text Book of<br />
Botany at High Schools (1894), that was used until the<br />
second half of the XX century, <strong>and</strong> for the publication<br />
of the famous Vegetationsbilder (=‘Images of nature’),<br />
that were published between 1902 <strong>and</strong> 1920.<br />
While the <strong>in</strong>tention of Br<strong>and</strong>egee was to prepare<br />
herbarium specimens, J. A. Purpus <strong>and</strong> Dr. Schenck<br />
collected primarily liv<strong>in</strong>g plants, especially succulents,<br />
that were to form part of the collection of the Darmstadt<br />
Botanical Garden. The work rhythm to which C. A.<br />
Purpus was accustomed, plus the hardships of the<br />
regions through which they traveled, were too much<br />
for the European botanists; J. A. Purpus fell ill with<br />
malaria <strong>and</strong> Dr. Schenck with <strong>in</strong>test<strong>in</strong>al problems.<br />
On October 14, 1909, they embarked <strong>in</strong> Veracruz<br />
for the return journey to Europe (Sousa Sánchez,<br />
2002). Among his Mexican collections Schlechter<br />
discovered the type of Epidendrum subuliferum Schltr.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
180<br />
(Schenck 673). Cogniaux <strong>and</strong> Kraenzl<strong>in</strong> dedicated<br />
several species to him, among them: Epidendrum<br />
schenckianum Kraenzl., Habenaria schenckii Cogn.,<br />
Stelis schenckii Schltr., <strong>and</strong> Zootrophion schenckii<br />
(Cogn.) Luer.<br />
The exact date <strong>in</strong> which S<strong>and</strong>er hired the French<br />
collector Louis F<strong>org</strong>et (- 1915) (Fig. 54B) is not clear.<br />
However, it is said that he had started collect<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
S<strong>and</strong>er thirty years before he died (Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970:<br />
224). This puts the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of his collet<strong>in</strong>g activity<br />
for the St. Albans firm at around 1885. On the other<br />
side, <strong>in</strong> a letter to S<strong>and</strong>er dated May 27, 1897, F<strong>org</strong>et<br />
writes: “Be<strong>in</strong>g forced to return to Engl<strong>and</strong> by your<br />
disgraceful treatment I received from your house<br />
which has thoroughly disgusted me, I have determ<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
to resign my post as a collector ... It is now seven<br />
years s<strong>in</strong>ce I started collect<strong>in</strong>g for you, <strong>and</strong> I th<strong>in</strong>k you<br />
should have had more confidence <strong>in</strong> me ... as I have<br />
always done my best for you”. This would put the date<br />
of his <strong>in</strong>itial contract with S<strong>and</strong>er at 1890. Anyway,<br />
although he collected for S<strong>and</strong>er for a long period of<br />
time, <strong>and</strong> was <strong>in</strong> his contract almost until his f<strong>in</strong>al day,<br />
it is clear that his relations with his employer were not<br />
always happy. After this letter, F<strong>org</strong>et came home, but<br />
soon his problems were sorted out <strong>and</strong> he was back <strong>in</strong><br />
the jungles. But to judge from his correspondence, the<br />
money situation did not improve: “I am perplexed...<br />
I do not know what to do ... when will you send the<br />
draft?” (Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 128). F<strong>org</strong>et collected ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
<strong>in</strong> South America, but <strong>in</strong> 1910 he was sent to Mexico,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the search of Laelia gouldiana. F<strong>org</strong>et arrived <strong>in</strong><br />
Veracruz <strong>in</strong> November of 1910, with an order from<br />
S<strong>and</strong>er which read: “When you f<strong>in</strong>d the plant I would<br />
like 3,000 as quickly as you can send them.” F<strong>org</strong>et<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ally found the plant, after only four days of search.<br />
On February 10, 1911, S<strong>and</strong>er wrote to the director<br />
of the Royal Botanic Gardens <strong>in</strong> Kew: “It is 23 years<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce I collected this beautiful species, <strong>and</strong> until<br />
Monsieur F<strong>org</strong>et sent this consignment no plants had<br />
been collected... This Laelia flowers at Christmas ...<br />
over two hundred spikes, each carry<strong>in</strong>g many flowers,<br />
<strong>and</strong> F<strong>org</strong>et writes it was a dazzl<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> wonderful<br />
sight” (Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 191-193). Several <strong>orchids</strong> were<br />
dedicated to him: Brassia f<strong>org</strong>etiana S<strong>and</strong>er, Cattleya<br />
f<strong>org</strong>etiana Rolfe, <strong>and</strong> Masdevallia f<strong>org</strong>etiana Kraenzl.<br />
S<strong>and</strong>er brought <strong>in</strong> 1917 Epidendrum tricar<strong>in</strong>atum to<br />
flower, F<strong>org</strong>et’s last discovery from Peru. “This bright<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
purple flower was to serve as F<strong>org</strong>et’s epitaph, for he<br />
had died of a heart attack <strong>in</strong> Rennes on the 10 th August,<br />
1915. Of him S<strong>and</strong>er wrote: ‘He was absolutely fearless<br />
out <strong>in</strong> the forests, but disliked <strong>in</strong>tensely the noise <strong>and</strong><br />
bustle of London <strong>and</strong> any large town. ... Louis F<strong>org</strong>et<br />
was every <strong>in</strong>ch a man’ ” (Sw<strong>in</strong>son, 1970: 226).<br />
Per Karl Hjalmar Dusen (1855-1926) was an<br />
important Swedish botanist who collected ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong><br />
Brazil. Born <strong>in</strong> Vimmerby, he studied at the Technical<br />
University of Stockholm <strong>and</strong> traveled <strong>in</strong> 1901 to<br />
Brazil, where he worked as an assistant at the National<br />
Museum <strong>in</strong> Rio de Janeiro. Kraenzl<strong>in</strong> described his<br />
collections (1921) <strong>and</strong> the epithet dusenii is frequent<br />
<strong>in</strong> the orchidaceous flora of that country. From one of<br />
his collections <strong>in</strong> Parana he was honored with a new<br />
orchid species Cryptophoranthus dusenii Schltr. He<br />
was <strong>in</strong> Mexico around 1912 <strong>and</strong> collected the type<br />
of Epidendrum heteroglossum Kraenzl. (Dusen s.n.,<br />
Veracruz). He collected over 84,000 plants dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
his life. His herbarium is at the Imperial Museum for<br />
Natural History <strong>in</strong> Stockholm (Anonymous, 1949: 33).<br />
Charles Russell Orcutt (1864-1929) had collected <strong>in</strong><br />
Baja California between 1882 <strong>and</strong> 1886 <strong>and</strong> came to<br />
Veracruz <strong>in</strong> 1910, where he collected Dichromanthus<br />
c<strong>in</strong>nabar<strong>in</strong>us (La Llave & Lex.) Garay (Orcutt 4286)<br />
<strong>and</strong> the type of Schiedella pubicaulis (L. O. Williams)<br />
Burns-Bal. (Orcutt 5056).<br />
The Lancetilla Experiment Station. It seems strange<br />
to talk about somebody who was an expert <strong>in</strong> avocados<br />
<strong>in</strong> a history about <strong>orchids</strong>. Frederick Wilson Popenoe<br />
(1892-1975) established <strong>in</strong> 1925 the Lancetilla<br />
Experiment Station as a farm for the research on<br />
banana of the United Fruit Co. The name Lancetilla<br />
derives from a small but very sp<strong>in</strong>y <strong>in</strong>digenous palm<br />
(Astrocaryum st<strong>and</strong>leyanum) whose sp<strong>in</strong>es have<br />
the shape of small lances <strong>and</strong> is found with relative<br />
frequency <strong>in</strong> the valley of Tela. The l<strong>and</strong> on which<br />
the station is located, eight kilometers to the south of<br />
Tela, was orig<strong>in</strong>ally the property of the Atlantic Fruit<br />
Co. <strong>and</strong> was later transferred to the United Fruit Co.<br />
Although Lancetilla was established orig<strong>in</strong>ally for<br />
the research on bananas, it very soon exp<strong>and</strong>ed its<br />
activities. Thanks to Popenoe’s efforts, research was<br />
extended to other areas. When Popenoe left Lancetilla<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1941, the garden’s collection conta<strong>in</strong>ed 764 varieties<br />
of plants, 636 species, 392 genera <strong>and</strong> 105 families
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
on a total of 78 hectares. The United Fruit Company<br />
kept control <strong>and</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed the station until 1974,<br />
when the gardens were donated to the government of<br />
Honduras. The government neglected the <strong>in</strong>stallations,<br />
caus<strong>in</strong>g the loss of many of the precious plants. After<br />
several years under government control, the garden<br />
was transferred to the adm<strong>in</strong>istration of the esnaCiFor,<br />
the National School for Forestry Sciences. S<strong>in</strong>ce then,<br />
Lancetilla has managed to become auto sufficient <strong>and</strong><br />
very productive as a center of research <strong>and</strong> production.<br />
Under the name of Lancetilla Botanical Garden, it is<br />
the second <strong>in</strong> importance of its k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> the world.<br />
In 1929 Wilson Popenoe <strong>and</strong> his wife acquired the<br />
ru<strong>in</strong>s of a colonial mansion <strong>in</strong> Antigua, Guatemala, <strong>and</strong><br />
began a complete restoration. Today, occupied by their<br />
daughters, ‘Casa Popenoe’ is one of the most important<br />
colonial build<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Antigua <strong>and</strong> a must-see for any<br />
tourist. F<strong>in</strong>ally, Wilson Popenoe became <strong>in</strong> 1942 the<br />
found<strong>in</strong>g director of the Pan American Agricultural<br />
School “El Zamorano”, near Tegucigalpa, of which<br />
we will talk later. Popenoe received honorary degrees<br />
from Pomona College <strong>and</strong> the University of Florida<br />
<strong>and</strong> many awards <strong>in</strong> recognition of his work from<br />
scientific societies <strong>and</strong> foreign governments.<br />
He was dur<strong>in</strong>g his whole life a passionate researcher<br />
on avocados (Persea <strong>america</strong>na) <strong>and</strong> traveled across<br />
the American cont<strong>in</strong>ents <strong>in</strong> search of new species to<br />
improve those that were under cultivation. His most<br />
important discoveries were the base for his Manual of<br />
Tropical <strong>and</strong> Subtropical Fruits, published <strong>in</strong> 1920.<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley dedicated to him many species of other<br />
families, among them Begonia popenoei from the<br />
Begoniaceae <strong>and</strong> Ficus popenoei from the Moraceae.<br />
Lancetilla has only an <strong>in</strong>direct relation to our<br />
history. But dur<strong>in</strong>g many years it was a place that<br />
attracted naturalists from all over the world, who<br />
used the Experiment Station as their headquarters<br />
<strong>and</strong> made great contributions to the knowledge of the<br />
flora of the region. As St<strong>and</strong>ley wrote: “Never have<br />
I worked amid such agreeable surround<strong>in</strong>gs, with so<br />
many comforts, <strong>and</strong> with so many conveniences for<br />
the successful prosecution of field work. Fortunate<br />
are those who have the opportunity of work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
such a congenial atmosphere as prevails <strong>in</strong> Lancetilla”<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1931: 49).<br />
In the neighbor<strong>in</strong>g town of San Pedro Sula, the<br />
brothers Héctor <strong>and</strong> Tito Pérez Estrada established<br />
a private botanical garden, at the same time of the<br />
establishment of Lancetilla. Wilson Popenoe wrote:<br />
“... the brothers Pérez Estrada are two unique<br />
characters <strong>in</strong> Honduras, as their garden is unique<br />
not only <strong>in</strong> this country but <strong>in</strong> the whole territory<br />
between Mexico <strong>and</strong> Panama... For many years<br />
they have cultivated hundreds of exotic plants that<br />
have been <strong>in</strong>troduced from all regions of the world,<br />
transform<strong>in</strong>g this garden <strong>in</strong>to a beautiful flower<br />
garden of Nature...” (Escoto, 2002: 102-103). The<br />
garden was reestablished <strong>in</strong> 1994 under the name of<br />
‘Jardín Botánico Municipal Pérez Estrada’. Tito Pérez<br />
Estrada was considered the first botanist of San Pedro<br />
Sula. To him we owe the only known biographical<br />
sketch about the life of Dr. Karl Thieme (Estrada,<br />
1952).<br />
from The ‘good neIghbor’ polIcy<br />
To world war II<br />
181<br />
“In the field of world policy I would dedicate<br />
this nation to the policy of the good neighbor<br />
— the neighbor who resolutely respects himself<br />
<strong>and</strong>, because he does so, respects the rights of<br />
others”.<br />
Frankl<strong>in</strong> Delano Roosevelt<br />
President Frankl<strong>in</strong> Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945)<br />
took office <strong>in</strong> 1933 determ<strong>in</strong>ed to improve relations<br />
with the nations of Central <strong>and</strong> South America.<br />
Under his leadership the United States emphasized<br />
cooperation <strong>and</strong> trade rather than military force to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> stability <strong>in</strong> the hemisphere. Roosevelt’s<br />
Secretary of State, Cordell Hull, participated <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Montevideo Conference of December 1933, where<br />
he backed a declaration favored by most nations<br />
of the Western Hemisphere: “No state has the right<br />
to <strong>in</strong>tervene <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>ternal or external affairs of<br />
another”. Roosevelt stated, “The def<strong>in</strong>ite policy of the<br />
United States from now on is one opposed to armed<br />
<strong>in</strong>tervention”. In 1934, at Roosevelt’s direction, the<br />
1903 treaty with Cuba that gave the United States<br />
the right to <strong>in</strong>tervene to preserve <strong>in</strong>ternal stability<br />
or <strong>in</strong>dependence was abrogated. Although domestic<br />
economic problems <strong>and</strong> World War II diverted<br />
attention from the Western Hemisphere, Roosevelt’s<br />
Good Neighbor policy represented an attempt to<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
182<br />
distance the United States from earlier <strong>in</strong>terventionist<br />
policies, such as the Roosevelt Corollary <strong>and</strong> military<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventions <strong>in</strong> the region dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1910s <strong>and</strong> 1920s.<br />
The Great Depression <strong>in</strong> the United States was a hard<br />
blow to the Central American economies. “The Central<br />
American countries, small producers <strong>in</strong> the concert of<br />
nations, were extremely vulnerable to the fluctuations<br />
of the external situation. Their economies were not<br />
diversified <strong>and</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> export products -coffee <strong>and</strong><br />
bananas- where noth<strong>in</strong>g but ‘dessert’ on the tables of<br />
the European or American consumers” (Pérez Brignoli,<br />
2000: 127-128). Their societies were marked by deep<br />
social <strong>in</strong>equalities that soon led to the formation of<br />
the first labor unions <strong>and</strong> the first communist parties<br />
<strong>in</strong> the region. Central America led a political life<br />
of exclusions. “In practice, the life of the liberal<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions <strong>and</strong> laws was above all this: an immense<br />
monologue of the rul<strong>in</strong>g classes with themselves”<br />
(Pérez Brognoli, 2000: 129). Coups d’etat, controlled<br />
elections <strong>and</strong> c<strong>and</strong>idates imposed by the government<br />
were the rule <strong>in</strong> political life.<br />
The concentration of power <strong>in</strong> a few h<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> the<br />
preem<strong>in</strong>ence of the military produced such typical<br />
dictators as Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1857-1948), <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala, the ‘Señor Presidente’ <strong>in</strong> Miguel Ángel<br />
Asturias’ magnificent novel. After Cabrera, Guatemala<br />
was ruled from 1931 to 1948 by General J<strong>org</strong>e Ubico<br />
(1878-1946), “Educator <strong>and</strong> Protector of the Youth”.<br />
It was General J<strong>org</strong>e Ubico who signed the presidential<br />
decree declar<strong>in</strong>g Lycaste sk<strong>in</strong>neri var. alba as the<br />
National Flower of Guatemala, on February 11, 1934.<br />
He followed the recommendation of Mrs. Leticia M.<br />
de Southerl<strong>and</strong>, president of the International Flower<br />
Exhibition held <strong>in</strong> Miami <strong>in</strong> 1933.<br />
General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez (1882-<br />
1966) served as president of El Salvador from 1931<br />
to 1944. His regime was a strict dictatorship that<br />
suppressed a Communist-led upris<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g its<br />
<strong>in</strong>itial days <strong>in</strong> office, with an estimated number of<br />
fatalities of between 10,000 <strong>and</strong> 30,000. Nicaragua <strong>and</strong><br />
Honduras followed similar paths. While Nicaragua <strong>in</strong><br />
1934 came under the rule of the Somoza dynasty, that<br />
would control the country until 1979, Tiburcio Carías<br />
And<strong>in</strong>o (1876-1969), “Doctor <strong>and</strong> General”, ruled <strong>in</strong><br />
Honduras from 1933 to 1948 with a very strong h<strong>and</strong><br />
for the Hondurans <strong>and</strong> a white glove for the United<br />
Fruit Company.<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
To the South, Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> Panama became<br />
the exceptions. In Costa Rica, although the country<br />
suffered as much as its neighbors from the results of<br />
the economic world crisis, regular elections were held<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g this period. Political life <strong>in</strong> the country was only<br />
disrupted by the great strike <strong>in</strong> the banana plantations of<br />
the Atlantic region (1934) <strong>and</strong> by the short civil war of<br />
1948. Panama battled hard to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> its democratic<br />
regime, with the omnipotent United States often be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the judge over bitterly fought political campaigns.<br />
To the North, Lázaro Cárdenas (1891-1970) was<br />
elected president of Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1934 <strong>and</strong> founded the<br />
National Revolutionary Party, predecessor of the present<br />
Institutional Revolutionary Party. Under the slogan<br />
of “Mexico for the Mexicans”, Cárdenas confronted<br />
the United States after expropriat<strong>in</strong>g the foreign oil<br />
companies. His six-year term marked a turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t<br />
after the turbulent post-revolutionary years <strong>and</strong> was a<br />
period of political stability, characterized by important<br />
advances <strong>in</strong> education <strong>and</strong> public works. In Belize,<br />
still a British colony, Antonio Soberanis Gómez (1897-<br />
1975) became <strong>in</strong> 1934 a strong union leader <strong>and</strong> a<br />
precursor of the <strong>in</strong>dependence movement.<br />
Orchidology <strong>in</strong> Central America, 1930-1950<br />
“When we solve the riddles of the forests, we<br />
will know the history of tropical life”.<br />
Rehn (1927: 26)<br />
After the deaths of Rolfe (1921), Schlechter (1925)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Kraenzl<strong>in</strong> (1934), European Botany lost its ground<br />
<strong>in</strong> Central America, <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> became an<br />
American monopoly that would last until the present<br />
days. At Harvard, Ames <strong>and</strong> Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g on the Orchidaceae of Central America <strong>in</strong> an<br />
enormous personal effort that lasted until the end of<br />
their lives. But the botanical exploration of the region<br />
came more <strong>and</strong> more under the <strong>in</strong>fluence of two great<br />
<strong>in</strong>stitutions: the Field Museum of Natural History <strong>in</strong><br />
Chicago <strong>and</strong> the Missouri Botanical Garden at Sa<strong>in</strong>t<br />
Louis.<br />
When Paul C. St<strong>and</strong>ley jo<strong>in</strong>ed the staff <strong>in</strong> 1927,<br />
the <strong>in</strong>terests of the Field Museum centered ma<strong>in</strong>ly on<br />
Mexico, Guatemala <strong>and</strong> Belize. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the XX century,<br />
the Museum sponsored or co-sponsored more than sixty<br />
botanical expeditions to the American tropics.<br />
The Missouri Botanical Garden became the lead<strong>in</strong>g
A<br />
C<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 54. A — Cyrus Guernsey Pr<strong>in</strong>gle (1838-1911). Courtesy of the Oakes Ames Herbarium, Harvard University. B —<br />
Louis F<strong>org</strong>et on his way through a village <strong>in</strong> Colombia with a consignment of Cattleyas collected for S<strong>and</strong>er. In Black,<br />
1973: 66. C — Robert Everard Woodson (1904-1963). In Anderson & Van Schaak, 1964: 46. D — Paul Hamilton Allen<br />
(111-1963). Courtesy of L. D. Gómez.<br />
B<br />
D<br />
183<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
184<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
C D<br />
Figure 55. A — Louis Otho Williams (1908-1991). Courtesy of L. D. Gómez. B — Otto Porsch (1875-1959). Courtesy<br />
of Ronald Díaz Bolaños. C — Gi<strong>org</strong>io Cufodontis (1896-1974). Courtesy of Ronald Díaz Bolaños. D — Walter Kupper<br />
(1874-1953). Courtesy of Günter Gerlach.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B
<strong>in</strong>stitution <strong>in</strong> the research of the <strong>orchids</strong> of Panama,<br />
especially after Paul H. Allen arrived at the Tropical<br />
Station <strong>in</strong> 1934. Both the Field Museum <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Missouri Botanical Garden established the world’s<br />
major collections of Central <strong>and</strong> South American<br />
plants.<br />
The Flora of Panama (I)<br />
“In the western hemisphere, the mounta<strong>in</strong>ous<br />
area compris<strong>in</strong>g the present Republics of Costa<br />
Rica, Panama <strong>and</strong> Colombia probably has<br />
the richest, <strong>and</strong> most highly developed of the<br />
several complex orchid floras…”<br />
Paul H. Allen (1953: 20)<br />
In the 1930s <strong>and</strong> 1940s, a number of resident <strong>and</strong><br />
foreign botanists had collected <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Panama.<br />
However, although Pittier had <strong>in</strong>cluded the country’s<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> the f<strong>in</strong>al reports of the biological survey of<br />
the Smithsonian (1912), Schlechter had published his<br />
Orchidaceae Powellianae Panamenses (1922) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Orchidaceae were part of St<strong>and</strong>ley’s floras of Barro<br />
Colorado (1927) <strong>and</strong> the Canal Zone (1928), no formal<br />
orchid flora of Panama would be published until the<br />
last years of the first half of the XX century.<br />
“[French-born] A. M. Butcher, who had changed<br />
his name from Bouché, brought his family to the<br />
isthmus <strong>in</strong> 1907 <strong>and</strong> went to work for the Canal on the<br />
construction of the Gatún Spillway <strong>and</strong> hydroelectric<br />
plant that supplied the electricity <strong>and</strong> power to run the<br />
Canal” (Anonymous, 1970: 3). Two sons of Butcher<br />
(or Bouché) are important <strong>in</strong> our story. One of them,<br />
Adrien, kept his orig<strong>in</strong>al French family name; the<br />
other, Henry, went along with his father <strong>and</strong> named<br />
himself Butcher.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g his many years on the Isthmus, Adrien<br />
M. Bouché (1898 - ) “spent his spare time rambl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
around the country as a botanist, research<strong>in</strong>g local<br />
plants <strong>and</strong> pass<strong>in</strong>g on the <strong>in</strong>formation he gathered<br />
to drug companies, research laboratories <strong>and</strong> other<br />
scientific <strong>in</strong>stitutions…. His extensive plant research<br />
has not been limited to pharmaceutical plants alones.<br />
Bouché has also devoted many years to collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
study<strong>in</strong>g flower<strong>in</strong>g plants <strong>and</strong> parasites <strong>and</strong> has several<br />
varieties of <strong>orchids</strong> named for him”(Anonymous,<br />
1970: 3). Among his collections is the type of<br />
Sobralia bouchei Ames & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (A.M. Bouché<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
185<br />
s.n.- 1930). Other collections by Bouché <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
Oncidium ochmatochilum Rchb. f. (A.M. Bouché<br />
9), Epidendrum oncidioides var. ramonense (Rchb.<br />
f.) Ames, Hubb. & Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (A.M. Bouché 10),<strong>and</strong><br />
Sobralia atropubescens Ames & C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth<br />
(A.M. Bouché 2755).<br />
Henry P. Butcher was known for his keen knowledge<br />
of the <strong>orchids</strong> of Panama <strong>and</strong> collected for more than<br />
50 years between 1933 <strong>and</strong> 1986, although he had<br />
never received any botanical education. He lived <strong>in</strong> the<br />
area of Volcán, prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Chiriquí, <strong>and</strong> among his<br />
specimens we f<strong>in</strong>d Sievek<strong>in</strong>gia suavis Rchb. f. (Butcher<br />
s.n.), Kegeliella kupperi Mansf. (Butcher s.n.),<br />
Stanhopea pulla Rchb. f. (Butcher s.n.), Coryanthes<br />
maculata L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Butcher s.n.), Telipogon dendriticus<br />
Rchb. f., <strong>and</strong> the type of Gongora maculata L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
var. latibasis C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. & Allen (Butcher s.n.).<br />
Dressler wrote to him, with some frustration: “This<br />
bus<strong>in</strong>ess of new species turn<strong>in</strong>g up <strong>in</strong> two or three<br />
places at once is unnerv<strong>in</strong>g. It makes me wonder if we<br />
really know anyth<strong>in</strong>g about Central American <strong>orchids</strong><br />
or not” (Letter from Dressler to Butcher, July 1, 1963).<br />
So many species were discovered thanks to Butcher’s<br />
collections that Dressler wrote to him <strong>in</strong> 1963: “Cal<br />
[Dodson] <strong>and</strong> I have been talk<strong>in</strong>g for a couple of years<br />
of do<strong>in</strong>g a supplement to the Orchids of Panama.<br />
… There have been many species added to the flora<br />
of Panama s<strong>in</strong>ce the orchid section was published,<br />
especially through your collections…” (Letter from<br />
Dressler to Butcher, May 10, 1963). Named <strong>in</strong> Butcher’s<br />
honor were: Dryadella butcheri Luer, Masdevallia<br />
butcheri Luer, Pleurothallis butcheri L.O. Williams,<br />
Sievek<strong>in</strong>gia butcheri Dressler, Stelis butcheri Luer,<br />
Stellilabium butcheri Dressler, Telipogon butcheri<br />
Dodson & R. Escobar. Of <strong>in</strong>terest are Butcher’s Notes<br />
from Panama (1959 & 1965), where he describes his<br />
orchid collect<strong>in</strong>g adventures <strong>in</strong> that country. Butcher<br />
had a life-long relation with the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden <strong>and</strong> with many renowned botanists from<br />
his time: Louis Williams, Walter L<strong>in</strong>dsay, Alex D.<br />
Hawkes, Alphonse Heller, Robert E. Woodson, Leslie<br />
A. Garay, Carl Withner, Clarence Horich, P. Allen,<br />
Robert L. Dressler <strong>and</strong> Charles Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth.<br />
E. D. Starry collected <strong>in</strong> Panama <strong>in</strong> July <strong>and</strong> August,<br />
1931. Among his specimens we f<strong>in</strong>d Palmorchis<br />
powellii (Ames) C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. & Correll (Starry 323)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Catasetum viridiflavum Hook. (Starry 119).<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
186<br />
Otis Shattuck collected several orchid specimens<br />
between 1931 <strong>and</strong> 1937, such as Elleanthus trilobulatus<br />
Ames & C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Shattuck 123), Pleurothallis<br />
verecunda Schltr. (Shattuck 722), Pleurothallis<br />
ovatilabia Ames & C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Shattuck 226),<br />
Epidendrum stangeanum Rchb. f. (Shattuck 454) <strong>and</strong><br />
Epidendrum moyobambae Kränzl. (Shattuck 216).<br />
Miconia shattuckii St<strong>and</strong>l. of the Melastomataceae<br />
was named <strong>in</strong> his honor.<br />
Robert Hugo Woodworth (1902 - ) <strong>and</strong> Paul Anthony<br />
Vestal (1908 - ) were <strong>in</strong> the Canal area <strong>in</strong> February <strong>and</strong><br />
March of 1932. Among their over 700 collections are<br />
Epidendrum anceps Jacq. (Woodworth & Vestal 66a),<br />
Epidendrum ibaguense H.B.K (Woodworth & Vestal<br />
703), Scaphyglottis behrii (Rchb. f.) Bent. & Hook.<br />
(Woodworth & Vestal 592), Catasetum viridiflavum<br />
Hook. (Woodworth & Vestal s.n.), <strong>and</strong> Trigonidium<br />
egertonianum Batem. (Woodworth & Vestal 593). We<br />
remember Woodworth <strong>in</strong> Machaerium woodworthii<br />
St<strong>and</strong>l. of the Fabaceae <strong>and</strong> Vestal <strong>in</strong> Ipomoea vestalii<br />
St<strong>and</strong>l. of the Convolvulaceae.<br />
Russell Jacob Seibert (1914 - ) came to the country<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1935 <strong>and</strong> collected <strong>in</strong> the Canal Zone, Chiriquí<br />
<strong>and</strong> Bocas del Toro until 1940, often <strong>in</strong> the company<br />
of Woodson <strong>and</strong> Allen. His orchid specimens <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
Habenaria bicornis L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Seibert 326), Cleistes rosea<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Seibert 594), Elleanthus capitatus (Poepp. &<br />
Endl.) Rchb. f. (Seibert 140), Palmorchis trilobulata<br />
L. O. Williams (Seibert 459), Lepanthes chiriquenses<br />
Schltr. (Seibert 174) <strong>and</strong> the type of Telipogon seibertii<br />
Dodson & R. Escobar (Woodson, Allen & Seibert 961,<br />
Chiriquí 1938).<br />
William R<strong>and</strong>olph Taylor (1895-1990) collected<br />
several orchid specimens <strong>in</strong> 1934: Pleurothallis<br />
ghiesbreghtiana A. Rich. & Gal. (Taylor 1511),<br />
Hexisea bidentata L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Taylor 1509), Trigonidium<br />
egertonianum Batem. (Taylor 1515), Oncidium<br />
ampliatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Taylor 1512), <strong>and</strong> Lockhartia<br />
micrantha Rchb. f. (Taylor 1510).<br />
Among the orchid collections of E. M. Kieswetter<br />
(1937) we f<strong>in</strong>d Epidendrum anceps Jacq. (Kieswetter<br />
s.n.), Warrea costaricensis Schltr. (Kieswetter s.n.),<br />
Ondontoglossum car<strong>in</strong>iferum Rchb. f. (Kieswetter<br />
s.n.), Oncidium cabagrae Schltr. (Kieswetter s.n.) <strong>and</strong><br />
Oncidium globuliferum H.B.K (Kieswetter s.n.).<br />
In 1938, Mary Elizabeth Spence Davidson collected<br />
<strong>in</strong> Chiriquí the type specimen of Pleurothallis<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
cardiochila L. O. Williams (M. E. S. Davidson 119<br />
– Chiriquí). Other of her orchid specimens were<br />
Elleanthus aurantiacus (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Rchb. f., (M. E.<br />
S. Davidson 123), Stelis skutchii Ames (M. E. S.<br />
Davidson 270), Stelis storkii Ames (M. E. S. Davidson<br />
988), Stelis vestita Ames (M. E. S. Davidson 696),<br />
Pleurothallis urbaniana Rchb. f. (Davidson 187),<br />
Maxillaria pittieri (Ames) L.O. Williams (Davidson<br />
117), <strong>and</strong> Masdevallia attenuata Rchb. f. (M. E. S.<br />
Davidson 1271).<br />
Walter R. L<strong>in</strong>dsay collected <strong>in</strong> Panama between<br />
1934 <strong>and</strong> 1941. L<strong>in</strong>dsayella amabilis Ames & C.<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth (W. R. L<strong>in</strong>dsay & G. H. Bev<strong>in</strong>s s.n.,<br />
Chiriquí, 1937 = Sobralia callosa, L.O. Williams) was<br />
named <strong>in</strong> his honor.<br />
Gene <strong>and</strong> Peggy White resided <strong>in</strong> the country<br />
between 1935 <strong>and</strong> 1940 <strong>and</strong> collected Masdevallia<br />
ecaudata Schltr. (White & White 81), Pleurothallis<br />
homalantha Schltr. (White & White 80), Pleurothallis<br />
tuerckheimii Schltr. (White & White 18), Epidendrum<br />
prismatocarpum Rchb. f. (White & White 203) <strong>and</strong><br />
Epidendrum pygmaeum Hook. (White & White 205).<br />
“Among the most <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g botanical collections<br />
made <strong>in</strong> Panama dur<strong>in</strong>g the year 1937 is a series of<br />
seventy-five numbers sent to the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden by Gene <strong>and</strong> Peggy White” (Woodson &<br />
Seibert, 1938: 823).<br />
Victor Wolfgang Friedrich He<strong>in</strong>rich von Hagen<br />
(1908-?) <strong>and</strong> his wife Christ<strong>in</strong>e von Hagen collected<br />
<strong>in</strong> Honduras (1937-38) <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Chiriquí <strong>in</strong> 1940<br />
(Stenorrhynchos navarrensis Ames (v. Hagen 2111).<br />
Von Hagen is better known for his travels throughout<br />
the cont<strong>in</strong>ent follow<strong>in</strong>g the trails of the ancient<br />
civilizations <strong>and</strong> for his popular writ<strong>in</strong>gs about Lat<strong>in</strong><br />
American traditions <strong>and</strong> cultures.<br />
H. von Wedel collected <strong>in</strong> 1940 <strong>and</strong> 1941. In Bocas<br />
del Toro he discovered two new species: Pleurothallis<br />
ellipsophylla L. O. Williams (H. von Wedel 560 –<br />
Bocas del Toro) <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum rigidum Jacqu<strong>in</strong> var.<br />
angustisegmentum L. O. Williams (H. von Wedel 1708<br />
– Bocas del Toro). Other orchid specimens collected by<br />
von Wedel <strong>in</strong>clude: Sobralia rolfeana Schltr. (H. von<br />
Wedel 409), Pleurothallis brighamii S. Watson (H. von<br />
Wedel 185), Epidendrum boothi (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) L. O. Wms.<br />
(H. von Wedel 123), Epidendrum stenopetalum Hook.<br />
(H. von Wedel 765), <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum anceps Jacq. (H.<br />
von Wedel 2081). Many plant species were named <strong>in</strong>
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
his honor, among them Anthurium wedelianum Croat<br />
from the Araceae <strong>and</strong> Peperomia wedelii Yuncker<br />
from the Piperaceae.Von Wedel had also <strong>in</strong>terests<br />
<strong>in</strong> ornithology <strong>and</strong> was an excellent photographer.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Woodson, “there is probably no one <strong>in</strong><br />
the vic<strong>in</strong>ity of the Chiriquí Lagoon who is quite so<br />
familiar with the country <strong>and</strong> its <strong>in</strong>habitants as Mr.<br />
Wedel” (Woodson & Seibert, 1942: 272).<br />
Ivan Murray Johnston (1898-1960) collected dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
World War II <strong>in</strong>tensively <strong>in</strong> San José Isl<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Bay<br />
of Panama, together with Carl Oskar Erlanson (1901—)<br />
<strong>and</strong> others, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the publication of a flora<br />
(Johnston, 1949). In 1946 he found the type of Lycaste<br />
campbelli C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Johnston 1371). Other of<br />
his orchid specimens are Aspasia pr<strong>in</strong>cipissa Rchb.<br />
f. (Johnston 1015), Xylobium foveatum (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) G.<br />
Nicholson (Johnston 1117), <strong>and</strong> Dichaea panamensis<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Johnston 1216).<br />
“Botanical activity lead<strong>in</strong>g to a Flora of Panama<br />
began <strong>in</strong> 1934 with the efforts of R. E. Woodson,<br />
Jr., <strong>and</strong> his associates from the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden” (Croat, 1978: 50). Robert Everard Woodson<br />
(1904-1963) was <strong>in</strong> Panama between 1938 <strong>and</strong> 1940.<br />
He formed part of the team that would prepare, several<br />
years later, the monumental Flora of Panama of the<br />
Missouri Botanical Garden. Woodson (Fig. 54C)<br />
collected mostly <strong>in</strong> the company of Robert Walter<br />
Schery (1917-1987). Together, they <strong>in</strong>itiated the Flora<br />
of Panama <strong>in</strong> 1943. “Subsequent collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Panama<br />
by staff <strong>and</strong> students of the Missouri Botanical Garden<br />
has yielded an estimated 73,000 collections” (Croat,<br />
1978: 50). Woodson taught <strong>in</strong> St. Louis, Missouri.<br />
Among his students was Dr. J<strong>org</strong>e León Arguedas,<br />
who would become one of the most prom<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
botanists of Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> the second half of the XX<br />
century. Among Woodson’s collections were the types<br />
of: Malaxis woodsonii L.O. Williams (Woodson,<br />
Allen & Seibert 831 <strong>and</strong> 832, Chiriquí), Pleurothallis<br />
macrantha L. O. Williams (Woodson & Schery 66 ,<br />
Chiriquí), Sarcoglottis woodsonii (L.O. Williams)<br />
Garay (Woodson & Schery 753, Chiriquí), <strong>and</strong><br />
Zygopetalum parviflorum L. O. Williams (Woodson &<br />
Schery 605, Chiriquí).<br />
Paul Hamilton Allen (1911-1963) (Fig. 54D), a<br />
student at the Missouri Botanical Garden, was sent<br />
to Panama as an assistant to the botanical expedition<br />
of Carroll Dodge <strong>and</strong> Julian Steyermark <strong>and</strong> assumed<br />
187<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1936 the direction of the Tropical Station <strong>in</strong> Cerro<br />
Ancón. At the same time he acted as botanical consultant<br />
for the schools <strong>in</strong> the Canal Zone <strong>and</strong> was f<strong>in</strong>ally<br />
named super<strong>in</strong>tendent of the Experimental Gardens of<br />
the Canal Zone, better known as the Summit Botanical<br />
Garden. “Between 1937 <strong>and</strong> 1947, under the auspices<br />
of the Missouri Botanical Garden, he was part of 17<br />
expeditions to the forests of Panama <strong>and</strong> collected<br />
over 7,000 species of plants. He was, after Pittier, the<br />
naturalist who explored the most remote regions of the<br />
geography of the isthmus” (Heckadon Moreno, 1998:<br />
182). Allen was “one of the most meticulous collectors<br />
ever to work <strong>in</strong> Central America” (Williams, 1972:<br />
207). His achievements were outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g, especially<br />
if we take <strong>in</strong>to account that Allen never received a<br />
formal biological education, nor earned any academic<br />
degree. It would be impossible to name all new species<br />
of Orchidaceae that were discovered by Allen <strong>and</strong> all<br />
of those that were named <strong>in</strong> his honor. Here are just<br />
a few of them: Oncidium parviflorum L. O. Williams<br />
(P.H. Allen 2937, Panama), Maxillaria repens L. O.<br />
Williams (P.H. Allen 2968, Panama), Epidendrum<br />
allenii L. O. Williams (P.H. Allen 2203, Panama), Ada<br />
allenii (L.O. Williams ex C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.) N.H. Williams<br />
(P.H. Allen 5150, Panama), Macrocl<strong>in</strong>ium alleniorum<br />
R.L. Dressler & F. Pupul<strong>in</strong> (P.H. Allen 5244, Costa<br />
Rica), Masdevallia allenii L.O. Williams (P.H. Allen<br />
1230, Panama), Maxillaria allenii L.O. Williams (P.H.<br />
Allen 1650, Panama), Oncidium allenii Dressler (P.H.<br />
Allen, Panama), Pleurothallis allenii L.O. Williams<br />
(P.H. Allen 12400, Panama), Sobralia allenii L.O.<br />
Williams (P.H. Allen 2686, Panama), <strong>and</strong> Stelis allenii<br />
L.O. Williams (P.H. Allen 2952, Panama). After<br />
return<strong>in</strong>g from a wartime study of rubber resources <strong>in</strong><br />
Colombia, Allen went to Harvard <strong>in</strong> 1946 to study the<br />
orchid material there.<br />
The third <strong>and</strong> fourth parts of the Orchidaceae for the<br />
Flora of Panama, which were written by Allen, were<br />
published <strong>in</strong> 1949. (The first two parts had been written<br />
by L.O. Williams <strong>and</strong> published <strong>in</strong> 1946). For this work,<br />
he asked Charles Lankester for advice: “Through the<br />
grapev<strong>in</strong>e, I have heard that you have done a manual<br />
on the Orchids of Costa Rica. It is most fortunate <strong>in</strong><br />
my op<strong>in</strong>ion that you have done so, s<strong>in</strong>ce you have seen<br />
more species <strong>in</strong> the field than any liv<strong>in</strong>g collector. It<br />
now seems probable that I may be saddled with the<br />
job of complet<strong>in</strong>g Dr. Louis Williams half f<strong>in</strong>ished<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
188<br />
manuscript on the Orchids of Panama, <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce many<br />
species are common to both countries I would like to<br />
see your manual, <strong>and</strong> have the benefit of your advice<br />
before mak<strong>in</strong>g a spectacle of myself <strong>in</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>t” (letter<br />
from Allen to Lankester, November 12, 1946). In a<br />
letter to Ames (1947) he wrote: “Work cont<strong>in</strong>ues on<br />
the collection of the <strong>orchids</strong> of Panama, which seem to<br />
have no end; each field trip br<strong>in</strong>gs to light new species<br />
or geographical distributions…. Although I have not<br />
seen New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea or the mounta<strong>in</strong>s of Brazil, I would<br />
bet the area comprised by Costa Rica, Panama <strong>and</strong><br />
Colombia aga<strong>in</strong>st any other <strong>in</strong> the world” (Heckadon<br />
Moreno, 1998: 183). “It is regrettable that Allen was<br />
not <strong>in</strong>vited to participate more fully <strong>in</strong> the preparation<br />
of the other parts of the Panama Flora, for he knew the<br />
plants of that country firsth<strong>and</strong> better than any other<br />
contemporary botanist” (Hodge, 1964: 74).<br />
He resided for several years at Palmar Sur, Costa<br />
Rica (1948-1953), <strong>and</strong> found a great many tree species<br />
not seen before. His The Ra<strong>in</strong> Forests of Golfo Dulce<br />
(1956) is an outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g contribution to our knowledge<br />
of the ra<strong>in</strong> forests <strong>in</strong> Central America, even though the<br />
work describes a limited geographical area. In 1952,<br />
Allen published a fundamental work on Cycnoches.<br />
For a brief <strong>in</strong>terval Allen returned to the United<br />
States as Director of the Fairchild Botanical Garden<br />
at Miami, but was soon back <strong>in</strong> Central America,<br />
where he worked with Williams <strong>and</strong> St<strong>and</strong>ley at ‘El<br />
Zamorano’. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this period he was loaned to the<br />
Government of El Salvador to conduct a survey of<br />
that country’s forest resources <strong>and</strong> returned <strong>in</strong> 1959<br />
to Honduras, as Director of the Lancetilla Experiment<br />
Station. He had <strong>in</strong> preparation an account of the woody<br />
plants of El Salvador at the time of his death. Oskar<br />
Pank (1912- ), a German gardener who resided <strong>in</strong> El<br />
Salvador s<strong>in</strong>ce 1952, was Allen’s frequent companion<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g his collect<strong>in</strong>g excursions (Hamer, 1973 (I):<br />
13). Pank would be dur<strong>in</strong>g more than two decades the<br />
resident botanist of La Laguna Botanical Garden, <strong>in</strong><br />
San Salvador, after its foundation <strong>in</strong> 1978. Paul Allen<br />
was also a gifted photographer <strong>and</strong> his wife, Dorothy,<br />
a magnificent botanical illustrator. Beautiful examples<br />
of her skills were the illustrations to The Orchids of<br />
Panama (1953), a repr<strong>in</strong>t of Allen’s work that was<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>ally published <strong>in</strong> The Orchid Journal. Allen’s<br />
personal herbarium, more than 5,000 sheets, is now<br />
at the Escuela Agrícola Pan<strong>america</strong>na <strong>in</strong> Honduras<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
with the exception of a representative series of plants<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> the valleys of Río Tuyra <strong>and</strong> Río Yape,<br />
which was destroyed by a fire which badly damaged<br />
the adm<strong>in</strong>istration build<strong>in</strong>g of the Tropical Station <strong>in</strong><br />
Balboa, the night of September 1, 1937 (Woodson &<br />
Seibert, 1938: 823).<br />
Harry A. Dunn ( -1977) lived <strong>in</strong> Ancón, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Panama Canal Zone, <strong>and</strong> devoted a lot of field work<br />
<strong>in</strong> the company of Paul Allen <strong>in</strong> search of Cycnoches.<br />
Epidendrum dunni A. D. Hawkes was named <strong>in</strong> his<br />
honor. A resident of over 30 years of the Canal Zone,<br />
Dunn spent days <strong>and</strong> months botaniz<strong>in</strong>g, collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> study<strong>in</strong>g meso-<strong>america</strong>n archeology<br />
throughout Central America, becom<strong>in</strong>g known as<br />
“the orchid man” <strong>in</strong> Panama. In his collect<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
plants he was highly conservation-m<strong>in</strong>ded long before<br />
many plant collectors had such concerns. The patio<br />
of the Dunn home, near the old Tivoli Hotel <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Canal Zone, was a veritable orchid botanical garden<br />
(Davidson, 1979: 150).<br />
Louis Otho Williams (1908-1991) (Fig. 55A), a<br />
native of Jackson, Wyom<strong>in</strong>g, earned his bachelor’s<br />
<strong>and</strong> master’s degrees under botanist Aven Nelson of<br />
the University of Wyom<strong>in</strong>g. His doctoral studies <strong>in</strong><br />
plant systematics were at Wash<strong>in</strong>gton University <strong>and</strong><br />
the Missouri Botanical Garden, where he became a<br />
student of Jesse M. Greenman, his second prom<strong>in</strong>ent<br />
mentor (Burger, 1991: 355). He served as a research<br />
assistant at the Ames Orchid Herbarium of Harvard<br />
University for seven years, dur<strong>in</strong>g which he edited<br />
the American Orchid Society Bullet<strong>in</strong>. His successful<br />
editorship was responsible for <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the Society’s<br />
membership from two hundred to three thous<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Orchids, American floristics, <strong>and</strong> useful plants were his<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest, <strong>and</strong> he published nearly 300 scientific<br />
articles deal<strong>in</strong>g with these areas. He spent a time <strong>in</strong><br />
Mexico (1938), <strong>in</strong> an attempt to obta<strong>in</strong> for Harvard the<br />
magnificent collection of Mexican <strong>orchids</strong> built up by<br />
the recently deceased E. M. Oestlund. This collection<br />
was the primary source of data for the Orchidaceae<br />
of Mexico that was <strong>in</strong> very late draft <strong>in</strong> 1942, when<br />
Williams left to work on a rubber procurement project<br />
<strong>in</strong> Brazil, where he stayed until 1945. “On return<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
Harvard, Louis found that while <strong>in</strong>flation had raised<br />
most prices, Harvard salaries hadn’t followed suit, <strong>and</strong><br />
he checked out some other possibilities. On receiv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a good <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g offer, he went to see Oakes
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Ames, to say that he would have to leave, with some<br />
regrets, because he <strong>and</strong> his wife Terua could not get<br />
by on his salary from the Herbarium. He was startled<br />
when Ames flew <strong>in</strong>to a rage <strong>and</strong> accused Louis of<br />
treachery for even th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g of leav<strong>in</strong>g, push<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
manuscript of the Orchidaceae of Mexico across the<br />
desk to Louis, say<strong>in</strong>g that Louis was welcome to go,<br />
<strong>and</strong> to take his draft with him, because it would never<br />
be published by Harvard” (Greenwood, 1992: 128).<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g his brief stay at Harvard he f<strong>in</strong>ished the first<br />
two parts of the Orchidaceae for the Flora of Panama<br />
that were published <strong>in</strong> 1946. He collected a great<br />
number of species <strong>and</strong> many were dedicated to him,<br />
among others: Bulbophyllum williamsii A.D. Hawkes,<br />
Corallorhiza williamsii Correll, Cyclopogon williamsii<br />
C.H. Dodson & R. Vásquez Ch., Cyrtochilum<br />
williamsianum (Dodson) Dalström, Epidendrum<br />
williamsii C.H. Dodson, Lepanthes williamsi Salazar<br />
& Soto Arenas, Malaxis williamsii Ames, Maxillaria<br />
williamsii C.H. Dodson, Pleurothallis williamsii<br />
Ames, Scelochilus williamsii C.H. Dodson, <strong>and</strong><br />
Stelis williamsii Ames. He was a lead<strong>in</strong>g pioneer <strong>in</strong><br />
tropical plant taxonomy, <strong>and</strong> that <strong>in</strong>terest led him to<br />
return to the tropics <strong>in</strong> the 1950s. In Honduras, he<br />
helped to establish <strong>and</strong> direct a large herbarium at<br />
the Escuela Agrícola Pan<strong>america</strong>na [‘El Zamorano’],<br />
<strong>and</strong> additionally developed a regional natural history<br />
library <strong>and</strong> launched the journal Ceiba. It was <strong>in</strong><br />
Ceiba where he published his major contributions<br />
to the orchid flora of our region, after his Orchids of<br />
Panama: The Orchidaceae of Mexico (1951) <strong>and</strong> An<br />
Enumeration of the Orchidaceae of Central America,<br />
British Honduras <strong>and</strong> Panama (1956).<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g his previous travels to Central America <strong>and</strong><br />
his ten-year stay <strong>in</strong> Honduras, Williams also collected<br />
<strong>in</strong> Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Costa<br />
Rica, where he became a good friend of Charles H.<br />
Lankester. “A number of times we had the pleasure of<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g don Carlos <strong>in</strong> our house <strong>in</strong> Honduras <strong>and</strong> here<br />
<strong>in</strong> the United States, <strong>and</strong> to visit him <strong>in</strong> his home <strong>in</strong><br />
Costa Rica” (Williams, 1969: 860). After Ames’ death<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1950, Williams became the undisputed authority <strong>in</strong><br />
Central American <strong>orchids</strong>. In 1960, he jo<strong>in</strong>ed the staff<br />
of the Field Museum of Natural History <strong>in</strong> Chicago,<br />
<strong>and</strong> by 1964 had become head of the department<br />
of Botany. Known as a capable <strong>and</strong> approachable<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istrator, he rebuilt the department, revived its<br />
189<br />
floristic programs, <strong>and</strong> developed grant support. His<br />
botanical collections numbered more than 43,000.<br />
Follow<strong>in</strong>g his retirement, Williams cont<strong>in</strong>ued his<br />
research <strong>and</strong> supervised the completion of the Flora<br />
of Guatemala. Follow<strong>in</strong>g his death <strong>in</strong> 1991, his widow,<br />
Terua, wrote the <strong>in</strong>dex <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al volume of this work.<br />
Williams’ library <strong>and</strong> private herbarium are now part<br />
of the Marie Selby Botanical Garden.<br />
The ‘great depression’ of Costa Rican <strong>orchidology</strong><br />
“Dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1930s, agricultural experiment<br />
stations, natural history museums, <strong>and</strong><br />
botanical gardens were shut down or had their<br />
budgets curtailed even further. The National<br />
Museum of Costa Rica was <strong>in</strong>corporated<br />
<strong>in</strong>to the University of Costa Rica, follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a common pattern <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> America dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the 1930s <strong>and</strong> 1940s. Even so, the Museum<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>ed almost moribund until the 1960s…<br />
(McCook, 1999: 120)”<br />
In the 1930s, Costa Rican <strong>orchidology</strong> began<br />
to languish. Only Lankester cont<strong>in</strong>ued with the<br />
exploration of the country, although his legendary<br />
capacity for the discovery of new species seemed to<br />
be com<strong>in</strong>g slowly to an end. Aside from the economic<br />
troubles brought by the Great Depression, it was<br />
simply too much for the small republic to overcome<br />
the departure of Pittier to the United States (1905) <strong>and</strong><br />
A. C. Brade to Brazil (1910); the premature deaths of<br />
Biolley (1908), Tonduz (1921), Wercklé (1924), <strong>and</strong><br />
Sancho (1929); the retirement of Alberto M. Brenes <strong>in</strong><br />
1930, the reduced botanical activity of Otón Jiménez<br />
due to his multiple bus<strong>in</strong>ess affairs <strong>and</strong> the voluntary<br />
exile of Amparo de Zeledón to Honduras. Although<br />
several collectors visited Costa Rica dur<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
period, it would take the country until the early 1970s<br />
to recover from such losses.<br />
The Austrian Biological Expedition to Costa<br />
Rica (1930) was perhaps the last attempt to restore<br />
European Botany to the lead<strong>in</strong>g role it had played<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the preced<strong>in</strong>g centuries. The expedition<br />
arrived <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> March, 1930, after stopp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> Tr<strong>in</strong>idad <strong>and</strong> Venezuela, where several collections<br />
were made. The group of scientists, which stayed<br />
<strong>in</strong> Costa Rica until the month of August, was led by<br />
the ornithologist Moriz Sassi (Bauernfe<strong>in</strong>d, 1966:<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
190<br />
126). Part of the expedition were also the biologists<br />
E. Reimoser <strong>and</strong> C. Fr. Roewer. Dr. Otto Porsch<br />
(1875-1959) (Fig. 55B), who <strong>in</strong> 1921 had succeeded<br />
Karl Wilhelm as director of the botanical garden of<br />
the University of Natural Resources at Vienna, was<br />
responsible for the botanical collections <strong>and</strong> director<br />
of the expedition (Díaz Bolaños, 2007: 7). His ma<strong>in</strong><br />
collaborator was the botanist Gi<strong>org</strong>io Cufodontis<br />
(1896-1974) (Fig. 55C) (Grayum et al., 2004: 20). An<br />
expert <strong>in</strong> flower poll<strong>in</strong>ation, Porsch had traveled to<br />
Brazil <strong>in</strong> the first years of the XX century <strong>and</strong> collected<br />
many new types of Orchidaceae, such as Meiracyllium<br />
wetste<strong>in</strong>ii Porsch, Physurus austrobrasiliensis Porsch,<br />
Masdevallia zebr<strong>in</strong>a Porsch, Physurus kuczynskii<br />
Porsch, Campylocentrum chlororhizum Porsch,<br />
Catasetum fimbriatum Rchb.f. var. aurantiacum<br />
Porsch, Catasetum ornithorrhynchum Porsch,<br />
Cranichis microphylla Porsch, Habenaria paulensis<br />
Porsch, Habenaria wacketii Porsch, Pleurothallis<br />
bupleurifolia Porsch, Pleurothallis laxiflora Porsch,<br />
Stelis guttifera Porsch <strong>and</strong> Stenorhynchus loefgrenii<br />
Porsch, all published <strong>in</strong> 1905 <strong>in</strong> the Oesterreichische<br />
Botanische Zeitschrift (=Austrian Journal of Botany).<br />
Porsch wrote: “Because of the great number of types<br />
[of humm<strong>in</strong>gbirds] <strong>in</strong> small areas, Costa Rica was the<br />
richest region for a possible <strong>and</strong> multiple answers to<br />
this question [the relation between flowers <strong>and</strong> their<br />
poll<strong>in</strong>ators]” (Porsch, 1931: 11). If we follow Dressler,<br />
Porsch’s writ<strong>in</strong>gs must be taken carefully: “I th<strong>in</strong>k<br />
that Porsch’s paper [...] is really a classic of how to<br />
get 40 pages of publication out of one short paragraph<br />
of data” (In a letter to R.L. Rodríguez, 2 November,<br />
1967). Porsch <strong>and</strong> Cufodontis could be proud to travel<br />
through Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> the company of the best guides<br />
they could th<strong>in</strong>k of: Ferd<strong>in</strong><strong>and</strong> Nevermann was their<br />
host <strong>in</strong> his ‘F<strong>in</strong>ca Hamburgo’ <strong>and</strong> their guide through<br />
the Atlantic region, Charles Lankester showed them<br />
the best of his orchid garden <strong>in</strong> Cóncavas, Alfred<br />
Brade hiked with them to the summit of the Turrialba<br />
volcano <strong>and</strong> Alberto M. Brenes traveled with them<br />
through Guanacaste <strong>and</strong> the southern Osa Pen<strong>in</strong>sula.<br />
Brenes would write, two years later, an account of his<br />
journey to Guanacaste with the expedition (Brenes,<br />
1956).<br />
Among the orchid specimens collected by the<br />
expedition <strong>and</strong> reported by Cufodontis (1933)<br />
were: Vanilla fragans (Salisb.) Ames (Cufodontis<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
735, Hamburg Farm), Stelis thecoglossa Rchb.<br />
f. (Nevermann 496, Vulcanus Irazu), Maxillaria<br />
crassifolia (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Rchb. f. (Brenes 162, Golfito).<br />
Lepanthes brenesii Schltr. (Lankester 802, Las<br />
Cóncavas), Brassavola nodosa L<strong>in</strong>dl. (A. Brade 799,<br />
Las Cóncavas), <strong>and</strong> Cattleya dowiana Batem. (A.<br />
Brade 818, Vulcanus Turrialba, floruit culta). Porsch<br />
<strong>and</strong> Cufodontis were also responsible for the discovery<br />
of two new species of Erythr<strong>in</strong>a (Fabaceae): Erythr<strong>in</strong>a<br />
globocalyx Porsch & Cufod. <strong>and</strong> Erythr<strong>in</strong>a gibbosa<br />
Cufod. However, the expedition did not meet the<br />
expectations, at least from the botanical po<strong>in</strong>t of view.<br />
Less than 900 specimens were collected <strong>and</strong> almost<br />
noth<strong>in</strong>g was published about the scientific results, <strong>in</strong><br />
part because of the political disturbances brought by<br />
the ris<strong>in</strong>g Nazi movement, which led a few years later<br />
(1938) to Austria’s annexation by Germany.<br />
Expelled from the university <strong>in</strong> 1934 for his<br />
notorious right-w<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>cl<strong>in</strong>ations, Porsch wrote <strong>in</strong><br />
1932 a phytogeographical description of Costa Rica<br />
(Porsch, 1932), <strong>in</strong> which he followed closely the<br />
previous work by C. Wercklé (1909). Cufodontis<br />
wrote five articles about the results of the scientific<br />
expedition, which he published <strong>in</strong> German <strong>and</strong> Italian<br />
(Díaz Bolaños, 2008).<br />
U.S. botanist Aust<strong>in</strong> Smith (1881-1948) was born<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ohio <strong>and</strong> came to Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1920. He lived <strong>in</strong><br />
Guanacaste until 1937 <strong>and</strong> then settled <strong>in</strong> the small<br />
town of Zarcero de Alfaro Ruiz (Grayum et al., 2004:<br />
22). Smith made a liv<strong>in</strong>g as a horticulturist, export<strong>in</strong>g<br />
plants <strong>and</strong> seeds to the United States, <strong>and</strong> collected,<br />
among others, Prosthechea brassavolae (Rchb. f.)<br />
W.E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s (Smith 1048), Crossoglossa fratrum<br />
(Schltr.) Dressler (Smith 1055), Sobralia leucoxantha<br />
Rchb. f. (Smith 1173), Elleanthus wercklei Schltr.<br />
(Smith 1343) <strong>and</strong> Habenaria aviculoides Ames &<br />
C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Smith 1376). Paull<strong>in</strong>ia aust<strong>in</strong>-smithii<br />
St<strong>and</strong>l. of the Sap<strong>in</strong>daceae carries his name. Smith<br />
was also <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> ornithology <strong>and</strong> wrote several<br />
articles about his observations of Costa Rican birds.<br />
The Swiss Walter Kupper (1874-1953) (Fig. 55D),<br />
was the first botanist to climb Cerro Chirripó, Costa<br />
Rica’s highest peak <strong>and</strong> collected <strong>in</strong> this country from<br />
November 1931 to July 1932, a journey sponsored by<br />
the Bavarian Academy of Science (Sussengut, 1954:<br />
170). Kupper was Curator of the Botanical Garden<br />
<strong>in</strong> Munich, Germany, a position he held until his
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
retirement <strong>in</strong> 1940. Maxillaria thienii Dodson (Kupper<br />
374) is one of his orchid specimens <strong>and</strong> Mansfeld<br />
described a new species, Kegeliella kupperi based on<br />
one of his collections near Tilarán, <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica. In<br />
a narrative about his collect<strong>in</strong>g experiences <strong>in</strong> Costa<br />
Rica, Kupper compares the size of the country (“not<br />
even as large as Bavaria”) with the number of orchid<br />
species that can be found, “larger than <strong>in</strong> any other<br />
tropical country” (Kupper, 1938: 2). Dur<strong>in</strong>g the same<br />
journey Kupper visited Christian Halb<strong>in</strong>ger, <strong>in</strong> Mexico.<br />
They became close friends <strong>and</strong> Kupper sent years later<br />
his collection of V<strong>and</strong>as to Halb<strong>in</strong>ger, fear<strong>in</strong>g that they<br />
could be destroyed dur<strong>in</strong>g World War II.<br />
Fern<strong>and</strong>o Solís Rojas collected some <strong>orchids</strong><br />
between 1935 <strong>and</strong> 1949: Pleurothallis amparoana<br />
Schltr. (Solís 345), Xylobium powellii (Solís 354),<br />
<strong>and</strong> Pleurothallis dolichopus Schltr. (Solís 473).<br />
“In 1943, a visit<strong>in</strong>g American team, led by C. A.<br />
Merker <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g fellow forester William R. Barbour<br />
<strong>and</strong> botanists Elbert Luther Little Jr. (1907— ) <strong>and</strong><br />
Wiliam Adams Dayton (1885-1958), surveyed Costa<br />
Rican forest resources <strong>in</strong> connection with the U.S. war<br />
effort, produc<strong>in</strong>g, among other th<strong>in</strong>gs, an annotated list<br />
of important forest trees <strong>and</strong> a crude vegetation map of<br />
the country” (Grayum et al., 2004: 23). Among their<br />
orchid collections were Nidema boothii (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Schltr.<br />
(Barbour 1037), <strong>and</strong> Arpophyllum giganteum Hartw. ex<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Barbour 1035).<br />
Richard W. Holm (1895-1987) <strong>and</strong> Hugh H. Iltis<br />
(1925-), botanized <strong>in</strong> various neglected corners of<br />
Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1949, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the northern pla<strong>in</strong>s of<br />
the Guatusos. Their pa<strong>in</strong>stak<strong>in</strong>g collections <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
Corymborkys forcipigera (Rchb. f. & Warsz.) L.O.<br />
Williams (Holm & Iltis 104), Govenia L<strong>in</strong>dl. sp.<br />
(Holm & Iltis 136), Pleurothallis phyllocardioides<br />
Schltr. (Holm & Iltis 195), Elleanthus cynarocephalus<br />
(Rchb. f.) Rchb. f. (Holm & Iltis 406), <strong>and</strong> Oncidium<br />
bryolophotum Rchb. f. (Holm & Iltis 631).<br />
Although the harvest of those years was meager,<br />
not everyth<strong>in</strong>g was lost. Alex<strong>and</strong>er F. Skutch<br />
(1904-2004) (Fig. 56A), who lived <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica<br />
from 1935 until his recent death, soon became<br />
one of the country’s most respected leaders <strong>in</strong> the<br />
study of natural sciences <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the development<br />
of a new relationship between mank<strong>in</strong>d <strong>and</strong> its<br />
natural environment. At the age of 16, after read<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Shelley’s poetry <strong>and</strong> essays, he decided to become a<br />
191<br />
vegetarian. Although love <strong>and</strong> affection for animals<br />
were his <strong>in</strong>itial reasons, he later found scientific<br />
arguments <strong>and</strong> often stated that one of the ma<strong>in</strong><br />
causes for the destruction of tropical forests was the<br />
need to clear great extensions of l<strong>and</strong> for graz<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
After graduat<strong>in</strong>g as a Bachelor of Botany at John<br />
Hopk<strong>in</strong>s University, <strong>in</strong> Baltimore (1925), he traveled<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1926 to Jamaica, to study the leaf anatomy of<br />
bananas at a plantation of the United Fruit Company<br />
(UFC), which was the base for his doctoral theses<br />
Anatomy of the Leaf of Banana, Musa sapientum L.<br />
var. Hort. Gros Michel, <strong>in</strong> 1928. The same year he<br />
received a grant to cont<strong>in</strong>ue his research on banana<br />
<strong>in</strong> another of the UFC experiment stations near<br />
Almirante, <strong>in</strong> Panama. These were his first contacts<br />
with tropical nature. In the early 1930s he traveled<br />
to Honduras, Guatemala, Ecuador, Venezuela <strong>and</strong><br />
Costa Rica. As a result, he published many papers<br />
on tropical flora <strong>and</strong> fauna <strong>and</strong> became soon one of<br />
the world’s lead<strong>in</strong>g ornithologists.<br />
“In 1933-34, Alex<strong>and</strong>er F. Skutch obta<strong>in</strong>ed a<br />
small but excellently prepared collection from<br />
several departments [of Guatemala], ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong><br />
Huehuetenango <strong>and</strong> Quiché” (Ames & Correll, 1985:<br />
viii). Among his orchid collections from Guatemala<br />
we f<strong>in</strong>d Habenaria entomantha (Llave & Lex.) L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Skutch 519), Habenaria monorrhiza (Sw.) Rchb. f.<br />
(Skutch 1377), Triphora trianthophora (Sw.) Rydb.<br />
(Skutch 494), Cranichis apiculata L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Skutch<br />
923) <strong>and</strong> a new species, Epidendrum skutchii Ames,<br />
Hubb. & C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Skutch 1715).<br />
He came to Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1935, to the valley of El<br />
General, with contracts to collect plants for museums<br />
<strong>and</strong> botanical gardens <strong>in</strong> the United States <strong>and</strong> Europe.<br />
This <strong>in</strong>come was sufficient for Skutch to cont<strong>in</strong>ue<br />
with his scientific studies on birds. His collections of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> from Costa Rica <strong>in</strong>clude Masdevallia nidifica<br />
Rchb. f. (Skutch 171), Xylobium foveatum (L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
G. Nicholson (Skutch 2147), Ponthieva racemosa<br />
(Walter) C. Mohr (Skutch 2198), <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> a new<br />
species, Stelis skutchii Ames (Skutch 3126). Several<br />
years later (1941) he bought a small farm on the Peñas<br />
Blancas river, that he called “Los Cus<strong>in</strong>gos”, the local<br />
name for the orange beaked toucanet (Pteroglossus<br />
frantzii) where he lived for over 60 years until his<br />
death <strong>in</strong> 2004. In 1950 he married one of Charles H.<br />
Lankester’s daughters, Pamela, who died <strong>in</strong> 2001.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
192<br />
Henry Teuscher <strong>and</strong> the Montreal Botanical<br />
Garden. The Montreal Botanical Garden was born<br />
of the dream of the man with both a religious <strong>and</strong><br />
scientific vocation, Brother Marie-Victor<strong>in</strong>, born<br />
Conrad Kirouack (1885-1944). Passionately <strong>in</strong>spired<br />
by nature, he had founded the Botanical Institute of<br />
the Université de Montréal <strong>in</strong> 1920 <strong>and</strong> dreamed of<br />
creat<strong>in</strong>g a great botanical garden for Montrealers, a<br />
plan he made public <strong>in</strong> 1925. Six years later, after much<br />
hard work to conv<strong>in</strong>ce both politicians <strong>and</strong> members<br />
of the local scientific community, his plan f<strong>in</strong>ally took<br />
shape. When the Garden was founded <strong>in</strong> 1931, Québec<br />
was <strong>in</strong> the grips of one of the worst crises <strong>in</strong> its history.<br />
Thous<strong>and</strong>s of Montrealers were out of work <strong>and</strong>,<br />
rather than simply pay<strong>in</strong>g these relief money, Mayor<br />
Camilien Houde came up with the idea of employ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
them to built the Garden<br />
With the assistance of Henry (He<strong>in</strong>rich) Teuscher<br />
(1891-1984) (Fig. 56B), a l<strong>and</strong>scape architect of German<br />
orig<strong>in</strong> tra<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> Europe <strong>and</strong> the United States <strong>and</strong> a<br />
renowned horticulturalist <strong>and</strong> botanist, Brother Marie-<br />
Victor<strong>in</strong>’s dream f<strong>in</strong>ally became a reality. A man of many<br />
talents, Teuscher drew up the first plan of the Garden.<br />
In 1936, he was officially appo<strong>in</strong>ted Super<strong>in</strong>tendent <strong>and</strong><br />
Chief Horticulturalist, <strong>and</strong> later Curator of the Garden, a<br />
position he held until his retirement <strong>in</strong> 1962. He also laid<br />
out several of the exhibition greenhouses <strong>and</strong> assembled<br />
some of the Garden’s major plant collections. His ideas<br />
as a botanist <strong>and</strong> garden architect were best expressed<br />
<strong>in</strong> his “Programme d’un jard<strong>in</strong> botanique idéal” (1940).<br />
Always try<strong>in</strong>g to exp<strong>and</strong> the Garden’s collections,<br />
Teuscher traveled <strong>in</strong> search for <strong>orchids</strong> to Ecuador (1951<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1956) <strong>and</strong> to Panama <strong>in</strong> 1964. One of his collections<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ecuador gave birth to a new genus named <strong>in</strong> his honor:<br />
Teuscheria Garay, with the type species Teuscheria<br />
cornucopia Garay (Teuscher s.n., Ecuador). Teuscher<br />
corresponded frequently <strong>and</strong> received material from<br />
the best collectors <strong>in</strong> our region, such as Harry Dunn <strong>in</strong><br />
Panama, <strong>and</strong> years later Clarence Horich <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica.<br />
In addition, he traveled to Venezuela, Ecuador, Tr<strong>in</strong>idad<br />
& Tobago, Jamaica, <strong>and</strong> Hawaii. Several orchid species<br />
were dedicated to Teuscher, among them: Epidendrum<br />
teuscherianum A.D. Hawkes, Rodriguezia teuscheri<br />
Garay <strong>and</strong> Telipogon teuscheri Garay. Between 1952<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1977, Teuscher published 287 articles <strong>in</strong> the most<br />
important orchid journals of his time. The most beautiful<br />
plant <strong>in</strong> the annual orchid show of the Montreal Orchid<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Society is awarded with the “Gr<strong>and</strong> prix d’excellence<br />
Henry Teuscher”. Henry Teuscher will rema<strong>in</strong>, for<br />
many orchidologists across the glove, as the symbol of<br />
Montreal’s <strong>orchidology</strong> (Boutot, 1984: 4).<br />
The Flora of Guatemala<br />
“The exceed<strong>in</strong>gly varied types of soil <strong>and</strong><br />
topography <strong>and</strong> diverse geological history of<br />
the country, rang<strong>in</strong>g from ancient mounta<strong>in</strong><br />
masses connected with North America to<br />
relatively youthful volcanic areas, comb<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
with marked altitud<strong>in</strong>al <strong>and</strong> climatic variations<br />
- hot desert to cold alp<strong>in</strong>e regions - have given<br />
Guatemala the richest flora <strong>in</strong> all Central<br />
America with an estimated total of 8,000<br />
species of vascular plants”.<br />
(St<strong>and</strong>ley & Steyermark, 1945: 275)<br />
The project of the Flora of Guatemala became<br />
one of the most ambitious enterprises of the Field<br />
Museum of Natural History <strong>in</strong> the 1930s. It was aga<strong>in</strong><br />
the prolific Paul C. St<strong>and</strong>ley who <strong>in</strong> 1938 undertook<br />
this enormous work. St<strong>and</strong>ley was later jo<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the<br />
project by Julian Steyermark, who jo<strong>in</strong>ed the Museum<br />
staff <strong>in</strong> 1937 <strong>and</strong> not only made numerous valuable<br />
collections <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, but contributed also to the<br />
published flora. F<strong>in</strong>ally, Louis O. Williams jo<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />
staff <strong>in</strong> 1960 <strong>and</strong> supervised the completion of the<br />
Flora of Guatemala (thirteen parts, 6,528 pages). The<br />
treatise of the <strong>orchids</strong> for the Flora was written by<br />
Oakes Ames <strong>and</strong> Donovan Stewart Correll, a work that<br />
would not have been possible without the contribution<br />
of an important number of collectors who must be<br />
mentioned as precursors to what is still today the ma<strong>in</strong><br />
published work on the Orchidaceae of Guatemala.<br />
Margaret Ward Lewis collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala from<br />
1928 to 1942. “When I first came to the tropics some<br />
twelve years ago it was to live <strong>in</strong> a little Fruit Company<br />
headquarters town where the seven houses were<br />
arranged <strong>in</strong> a hollow square <strong>and</strong> every front porch was<br />
a potential observatory. Exploration of the surround<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘bush’ was the only escape to a private life... I thought<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> one family was all I could encompass as<br />
a beg<strong>in</strong>ner <strong>and</strong> I had unique opportunities to collect.<br />
My husb<strong>and</strong> was at that time Chief Eng<strong>in</strong>eer for the<br />
[United] Fruit Company <strong>and</strong> I was <strong>in</strong> on all fell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
for a railroad across Montúfar Flats. In a little while
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
everybody knew I was <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> plants<br />
-hundreds of duplicates- came <strong>in</strong> from all sides... S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
1931 except for several visits to the States I have lived<br />
here <strong>in</strong> the City <strong>and</strong> our collection was considerably<br />
amplified by Sunday expeditions <strong>and</strong> the notes made<br />
more useful by tak<strong>in</strong>g up photography. From time to<br />
time I have made the acqua<strong>in</strong>tance of people <strong>in</strong> different<br />
parts of the Republic who send me anyth<strong>in</strong>g new they<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>and</strong> even the section foremen on the railroad<br />
know enough about <strong>orchids</strong> to send me any they f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
<strong>in</strong> clear<strong>in</strong>g the right-of-way. So no one has had a better<br />
chance than I to collect …” (In a letter from M. Lewis to<br />
L. O. Williams, January, 1940). Lewis’ collections <strong>and</strong><br />
diagnostic photographs of Guatemalan <strong>orchids</strong> were<br />
of great importance to Ames’ <strong>and</strong> Correll’s work. In<br />
Guatemala she met Steyermark, mentioned <strong>in</strong> several of<br />
her letters, <strong>and</strong> collected with J. R. Johnston <strong>in</strong> 1940.<br />
Among her collections are Cypripedium irapeanum<br />
Llave & Lex. (Lewis 151), Phragmipedium caudatum<br />
(L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Rolfe (Lewis 127), Habenaria monorrhiza<br />
(Sw.) Rchb. f. (Lewis 211), Elleanthus capitatus (R. Br.)<br />
Rchb. f. (Lewis 168), Sobralia fragans L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Lewis<br />
320) <strong>and</strong> Spiranthes amabilis Ames (Lewis 164), as<br />
well as at least six new species: Pleurothallis lewisae<br />
Ames (Lewis 2), Spiranthes obtecta S. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.<br />
(Lewis 191), Stanhopea lewisae Ames & Correll (Lewis<br />
140), Cranichis hieroglyphica Ames & Correll (Lewis<br />
154), Scaphyglottis m<strong>in</strong>utiflora Ames & Correll (Lewis<br />
105), <strong>and</strong> Lepanthes excedens Ames & Correll (Lewis<br />
105). Margaret Ward Lewis’ love for Guatemala <strong>and</strong><br />
its <strong>orchids</strong> were best described by herself <strong>in</strong> her article<br />
Guatemalan Interlude (1954), that she f<strong>in</strong>ished with the<br />
sentence: “Orchids are where you f<strong>in</strong>d them <strong>and</strong> I hope,<br />
where you leave them” (Ward-Lewis, 1954: 184-190).<br />
Mercedes Aguilar Hidalgo (1905-), a specialist<br />
<strong>in</strong> Phanerogams, collected <strong>in</strong> 1935 <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
<strong>and</strong> Belize. Some of her specimens are Habenaria<br />
pauciflora (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Rchb. f. (M. Aguilar 208),<br />
Habenaria strictissima Rchb. f. (M. Aguilar 156),<br />
Epidendrum cochleatum L. (M. Aguilar 334),<br />
Epidendrum sk<strong>in</strong>neri Batem. ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. (M. Aguilar<br />
143) <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum stamfordianum Batem. (M.<br />
Aguilar 462).<br />
Biologist, naturalist <strong>and</strong> pioneer of canopy biology,<br />
Marston Bates (1906-1974) made a few collections<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>in</strong> 1935, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Stelis<br />
ovatilabia Schltr. (Bates 19), Stelis purpurascens A.<br />
193<br />
Rich. & Gal. (Bates 13), Epidendrum boothi (L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
L.O. Williams (Bates 12) <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum l<strong>in</strong>dleyanum<br />
(Batem.) Rchb. f. (Bates 11). Bates was better known<br />
as a philosopher of natural sciences <strong>and</strong> for his books:<br />
The Nature of Natural History (1951), Man <strong>in</strong> nature<br />
(1961), <strong>and</strong> The Forest <strong>and</strong> the Sea (1960).<br />
Walter Conrad Leopold Muenscher (1891-<br />
1963) collected <strong>in</strong> 1937 Sobralia macrantha L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Muenscher 12442), Epidendrum ochraceum L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Muenscher 12548), Dichaea <strong>in</strong>termedia Ames &<br />
Correll (Muenscher 12531), Dichaea muricata (Sw.)<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Muenscher 12543) <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum repens<br />
Cogn. (Muenscher 12542). Muenscher, New York<br />
State’s ‘Wizard of Weeds’, was Professor of Botany at<br />
Cornell University from 1923 to 1954. He had special<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> wetl<strong>and</strong>s, poisonous plants, <strong>and</strong> trees, <strong>and</strong><br />
was the author of more than 125 articles <strong>and</strong> several<br />
books <strong>in</strong> addition to Keys to Woody Plants (1950).<br />
One of Lundell’s ma<strong>in</strong> collaborators was Elías<br />
Contreras, with whom he collected <strong>in</strong> Petén. Some<br />
of his orchid specimens are Habenaria bractescens<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Contreras 1771), Habenaria distans Griseb.<br />
(Contreras 2976), Vanilla hartii Rolfe (Contreras<br />
3063), Elleanthus l<strong>in</strong>ifolius Presl. (Contreras 2753)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Sobralia fragans L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Contreras 2836).<br />
John Robert Johnston (1880-1953) collected <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala from 1937 to 1941. Years before he had<br />
botanized <strong>in</strong> Venezuela (1901-1903) <strong>and</strong> had written<br />
several articles on the flora of the coastal areas <strong>and</strong> the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> isl<strong>and</strong>s. He collected Cypripedium irapeanum<br />
Llave & Lex. (Johnston 1645), Habenaria crassicornis<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Johnston 155), Habenaria entomantha (Llave<br />
& Lex.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Johnston 920), Habenaria qu<strong>in</strong>queseta<br />
(Michx.) Sw. (Johnston 1564), Habenaria repens Nutt.<br />
(Johnston 1400), Crybe rosea L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Johnston 1983)<br />
<strong>and</strong> the type specimens of Leochilus johnstonii Ames &<br />
Correll (Johnston 1864, Guatemala), <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum<br />
altícola Ames & Correll (Johnston 1472, Guatemala).<br />
Francis Welles Hunnewell (1880-1964) was <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
from1937 to1941. “In recent years, .... Hunnewell has<br />
made a small but discrim<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g collection, primarly <strong>in</strong><br />
five of the Pacific coast departments” (Ames & Correll,<br />
1985: viii). Among his orchid collections we f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
Ponthieva triloba Schltr (Hunnewell 14668), Spiranthes<br />
parasitica A. Rich. & Gal. (Hunnewell 14675),<br />
Spiranthes pyramidalis L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Hunnewell 14672),<br />
Pleurothallis grobyi Batem. ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Hunnewell<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
194<br />
14676), <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum ibaguense H.B.K. (Hunnewell<br />
14670). Hunnewell also collected <strong>in</strong> Belize.<br />
In 1938 José Ignacio Aguilar collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
Habenaria entomantha (Llave & Lex.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (J.I.<br />
Aguilar 1534), Habenaria repens Nutt (J.I. Aguilar<br />
311), Elleanthus capitatus (R. Br.) Rchb. f. (J.I.<br />
Aguilar 426), Ponthieva triloba Schltr. (J.I. Aguilar<br />
1512), Spiranthes orchioides (Sw.) A. Rich. (J.I.<br />
Aguilar 1167), <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum aricosum Batem. ex<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (J.I. Aguilar 363).<br />
Julian Alfred Steyermark (1909-1988) (Fig. 56C),<br />
after be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Panama on a botanical expedition <strong>in</strong><br />
1934 <strong>and</strong> 1935, jo<strong>in</strong>ed the staff of the Field Museum<br />
of Natural History <strong>in</strong> 1937 <strong>and</strong> started work<strong>in</strong>g with<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley on the Flora of Guatemala, where he collected<br />
from 1939 to 1943. Steyermark was St. Louis born <strong>and</strong><br />
bred, earn<strong>in</strong>g his Ph.D. through Wash<strong>in</strong>gton University<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1933. Steyermark also produced numerous tropical<br />
American floras <strong>and</strong> returned to the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden <strong>in</strong> 1984 to work on the flora of the Venezuelan<br />
Guyana. He was credited <strong>in</strong> the Gu<strong>in</strong>ness Book of World<br />
Records for collect<strong>in</strong>g 138,000 plant specimens dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
his lifetime. While <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, he collected a great<br />
number of orchid specimens, such as Habenaria alata<br />
Hook (Steyermark 29538), Habenaria clypeata L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Steyermark 51804), Triphora cubensis (Rchb. f.)<br />
Ames (Steyermark 69559), Cranichis apiculata L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Steyermark 31701), <strong>and</strong> Spiranthes aurantiaca (Llave<br />
& Lex.) Hemsl. (Steyermark 50628). He discovered<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g new species: Campylocentrum<br />
microphyllum Ames & Correll (Steyermark 37376,<br />
Guatemala), Kreodanthus ovatilabius (Ames &<br />
Correll ) Garay (Steyermark 32471, Guatemala),<br />
Epidendrum schwe<strong>in</strong>furthianum Correll (Steyermark<br />
42521, Guatemala), Epidendrum sobralioides Ames &<br />
Correll (Steyermark 42764, Guatemala), <strong>and</strong> Malaxis<br />
steyermarkii Correll (Steyermark 51762, Guatemala).<br />
As part of the Flora of Guatemala of Paul St<strong>and</strong>ley<br />
<strong>and</strong> Julian Steyermark, Oakes Ames <strong>and</strong> Donovan<br />
Stewart Correll (1908-1983) wrote the first systematic<br />
treatment of the <strong>orchids</strong> of the country (Ames & Correll,<br />
1985). A total of 567 species were enumerated. Correll<br />
published later a supplement to this work, <strong>in</strong> which he<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded the <strong>orchids</strong> of Belize (Correll, 1985).<br />
Correll, who had spent two years tak<strong>in</strong>g voice<br />
lessons <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g solos at church <strong>and</strong> on the radio<br />
before go<strong>in</strong>g to college, became a research associate<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
at the Botanical Museum of Harvard University<br />
(1939-1943). Ames <strong>in</strong>troduced him to <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
to Economic Botany. In a letter from L. O. Williams<br />
to Margaret Ward Lewis (December 7, 1939), he<br />
<strong>in</strong>formed her that “A young man, Dr. D. S. Correll,<br />
has been added to our staff. The first problem to<br />
which he has been assigned is writ<strong>in</strong>g up the <strong>orchids</strong><br />
for St<strong>and</strong>ley’s proposed flora of Guatemala. I th<strong>in</strong>k<br />
that he will undoubtedly do a very good job of it.”<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g World War II he served <strong>in</strong> the US Navy <strong>and</strong><br />
was <strong>in</strong> Panama for a few days <strong>in</strong> 1945, although we<br />
have no records of orchid collections by Correll from<br />
that country. At the end of 1947 he was <strong>in</strong> Mexico<br />
(Michoacán <strong>and</strong> Oaxaca) <strong>and</strong> from 1947 to 1956 he<br />
served <strong>in</strong> various capacities <strong>in</strong> the Specialty Crop<br />
Introductions Group of the United States Department<br />
of Agriculture (Schubert, 1984: 134). In 1956 he<br />
became head of the Botany Department of the Texas<br />
Research Foundation, Renner, Texas <strong>and</strong> traveled<br />
often to Lat<strong>in</strong> America: Mexico (1958), Ecuador <strong>and</strong><br />
Bolivia (1958-1960) <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> Mexico (1959 <strong>and</strong><br />
1965). Dur<strong>in</strong>g the years of 1971-1973, Correll served<br />
as Program Director for Systematic Biology at the<br />
National Science Foundation, <strong>and</strong> at the conclusion<br />
of his appo<strong>in</strong>tment he was <strong>in</strong>vited to jo<strong>in</strong> the staff of<br />
the Fairchild Tropical Garden, Miami, as taxonomist,<br />
to produce a flora of the Bahama Isl<strong>and</strong>s, that was<br />
published just a few months before his death. Correll<br />
published major botanical works. Worthy of mention<br />
are his Native Orchids of North America North of<br />
Mexico (1950), Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas<br />
(1970), <strong>and</strong> Flora of the Bahama Archipelago (1982).<br />
The l<strong>and</strong> of Percival Hildebart Gentle<br />
“We must allow our children the right to<br />
experience the beauty of Belize that we<br />
have had the fortune to share. We must, <strong>in</strong><br />
addition, teach the next generation the idea of<br />
conservation for, if we fail, we had better teach<br />
them survival”.<br />
(Manuel Esquivel, Prime M<strong>in</strong>ister of Belize,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the foreword to McLeish et al., 1994).<br />
Harley Harris Bartlett (1886-1960) (Fig. 56D),<br />
was born <strong>in</strong> Anaconda, Montana. He went to Harvard<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1904, work<strong>in</strong>g as an assistant to B. L. Rob<strong>in</strong>son<br />
<strong>and</strong> M. L. Fernald, for an A.B. cum laude (1908) <strong>in</strong>
A<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
C D<br />
Figure 56. A — Alex<strong>and</strong>er F. Skutch (1904-2004). Courtesy of the Tropical Science Center, Costa Rica. B — Henry<br />
(He<strong>in</strong>rich) Teuscher (1891-1984). In Boutot, 1984: 3. C — Julian Alfred Steyermark (1909-1988). Courtesy of Barry<br />
Hamel, Missouri Botanical Garden. D — Harley Harris Bartlett (1886-1960). Courtesy of the Archives of the Gray<br />
Herbarium, Harvard University.<br />
B<br />
195<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
196<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
C D<br />
Figure 57. A — Percival Hildebart Gentle (1890- 1958). Portrait by Ellen Atha, with her permission. B — Karl Erik<br />
Magnus Östlund (1875-1938). Courtesy of Luis Sánchez, AMO Herbarium, Mexico. C — Richard Evans Schultes (1915-<br />
2001). Courtesy of the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation. D — Thomas Baillie MacDougall (1895-1973).<br />
Courtesy of Luis Sánchez, AMO Herbarium, Mexico.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
chemistry. In 1909, he came to Wash<strong>in</strong>gton with the<br />
Bureau of Plant Industry as a chemical biologist.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g this time he worked on the genetics of<br />
Oenothera. In 1915 he became assistant professor of<br />
botany at the University of Michigan, full professor <strong>in</strong><br />
1921, head of the Botany Department from 1922-47,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Director of the Botanical Garden from 1919-55.<br />
In 1918, he explored <strong>and</strong> botanized <strong>in</strong> Sumatra with<br />
the U.S. Rubber Company. Bartlett, sponsored by the<br />
Carnegie Institution <strong>and</strong> the University of Michigan,<br />
had been <strong>in</strong> Mexico (1930) <strong>and</strong> collected <strong>in</strong> 1931 <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala <strong>and</strong> Belize, where he returned <strong>in</strong> 1936 <strong>and</strong><br />
obta<strong>in</strong>ed an extensive series of plants <strong>in</strong> the Belize <strong>and</strong><br />
El Cayo districts. In Belize he collected Habenaria<br />
wercklei Schltr. (H.H. Bartlett 11598), Sobralia<br />
bradeorum Schltr. (H.H. Bartlett 11771), Elleanthus<br />
gram<strong>in</strong>ifolius (Barb. Rodr.) Løjtnant (H.H. Bartlett<br />
11733), Lophiaris lurida (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Braem (H.H. Bartlett<br />
12077), Oncidium sphacelatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. (H.H. Bartlett<br />
12946), <strong>and</strong> Encyclia belizensis (Rchb. f.) Schltr.<br />
(H.H. Bartlett 14068). From Guatemala we have his<br />
specimen of Brassia maculata R. Br. (H.H. Bartlett<br />
12699). In 1940, Bartlett was <strong>in</strong> Panama together with<br />
Tobias Lasser (1911-) 39 . They collected among others<br />
Campylocentrum micranthum (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Maury (H.H.<br />
Bartlett & T. Lasser 16823).<br />
It was undoubtedly a fortunate circumstance that<br />
Bartlett, <strong>in</strong> 1931, could conv<strong>in</strong>ce Percival Hildebart<br />
Gentle (1890- 1958) (Fig. 57A) to collect for him.<br />
Gentle, a Belizean-born botanist, devoted the latter<br />
half of his professional life to collect<strong>in</strong>g herbarium<br />
specimens throughout the country. His collections,<br />
among which over 150 new species were found, were<br />
sent to the United States <strong>and</strong> from there distributed to<br />
herbaria throughout the world. His collections were a<br />
great contribution to Lundell’s studies on the flora of<br />
Belize. “From 1931 until shortly before his death <strong>in</strong><br />
1958, Gentle collected 9756 numbers, easily mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
him the most prolific collector of the Belize flora....<br />
Percival Gentle had a keen eye for plants he had not<br />
previously collected. Based on collection data <strong>in</strong> our<br />
databases, we estimate that he collected approximately<br />
65% of the flora. His numerous <strong>and</strong> well-executed<br />
collections are a testament to his dedication <strong>and</strong> skill<br />
as a botanist <strong>and</strong> a legacy enrich<strong>in</strong>g our underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
197<br />
of the Belize flora.” Gentle’s “botanical efforts<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g 1931-1958 made possible most subsequent<br />
studies <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g the Belizean flora” (Balick et al.,<br />
2000: 18).Among his orchid collections we can f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
Ponera striata L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 1097), Trigonidium<br />
egertonianum Bateman ex L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 1122),<br />
Maxillaria crassifolia (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Rchb. f. (Gentle<br />
1123), Oncidium sphacelatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 1154),<br />
Encyclia bractescens (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) Hoehne (Gentle 1195),<br />
Stelis ciliaris L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 1196), Ornithocephalus<br />
<strong>in</strong>flexus L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 1312), Brassavola nodosa<br />
var. gr<strong>and</strong>iflora (L<strong>in</strong>dl.) H.G. Jones (Gentle 1313),<br />
Scaphyglottis behrii (Rchb. f.) Benth. & Hook. f.<br />
ex Hemsl. (Gentle 1576), Ionopsis utricularioides<br />
(Sw.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 1700), Scaphyglottis leucantha<br />
Rchb. f. (Gentle 1781), Maxillaria tenuifolia L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Gentle 2189), Bletia purpurea (Lam.) DC. (Gentle<br />
2537), Dimer<strong>and</strong>ra emarg<strong>in</strong>ata (G. Mey.) Hoehne<br />
(Gentle 2541), Brassia maculata R. Br. (Gentle 3023),<br />
Sobralia decora Bateman (Gentle 3036), Elleanthus<br />
gram<strong>in</strong>ifolius (Barb. Rodr.) Løjtnant (Gentle 3065),<br />
Prescottia stachyodes (Sw.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 3492),<br />
Habenaria mesodactyla Griseb. (Gentle 3636),<br />
Polystachya clavata L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 3640), Prosthechea<br />
cochleata (L.) W.E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s (Gentle 3974), Habenaria<br />
trifida Kunth (Gentle 4036), Scaphyglottis prolifera<br />
Cogn. (Gentle 4077), Scaphyglottis m<strong>in</strong>utiflora Ames<br />
& Correll (Gentle 4265), Cryptarrhena lunata R. Br.<br />
(Gentle 4266), Ornithocephalus bicornis L<strong>in</strong>dl. ex<br />
Benth. (Gentle 4267), Cryptarrhena guatemalensis<br />
Schltr. (Gentle 4309), Sobralia mucronata Ames &<br />
C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Gentle 4314), Lophiaris lurida (L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
Braem (Gentle 4396), Campylocentrum hondurense<br />
Ames (Gentle 4472), Sobralia fragrans L<strong>in</strong>dl.<br />
(Gentle 4925), Campylocentrum micranthum (L<strong>in</strong>dl.)<br />
Maury (Gentle 5049), Campylocentrum tyrridion<br />
Garay & Dunst. (Gentle 5077), Oncidium ensatum<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 5147), Lycaste aromatica (Graham ex<br />
Hook.) L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 5418), Dichaea panamensis<br />
L<strong>in</strong>dl. (Gentle 6032) <strong>and</strong> Prosthechea pygmaea<br />
(Hook.) W.E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s (Gentle 6368). A few months<br />
before his death he made his last orchid collection, the<br />
beautiful Encyclia belizensis (Rchb. f.) Schltr. (Gentle<br />
9740). Lundell honored him <strong>in</strong> the genus Gentlea<br />
(Myrs<strong>in</strong>aceae).<br />
39 Lasser, Director of the ‘Instituto Botánico’ of Venezuela, was the editor of the Flora de Venezuela (1964), for which Ernesto<br />
Foldats wrote the treatment of the Orchidaceae.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
198<br />
The Mexican Renaissance (I). With the Mexican<br />
Revolution that began after the political events of 1910<br />
the country entered a period of political commotion <strong>and</strong><br />
fratricidal struggles. The result were almost three decades<br />
of economic <strong>and</strong> cultural penury (Rzedowski, 1981: 7),<br />
of which Mexico would only beg<strong>in</strong> to recover dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
government of Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-1940). Only Carl<br />
A. Purpus, <strong>in</strong> his beloved Zacuapam, dared to cont<strong>in</strong>ue<br />
his botanical activity dur<strong>in</strong>g those troubled years.<br />
A new era of Mexican <strong>orchidology</strong> began with Karl<br />
Erik Magnus Östlund (1875-1938) (Fig. 57B). Östlund<br />
had been born <strong>in</strong> Stockholm, where he received the<br />
degree of Chemical Eng<strong>in</strong>eer <strong>in</strong> 1897. In 1909 he came<br />
to Mexico, as manager of the ‘Empresa de Teléfonos<br />
Ericsson S.A.’ Soon he became <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the Mexican<br />
Orchidaceae <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1928 he retired <strong>and</strong> dedicated himself<br />
entirely to orchid studies. He prepared detailed draw<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
from liv<strong>in</strong>g material, with microscopic sections, exact<br />
measurements <strong>and</strong> color <strong>in</strong>dications. “The Östlund<br />
Orchid Herbarium ... was without doubt the f<strong>in</strong>est<br />
collection of <strong>orchids</strong> ever to come out of Mexico. Now<br />
I might justifiably go further <strong>and</strong> say that it was most<br />
probably the f<strong>in</strong>est collection of <strong>orchids</strong> to come out of<br />
any country” (Williams, 1951: 5). “The quality of the<br />
data of orig<strong>in</strong>, the care with which the specimens were<br />
prepared, the abundance of the material, the rigor of the<br />
numeration, the extensive additional <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>and</strong><br />
the draw<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the field books, all this <strong>in</strong> a period of<br />
just ten years, is exceptional” (Hágsater et al., 2005: 69).<br />
The Östlund heirs donated this collection to the Oakes<br />
Ames Herbarium at Harvard University. Duplicate sets<br />
of specimens were distributed to many <strong>in</strong>stitutions,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the Smithsonian Institute <strong>and</strong> the Missouri<br />
Botanical Garden. Östlund collected the types of two<br />
new species: Spiranthes densiflora C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth<br />
(Östlund 1513) <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum cyanocolumna Ames,<br />
Hubb. <strong>and</strong> Schwe<strong>in</strong>f. (Östlund 2413). Two orchid<br />
genera: Oestlundia W.E. Higg<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Oestlundorchis<br />
Szlach., as well as many species, were dedicated to him:<br />
Brassia oestlundiana L.O. Williams, Encyclia oestlundii<br />
(Ames, Hubbard & Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth) Hágsater & F.R.<br />
Stermitz, Lepanthes oestlundiana R.E. Schult. & Dillon,<br />
Maxillaria oestlundiana L.O. Williams, Mormodes<br />
oestlundiana G.A. Salazar Chávez & Hágsater, <strong>and</strong><br />
Pleurothallis oestlundiana L.O. Williams.<br />
Otto Nagel (1894-1972) f<strong>in</strong>ished his apprenticeship<br />
<strong>in</strong> botany <strong>and</strong> garden<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Saxony, <strong>and</strong> came to<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1925. He dedicated himself to graft<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
the improvement of the orange groves <strong>in</strong> the state of<br />
Veracruz. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this time, he lived <strong>in</strong> the home of C.<br />
A. Purpus, who <strong>in</strong>troduced him to the Mexican flora<br />
(Hartmann, 1968: 191). A few years later he was called<br />
by Karl E. Östlund: he needed an able assistant <strong>and</strong><br />
collaborator to <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>and</strong> take care of his collection<br />
<strong>and</strong> prepare an orchid herbarium. Nagel was the ideal<br />
man for this task, <strong>and</strong> so began a fruitful relationship that<br />
would go on for nearly a decade (Halb<strong>in</strong>ger, 1972: 257).<br />
Search<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>and</strong> collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong>, Nagel traveled<br />
through the whole country. He collected the greater<br />
part of the Mexican species <strong>and</strong> discovered a number<br />
of new ones. Many others, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a new genus,<br />
were named <strong>in</strong> his honor: Nageliella L.O. Williams,<br />
Bletia nagelii L.O. Williams (Conzatti & Nagel 7113),<br />
Bulbophyllum nagelii L.O. Williams (Williams & Nagel<br />
3864), Epidendrum nagelii L.O. Williams (Nagel 2063),<br />
Lepanthes nagelii Salazar & Soto Arenas, Maxillaria<br />
nagelii L.O. Williams ex Correll, Mormodes nagelii<br />
L.O. Williams, Stelis nagelii Solano, <strong>and</strong> Trichosalp<strong>in</strong>x<br />
nageliana Soto Arenas. Nagel was made head of the<br />
Orchidarium of the Biology Institute of the National<br />
University <strong>in</strong> 1959 by its director, the renowned<br />
professor Faust<strong>in</strong>o Mir<strong>and</strong>a González (1905-1964).<br />
Mir<strong>and</strong>a, born <strong>in</strong> northern Spa<strong>in</strong>, had come to Mexico <strong>in</strong><br />
1939 as a political refugee after the Spanish Civil War,<br />
<strong>and</strong> would play an important role <strong>in</strong> the development<br />
of natural sciences <strong>in</strong> the country. He spent five years<br />
<strong>in</strong> Chiapas, were he wrote an important work about<br />
the vegetation of the region (Mir<strong>and</strong>a, 1952) <strong>and</strong><br />
founded the Botanical Garden of Tuxtla Gutiérrez. In<br />
1960 he <strong>org</strong>anized the botanical garden of the National<br />
University. Both gardens carry today his name.<br />
Mir<strong>and</strong>a plays an important role <strong>in</strong> our history<br />
because he identified over 2,700 plants collected by<br />
Francisco Hernández <strong>in</strong> the XVI century <strong>and</strong> by his<br />
translation of the Badianus Manuscript.<br />
Eizi Matuda (1894-1978) was the only botanist of<br />
Asian orig<strong>in</strong> who ever worked <strong>in</strong> our region. Born <strong>in</strong><br />
Nagasaki, Japan, he received his degree <strong>in</strong> Biological<br />
Sciences at the Imperial University of Taihoku (Taiwan),<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1914. As a professor <strong>and</strong> researcher for different<br />
universities <strong>in</strong> Japan, Matuda studied the flora of Korea,<br />
Manchuria, Hong Kong, S<strong>in</strong>gapore <strong>and</strong> Java. In 1922 he<br />
came to Mexico <strong>and</strong> became a Mexican citizen <strong>in</strong> 1928.<br />
Matuda was a field man <strong>and</strong> traveled <strong>in</strong>to remote areas
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
by mule, thus acquir<strong>in</strong>g an excellent knowledge of much<br />
of tropical Mexico. Although he specialized <strong>in</strong> Aroids, he<br />
collected <strong>and</strong> studied Mexican Orchidaceae, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1969<br />
published an important book about the <strong>orchids</strong> of the<br />
state of Mexico (Matuda, 1969). An important number of<br />
Mexican species was named <strong>in</strong> his honor: Epidendrum<br />
matudae L.O. Williams, Govenia matudae E.W. Greenw.<br />
& Soto Arenas, Habenaria matudae Salazar, Lepanthes<br />
matudana G.A. Salazar Chávez & Soto Arenas, <strong>and</strong><br />
Pleurothallis matudiana C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth.<br />
Christian Halb<strong>in</strong>ger (1884-1976) was born <strong>in</strong> Munich<br />
<strong>and</strong> came to Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1906. He was from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g<br />
fasc<strong>in</strong>ated by the Mexican flora, with an <strong>in</strong>itial <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
<strong>in</strong> Cacti that resulted <strong>in</strong> the nam<strong>in</strong>g of two species:<br />
Mammilaria halb<strong>in</strong>geri und Echeverria halb<strong>in</strong>geri <strong>in</strong> his<br />
honor. In the 1930’s his <strong>in</strong>terest shifted to <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> he<br />
became a found<strong>in</strong>g member of the Mexican Society of<br />
Orchid Friends <strong>in</strong> 1939, together with Carlos Lascuara<strong>in</strong>,<br />
Maxim<strong>in</strong>o Martínez <strong>and</strong> Juan Balme. Halb<strong>in</strong>ger’s work<br />
with Mexican <strong>orchids</strong> has been cont<strong>in</strong>ued by his son<br />
Federico (born 1925). Halb<strong>in</strong>ger collected the type<br />
specimen of Pleurothallis longispicata L.O. Williams (C.<br />
Halb<strong>in</strong>ger 1752). Another Mexican species, Platystele<br />
halb<strong>in</strong>gerana (R.E. Schult.) Garay carries his name, <strong>and</strong><br />
was collected by a good friend of Halb<strong>in</strong>ger, the great<br />
ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes (1915-2001) (Fig.<br />
57C) dur<strong>in</strong>g a collect<strong>in</strong>g excursion to Oaxaca <strong>in</strong> 1939,<br />
while search<strong>in</strong>g for plants with halluc<strong>in</strong>ogenic properties.<br />
Schultes would become some years later Curator of<br />
the Orchid Herbarium of Oakes Ames <strong>and</strong> later of the<br />
Botanical Museum of Harvard University. He is famous<br />
<strong>in</strong> the orchid world for his book Native Orchids of<br />
Tr<strong>in</strong>idad <strong>and</strong> Tobago (1960).<br />
Thomas Baillie MacDougall (1895-1973) (Fig. 57D)<br />
was a British subject who came to the United States<br />
shortly after World War I. As an amateur biologist, he<br />
became related to diverse Natural History <strong>in</strong>stitutions,<br />
among them the New York Botanical Garden, <strong>and</strong><br />
was named by several of them collector <strong>in</strong> southern<br />
Mexico. He made the isthmus of Tehuantepec his<br />
residence <strong>and</strong> lived there for over 40 years. In Francisco<br />
Ortega, a Zapotec guide <strong>and</strong> it<strong>in</strong>erant trader, he found a<br />
special friend <strong>and</strong> companion on most of his collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
excursions, travel<strong>in</strong>g on foot over the greater part of the<br />
states of Oaxaca <strong>and</strong> Chiapas. He discovered <strong>in</strong>numerable<br />
new species, many of which carry his name: Begonia<br />
macdougallii, Till<strong>and</strong>sia macdougallii, Anthurium<br />
199<br />
macdougallii, etc. (Bravo, 1973: 171-172). MacDougall<br />
collected the type specimen of Epidendrum rowleyi<br />
Withner & G.E. Pollard (T.B. MacDougall s.n.) <strong>and</strong><br />
two orchid species were named after him: Oerstedella<br />
macdougallii Hágsater <strong>and</strong> Sobralia macdougallii Soto<br />
Arenas, Pérez-García & Salazar. MacDougall visited<br />
often the Botanical Garden of the National University<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mexico City, where he would discuss his orchid<br />
specimens with Otto Nagel <strong>and</strong> his cacti with Helia<br />
Bravo. “Among the species of cacti he discovered is<br />
the small <strong>and</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gular Ortegocactus macdougallii, a<br />
name that l<strong>in</strong>ks those two most affectionate friends: Don<br />
Francisco Ortega <strong>and</strong> Don Thomas MacDougall” (Bravo,<br />
1973: 172). All important names <strong>in</strong> the <strong>orchidology</strong><br />
of Mexico dur<strong>in</strong>g MacDougall’s life were his friends:<br />
Oberg, Pollard, Greenwood, Nagel, Halb<strong>in</strong>ger, Mir<strong>and</strong>a<br />
<strong>and</strong> Matuda, among others.<br />
Franz Mayer (1882-1975) came to Mexico <strong>in</strong> 1905,<br />
under a one year contract with a British bank. He saw the<br />
opportunity to make his own career <strong>and</strong> stayed <strong>in</strong> Mexico<br />
for the rest of his life, be<strong>in</strong>g one of the founders of the<br />
Mexican Stock Exchange. One of his good friends, Ema<br />
Hurtado (the widow of the famous pa<strong>in</strong>ter Diego Rivera)<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced him to the <strong>orchids</strong> of Mexico that became his<br />
passion. Mayer was a found<strong>in</strong>g member of the ‘Sociedad<br />
Mexicana Amigos de las Orquídeas’ (= ‘Mexican Society<br />
of Friends of the Orchids’ ) <strong>in</strong> the early 1940’s <strong>and</strong> later<br />
a found<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> honorary member of the ‘Asociación<br />
Mexicana de Orquideología.’ Mayer built up one of the<br />
largest orchid collections <strong>in</strong> Mexico. A large part of it<br />
was left to the Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología<br />
that has kept an important part of it <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to<br />
the collection it ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> the Botanical Garden of<br />
Chapultepec. “[Mayer] knew how to choose his friends,<br />
<strong>and</strong> there is no doubt that the <strong>orchids</strong> were the ones he<br />
preferred” (Ewald, 1977: 146).<br />
A passionate hunter, Salvador Rosillo de Velasco<br />
(1910-1987), began to turn his attention to <strong>orchids</strong><br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g his hunt<strong>in</strong>g excursions, around the year of 1945.<br />
However, he limited his area of study to the state of<br />
Jalisco that lies outside the area of <strong>in</strong>terest of this story.<br />
Aaron John Sharp (1904-1997) collected <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
<strong>and</strong> Mexico between 1944 <strong>and</strong> 1946. A native of Ohio,<br />
Sharp came to our area to study the floristic relationships<br />
with eastern North America. In those years he published<br />
an important work about the flora of Chiapas (Sharp,<br />
1945). Sharp was a noteworthy conservationist, who<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
200<br />
spent most of his life try<strong>in</strong>g to create a conscience about<br />
the susta<strong>in</strong>able use of natural resources. In Chiapas he<br />
discovered a new species of orchid: Cranichis ciliilabia<br />
C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>furth (Sharp 45977).<br />
Honduras <strong>and</strong> the Pan-American Agricultural<br />
School of ‘El Zamorano’. Many years after most<br />
Central American countries had already been thoroughly<br />
explored, Honduras was still the noteworthy exception.<br />
“The vegetation of Honduras as a whole is very imperfectly<br />
known. With the exception of a few collections which<br />
have been made <strong>in</strong> the Atlantic coastal pla<strong>in</strong> region <strong>and</strong><br />
at scattered <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> po<strong>in</strong>ts, most of the country rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
wholly unexplored <strong>in</strong> the botanical sense” (Yuncker,<br />
1945: 55). Most of those few collections mentioned<br />
by Williams were made by Truman Ge<strong>org</strong>e Yuncker<br />
(1891-1964) (Fig. 58A), who <strong>org</strong>anized expeditions <strong>in</strong>to<br />
Honduras <strong>in</strong> 1934 <strong>and</strong> 1936 <strong>and</strong> then <strong>in</strong> 1938 <strong>and</strong> 1940.<br />
After obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g his Ph.D. from the University of Ill<strong>in</strong>ois,<br />
Yuncker jo<strong>in</strong>ed the faculty of DePauw University <strong>in</strong><br />
1919 <strong>and</strong> served as head of the botany <strong>and</strong> bacteriology<br />
department from its establishment <strong>in</strong> the 1920s until his<br />
retirement <strong>in</strong> 1956. On his second journey to Honduras,<br />
Yuncker traveled with Ray Fields Dawson (1911- )<br />
<strong>and</strong> Howard R. Youse. Yuncker wrote some of the few<br />
contributions to the flora of Honduras known from the<br />
first half of the century: A Contribution to the Flora of<br />
Honduras (1938) <strong>and</strong> Flora of the Aguan Valley <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Coastal Regions near La Ceiba, Honduras (1940). In the<br />
former, 63 species of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> 28 genera were described,<br />
as usual with the contribution of Oakes Ames. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the expedition of Yuncker, Dawson <strong>and</strong> Youse, two new<br />
orchid species were discovered, that were described<br />
by Ames as Lepanthes yunckeri Ames (T.G. Yuncker,<br />
R.F. Dawson & H.R. Youse 6152) <strong>and</strong> Lepanthes<br />
dawsonii Ames (T.G. Yuncker, R.F. Dawson & H.R.<br />
Youse 6152A). Another orchid, Phreatia yunckeri, was<br />
described by L.O. Williams from a collection by Yuncker<br />
<strong>in</strong> the South Pacific.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>ally, after many years of neglect, Honduras started<br />
to play an important role <strong>in</strong> the history of our <strong>orchids</strong><br />
when, after Lancetilla, Wilson Popenoe was called<br />
upon by the United Fruit Company President Samuel<br />
Zemurray <strong>in</strong> 1941 to help <strong>in</strong>itiate <strong>and</strong> develop another<br />
U.F.C project. This project was the Pan American<br />
Agricultural School, popularly known today as “El<br />
Zamorano”. The idea was to create a center of learn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
where Central Americans <strong>and</strong> other Lat<strong>in</strong> Americans<br />
could receive up to date agricultural tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to help them<br />
develop their countries. Popenoe was chosen to f<strong>in</strong>d the<br />
site for the new school <strong>and</strong> become its first director.<br />
For weeks Popenoe traveled throughout Honduras <strong>and</strong><br />
Central America <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> the end, he selected a 3,<strong>500</strong> acre<br />
property <strong>in</strong> the Valley of El Zamorano near the Yeguare<br />
River <strong>and</strong> 25 miles away from Tegucigalpa, the capital.<br />
The Pan American School of Agriculture was opened<br />
<strong>in</strong> September 1943 on an experimental basis, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
first student body was composed of 73 Mexicans <strong>and</strong><br />
Central Americans. Williams, who had jo<strong>in</strong>ed the staff<br />
of El Zamorano <strong>in</strong> the early 1950’s, wrote a quarter<br />
of a century later: “In Honduras the Escuela Agrícola<br />
Pan<strong>america</strong>na, under the direction of Wilson Popenoe,<br />
began systematic botanical explorations <strong>in</strong> all Central<br />
American countries <strong>in</strong> 1946. This work cont<strong>in</strong>ues,<br />
now <strong>in</strong> conjunction with [the] Field Museum <strong>and</strong><br />
with important assistance from the National Science<br />
Foundation ... Paul C. St<strong>and</strong>ley jo<strong>in</strong>ed us occasionally<br />
<strong>in</strong> the late 1940s <strong>and</strong> permanently <strong>in</strong> 1950 … This<br />
exploration is be<strong>in</strong>g cont<strong>in</strong>ued by Prof. Mol<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong><br />
by myself <strong>and</strong> other associates as time permits. A very<br />
f<strong>in</strong>e herbarium of Central American materials is to be<br />
found at the Escuela Agrícola Pan<strong>america</strong>na, as well<br />
as a very usable library” (Williams, 1972: 202-205). In<br />
a similar way to Lancetilla, El Zamorano has only an<br />
<strong>in</strong>direct relation to our story. But the fact that Williams<br />
<strong>and</strong> St<strong>and</strong>ley spent so many years there, for a short<br />
time <strong>in</strong> the company of Paul H. Allen, made it the most<br />
important orchid research center <strong>in</strong> Central America for<br />
the first decades of the second half of the XX century.<br />
The great Paul C. St<strong>and</strong>ley, to whom we owe most of<br />
the Central American floras of the first half of the XX.<br />
century, chose Honduras as the place where he wanted to<br />
spend his last years. In a letter to C.V. Morton he wrote:<br />
“I am back <strong>in</strong> Honduras to stay, I hope, <strong>and</strong> it is doubtful<br />
if I shall ever see the States aga<strong>in</strong>. There certa<strong>in</strong>ly are<br />
plenty of th<strong>in</strong>gs here to keep me busy, <strong>and</strong> as long as I<br />
am able to crawl around I can f<strong>in</strong>d plenty of field work <strong>in</strong><br />
Central America that is worth while” (In a letter to C.W.<br />
Morton, April 12, 1950). Dur<strong>in</strong>g his stay at El Zamorano,<br />
St<strong>and</strong>ley planned a flora of Central America. “This plan,<br />
for a Middle American flora, was not to materialize, for<br />
reasons beyond St<strong>and</strong>ley’s control, but the groundwork,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the form of the best herbarium <strong>and</strong> library <strong>in</strong> Central<br />
America, was completed…” (Williams, 1963: 76-77).
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
The second half of The xx cenTury 40<br />
He may be a son of a bitch, but he is our son<br />
of a bitch!<br />
Frankl<strong>in</strong> D. Roosevelt, about Anastasio<br />
Somoza, President of Nicaragua<br />
The years follow<strong>in</strong>g World War II show a convulse<br />
Central America, struggl<strong>in</strong>g with political <strong>and</strong> social<br />
unrests. In Guatemala, the progressive governments<br />
of Arévalo <strong>and</strong> Arbenz (1944-1954) were followed<br />
by more than three decades of military rulers <strong>and</strong><br />
guerilla movements fight<strong>in</strong>g for a fairer social order.<br />
All attempts to establish democratic governments <strong>in</strong><br />
Honduras were aborted by successive military coups.<br />
Anastasio Somoza, <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, was the only one of<br />
the dictators of the 1930s that survived the post-war<br />
era, until his regime was overthrown by the s<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>ista<br />
movement <strong>in</strong> 1979. El Salvador lived through a<br />
political evolution very similar to that of Guatemala,<br />
with military governments focus<strong>in</strong>g on agricultural<br />
diversification <strong>and</strong> the creation of new <strong>in</strong>dustries,<br />
politics that were of little benefit to the poorer classes<br />
(Pérez Brignoli, 2000: 153-160). Mexico, where<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 1940 the social objectives of the revolution<br />
had been sacrificed to the acceleration of economic<br />
growth, entered f<strong>in</strong>ally <strong>in</strong> a post-revolutionary phase<br />
under the presidency of Miguel Alemán (1946-1952)<br />
<strong>and</strong> began an era of ambiguous social <strong>and</strong> economic<br />
politics (Halper<strong>in</strong> Donghui, 2002: <strong>500</strong>-506). In 1968,<br />
the country was shaken by strong social protests that<br />
ended <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>famous kill<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Tlatelolco Square, on<br />
October 2 of that same year, one of the most tragic<br />
events of modern Mexican history. In Panama, the<br />
movement that dem<strong>and</strong>ed sovereignty over the canal<br />
ga<strong>in</strong>ed more <strong>and</strong> more strength <strong>and</strong> ended with the<br />
Torrijos-Carter treaties, signed on September 7, 1977,<br />
establish<strong>in</strong>g the transfer of the canal to Panama on<br />
December 31, 1999. Only Costa Rica, under the shelter<br />
of the social reforms of the early 1940s <strong>and</strong> the political<br />
constitution proclaimed <strong>in</strong> 1949 which -among other<br />
important changes- had abolished the army, seemed<br />
to be able to escape the social <strong>and</strong> political chaos<br />
<strong>in</strong> which the rest of the region was submerged. This<br />
allows us to underst<strong>and</strong> why, <strong>in</strong> the world of orchid<br />
research, Costa Rica was the only country <strong>in</strong> which,<br />
201<br />
slowly, an <strong>in</strong>stitutional impulse developed, start<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with the legacy of Charles H. Lankester <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Lankester Botanical Garden of the University<br />
of Costa Rica, founded <strong>in</strong> 1973. In the other countries<br />
of the region we f<strong>in</strong>d important advances which<br />
depended always, however, on <strong>in</strong>dividual vocations<br />
<strong>and</strong> on the high human <strong>and</strong> professional level of<br />
their protagonists. Panama represents a special case,<br />
where the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute<br />
has made an outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g contribution to the botanical<br />
exploration of the isthmus, together with Mexico, with<br />
the outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g results of the research <strong>and</strong> studies by<br />
the collaborators of the AMO Herbarium.<br />
The Mexican Renaissance (II). The work started by<br />
Thomas MacDougall <strong>in</strong> Oaxaca was cont<strong>in</strong>ued by a<br />
small group of amateurs who gave an enormous impulse<br />
to Mexican <strong>orchidology</strong>. “It was the Christmas season<br />
many years ago <strong>in</strong> Oaxaca, <strong>and</strong> the tall ‘gr<strong>in</strong>ga’ who<br />
had recently come to live <strong>in</strong> the city stood <strong>in</strong> the flower<br />
market admir<strong>in</strong>g the colorful plants that the Indians of<br />
the Sierra had brought <strong>in</strong> to sell as holiday decorations.<br />
She was particularly entranced by the delicate small<br />
blossoms on some of the plants, <strong>and</strong> on not<strong>in</strong>g her<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest, a gentleman st<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g nearby said, ‘that is a<br />
plant of Odontoglossum cervantesii - an orchid.’ Then<br />
<strong>and</strong> there was born <strong>in</strong> the m<strong>in</strong>d of Ruth Oberg ( - 1970)<br />
the desire to learn more about these fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g plants,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the man speak<strong>in</strong>g to her was none other than Don<br />
Tomás MacDougall. What a fortunate meet<strong>in</strong>g!, <strong>and</strong><br />
the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of a friendship that lasted to the end of<br />
Ruth’s life” (Pollard, 1974: 173). “The enthusiasm <strong>and</strong><br />
dedication of Ruth to the study of <strong>orchids</strong> made her<br />
an important figure <strong>in</strong> the renaissance of <strong>orchidology</strong>”<br />
(Soto Arenas, 1992:196). Ruth Oberg became known<br />
as the ‘Orchid Lady of Oaxaca’ <strong>and</strong> visitors from many<br />
areas, among them Glenn Pollard, Ge<strong>org</strong>e Kennedy,<br />
Eric Hágsater, Carl Withner, Alphonse Heller, Paul<br />
Allen <strong>and</strong> Edward Greenwood, called to consult her<br />
<strong>and</strong> admire the contributions that she was mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
toward orchid research. She was especially close to<br />
Pollard. Together with Robert Dressler, she jo<strong>in</strong>ed a<br />
group from Harvard University for a collect<strong>in</strong>g trip<br />
to a remote part of the State of Chiapas - The Laguna<br />
Ocotal Gr<strong>and</strong>e, where she collected a new species of<br />
40 The author’s decision to exclude from this history all persons liv<strong>in</strong>g at the time this work was written has the <strong>in</strong>evitable result that<br />
this chapter shows large <strong>and</strong> unavoidable gaps.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
202<br />
Ornithocephalus, that was later dedicated to her. The<br />
expedition was led by Dr. Raymond A. Paynter Jr.,<br />
Assistant Curator for Birds at the Harvard Museum of<br />
Zoology <strong>and</strong> Paynter suggested Dressler as the botanist<br />
who should accompany the group. However, strongm<strong>in</strong>ded<br />
Ruth Oberg had to give her consent: “I have<br />
just spoken to the botanist <strong>and</strong> it is fairly certa<strong>in</strong> that<br />
he will be go<strong>in</strong>g along, provided, of course, he meets<br />
with your approval. I asked him about the orchid<br />
situation <strong>and</strong> he said that he is perfectly will<strong>in</strong>g to give<br />
you first choice on all <strong>orchids</strong> collected <strong>and</strong> you may<br />
have the disposition of them” (R. Paynter <strong>in</strong> a letter<br />
to R. Oberg, March 25, 1954). In April of that same<br />
year, Oberg writes to Dressler <strong>and</strong> emphasizes her<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t: “If you collect a s<strong>in</strong>gle plant which is known to<br />
me, so that I can make a record about it, you certa<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
are welcome to keep it. But if it is someth<strong>in</strong>g which<br />
I will want to study, then I must reserve the right to<br />
keep it. Otherwise my mak<strong>in</strong>g this trip would lose its<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t” (Letter to R. Dressler, April 19, 1954). When<br />
they met, they became immediately good friends, <strong>and</strong><br />
for the rest of Oberg’s life, Dressler would call her<br />
“Tía” (‘aunt’, <strong>in</strong> Spanish). Oberg described years later<br />
the excursion to Laguna Ocotal, <strong>in</strong> an article published<br />
<strong>in</strong> the journal of the Mexican Society of Orchidology<br />
(Oberg, 1974). In the years to come, Oberg send large<br />
amounts of plants to Dressler for identification, always<br />
compla<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g that the answers came to slow because of<br />
too much work on the side of ‘don Roberto’. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
last years of her life, Oberg worked on a book on Mexican<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>, which unfortunately was never published. She<br />
wrote to Dressler: “You know how I’m go<strong>in</strong>g to start my<br />
preface? ‘This book has been compiled with the hope it<br />
will so irritate someone that he will write a better one!’ ”<br />
(Letter to R. Dressler, June 10, 1966). One of Oberg’s<br />
constant compla<strong>in</strong>ts was the quality of the then exist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
books on Mexican <strong>orchids</strong>, especially the one published<br />
by Norman P. Wright <strong>in</strong> 1958. “I certa<strong>in</strong>ly don’t want<br />
to see an Icon. of Mex. Orch. if it is not better than<br />
Norman Wright did his book. And he certa<strong>in</strong>ly did a<br />
job of mess<strong>in</strong>g up the text for that folio of Orch. <strong>and</strong><br />
Humm<strong>in</strong>g birds” (Letter to R. Dressler, February 16,<br />
1965). Among the collections made by Oberg we f<strong>in</strong>d<br />
Maxillaria nagelii L.O. Williams ex Correll (Oberg<br />
95) <strong>and</strong> Encyclia baculus (Rchb. f.) Dressler & G.E.<br />
Pollard (Oberg 60). Epidendrum obergii A.D. Hawkes<br />
had been dedicated to her <strong>in</strong> 1957.<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Federico (Fritz) Halb<strong>in</strong>ger (1925-2007) (Fig. 58B),<br />
was the son of Christian Halb<strong>in</strong>ger <strong>and</strong>, like his father,<br />
an expert on Mexican <strong>orchids</strong>. In 1969 he was cofounder<br />
of the Mexican Orchid Society “Amigos de las<br />
Orquídeas” <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1970 <strong>and</strong> 1971 he made extensive<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g trips to the mounta<strong>in</strong>s of the Sierra Madre<br />
<strong>in</strong> the company of Eric Hágsater, Robert Dressler, <strong>and</strong><br />
Glenn Pollard. These excursions were very successful,<br />
also <strong>in</strong> terms of the discovery of new species. Shortly<br />
after that, the journal “Orquídea (Mex.)” was founded,<br />
<strong>and</strong> Halb<strong>in</strong>ger began with the publication of a series<br />
of articles, ma<strong>in</strong>ly on the genus Barkeria, that had<br />
become his specialty. For this reason Miguel Angel<br />
Soto Arenas honored him <strong>in</strong> 1993 with the new<br />
species: Barkeria fritz-halb<strong>in</strong>geriana Soto Arenas. In<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g years Halb<strong>in</strong>ger exp<strong>and</strong>ed his <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
to the genera Odontoglossum <strong>and</strong> Laelia, publish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
important monographic papers, aga<strong>in</strong> mostly <strong>in</strong> the<br />
journal “Orquídea (Mex.)”. From 1973 to 1974,<br />
Halb<strong>in</strong>ger presided over the Mexican Society of<br />
Orchidology.<br />
Glenn E. Pollard (1900-1976) (Fig. 58C) was<br />
born <strong>in</strong> the town of Kelso, Missouri, as the son of a<br />
railroad man who moved frequently, so that Glenn’s<br />
school<strong>in</strong>g was <strong>in</strong> varied backgrounds. He graduated<br />
<strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> metallurgy at Stanford University <strong>in</strong><br />
1923. In 1950 Glenn <strong>and</strong> his wife Barbara made their<br />
first visit to Mexico <strong>and</strong> the country made such a<br />
favorable impression on them that when Glenn retired<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1955, they decided to spend the w<strong>in</strong>ter there <strong>and</strong><br />
eventually made Oaxaca their home. “In Oaxaca the<br />
Pollards made friends with Ruth Oberg, who for many<br />
years had lived <strong>in</strong> the suburb of San Felipe del Agua<br />
study<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong>, <strong>and</strong> with Tom MacDougall, who also<br />
was widely known <strong>in</strong> biological circles as a veteran<br />
collector of plants <strong>and</strong> small animals, <strong>and</strong> was perhaps<br />
then the most knowledgeable person concern<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
topography <strong>and</strong> biota of Oaxaca <strong>and</strong> Chiapas. Ruth<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduced Glenn to the fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g world of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> Tom re<strong>in</strong>forced his budd<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest with advice<br />
<strong>and</strong> guidance. Soon Glenn began collect<strong>in</strong>g a few<br />
plants, <strong>and</strong> when the Pollards built their own house<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1959, it <strong>in</strong>cluded a small orchid house; Ruth Oberg<br />
contributed some plants to get the collection well started<br />
”(Greenwood, 1978: 9). The new road program which<br />
started <strong>in</strong> the early 1960s <strong>in</strong> southern Mexico brought<br />
wonderful opportunities for Pollard to collect <strong>orchids</strong>.
A<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
C D<br />
Figure 58. A — Truman Ge<strong>org</strong>e Yuncker (1891-1964). Courtesy of the Archives of the Gray Herbarium, Harvard University.<br />
B — Federico (Fritz) Halb<strong>in</strong>ger (1925-2007). In Röth, 2007: 72. C — Glenn E. Pollard (1900-1976). Courtesy of Eric<br />
Hágsater. D — Edward Warren Greenwood (1918-2002) <strong>and</strong> his wife Mary Scobbie. Courtesy of Eric Hágsater.<br />
B<br />
203<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
204<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
C D<br />
Figure 59. A — Clarence Klaus Horich (1930-1994). Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny. B — Jack A. Fowlie (1929-1993) dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a visit to Costa Rica (Fowlie on the right. On the left Clarence Horich). Courtesy of Rudolf Jenny. C — Rafael Lucas<br />
Rodríguez Caballero (1915-1981). Courtesy of his daughter, Leonora Rodríguez. D — Pescatoria cer<strong>in</strong>a (L<strong>in</strong>dl. &<br />
Paxton) Rchb. f. Illustration by R.L.Rodríguez <strong>in</strong> Rodríguez et al., 1986: 203.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
He followed the bulldozers through country hardly<br />
explored botanically <strong>and</strong> still unlumbered <strong>and</strong> the<br />
trees be<strong>in</strong>g knocked down by the road gangs made for<br />
extremely rich collect<strong>in</strong>g. Pollard’s collection became<br />
very important, with many rare plants, <strong>and</strong> turned<br />
soon <strong>in</strong>to a focus of <strong>in</strong>terest for orchid enthusiasts<br />
<strong>and</strong> specialists, who came often to visit, among them<br />
Louis O. Williams, Calaway H. Dodson <strong>and</strong> Robert L.<br />
Dressler. All became friends <strong>and</strong> Dressler’s <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mexican plants led to collaboration <strong>and</strong> to the jo<strong>in</strong>t<br />
authorship of The Genus Encyclia <strong>in</strong> Mexico (Dressler<br />
& Pollard, 1974), Pollards most important contribution<br />
to Mexican <strong>orchidology</strong>. Although he published some<br />
eighteen papers on Mexican <strong>orchids</strong>, Glenn Pollard<br />
regarded The Genus Encyclia as his outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g effort,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the v<strong>in</strong>dication of his hard work <strong>and</strong> long studies.<br />
A loner by nature, his poor health <strong>in</strong> later years<br />
re<strong>in</strong>forced his dislike for people <strong>in</strong> groups. Despite this,<br />
he was friendly <strong>and</strong> warm with people he liked, though<br />
not everyone met with his approval (Greenwood, 1978:<br />
4). His friends named <strong>in</strong> his honor Encyclia pollardiana<br />
(Withner) Dressler & Pollard, Malaxis pollardii L.O.<br />
Williams, Lepanthes pollardii H.A. Hespenheide <strong>and</strong><br />
Oncidium pollardi, Dodson & Hágsater. Withner <strong>and</strong><br />
Hard<strong>in</strong>g honored him with the new genus Pollardia.<br />
As a found<strong>in</strong>g member of the Mexican Association of<br />
Orchidology, Pollard took an active role <strong>in</strong> attempts to<br />
widen Mexican <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the <strong>orchids</strong> of the country.<br />
Pollard died <strong>in</strong> Oaxaca, on March 27, 1976.<br />
“The Greenwoods of the Canadian Embassy <strong>in</strong><br />
Wash<strong>in</strong>gton have just left. You may have heard of them,<br />
their ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest is <strong>in</strong> the cacti <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> photography,<br />
but they also have an <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> quite a<br />
bit of knowledge of them” (R. Oberg <strong>in</strong> a letter to R.<br />
Dressler, August 11, 1960) (Fig. 58D). Edward Warren<br />
Greenwood (1918-2002) first came to Mexico with his<br />
wife Mary <strong>in</strong> 1958-1959, when they spent two weeks<br />
<strong>in</strong> Mexico City. There they met plant explorer Tom<br />
MacDougall, <strong>and</strong> Drs. Helia Bravo <strong>and</strong> Eizi Matuda.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g this same vacation, Ed met Glenn Pollard <strong>and</strong><br />
Ruth Oberg when he went to Oaxaca. At that time, the<br />
Greenwoods decided to eventually retire to Mexico.<br />
Ed Greenwood worked with the Canadian Embassy, <strong>in</strong><br />
Wash<strong>in</strong>gton D.C., from 1959 to 1962. He kept <strong>in</strong> touch<br />
with the Mexican botanists of the National University,<br />
<strong>and</strong> a close relationship was established with Helia<br />
Bravo. Helia had been <strong>in</strong>vited by the Greenwoods to<br />
205<br />
stay at their apartment <strong>in</strong> Wash<strong>in</strong>gton, dur<strong>in</strong>g her stay<br />
study<strong>in</strong>g the cactus collections at the United States<br />
National Herbarium. Helia always remembered him as<br />
a good friend <strong>and</strong> a very good cook. “He had a keen<br />
sense of humor <strong>and</strong> was a superb raconteur” (Dressler,<br />
2002). Many of Ed’s pictures of cacti illustrate Helia<br />
<strong>and</strong> Hern<strong>and</strong>o Sánchez-Mejorada’s work on Mexican<br />
cactii (1991). It is to be remembered that Greenwood,<br />
at that time, followed ma<strong>in</strong>ly his <strong>in</strong>terests <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Cactaceae (Reddoch, 2002: 251). After complet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the Wash<strong>in</strong>gton assignment, Ed returned to Ottawa<br />
where he started the Native Orchid Location Survey of<br />
the Ottawa District, which he later extended to all of<br />
Canada. The Greenwoods cont<strong>in</strong>ued to spend annual<br />
leave <strong>in</strong> Mexico, except dur<strong>in</strong>g the couple of years when<br />
Ed was work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Great Brita<strong>in</strong>. “While on vacation <strong>in</strong><br />
Oaxaca, <strong>in</strong> the summer of 1963, Eric Hágsater came<br />
through on his way to Chiapas, meet<strong>in</strong>g Ed <strong>and</strong> Mary<br />
at Pollard’s place, start<strong>in</strong>g an endur<strong>in</strong>g friendship <strong>and</strong><br />
collaboration. In July 1964, Ed <strong>and</strong> Mary traveled with<br />
Ruth Oberg, the orchid <strong>and</strong> cacti lover liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Oaxaca,<br />
to Jalisco <strong>and</strong> Colima, where they met Eric Hágsater<br />
<strong>and</strong> collected together for a couple of weeks”. “In 1969,<br />
Ed Greenwood moved to London, Engl<strong>and</strong>, where he<br />
was attached to the Canadian High Commission. On his<br />
weekends he spent time <strong>in</strong> the Kew Herbarium <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
the libraries at Kew <strong>and</strong> the British Museum. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
his stay <strong>in</strong> London he amassed an <strong>in</strong>credible amount of<br />
literature about Mexican <strong>orchids</strong>, mostly photocopies of<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>al descriptions, books on the subject, pictures of<br />
type <strong>and</strong> critical specimens, <strong>and</strong> became very familiar<br />
with the historical collections housed <strong>in</strong> European<br />
herbaria” (Light et al., 2002: v). He also took the<br />
opportunity to travel to Vienna: “In early May I shall be<br />
<strong>in</strong> Vienna for a few days work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the Reichenbach<br />
Herbarium. Perhaps there may be some items there<br />
which I might look up for you…” (In a letter to R.<br />
Dressler, March 23, 1973). Ed Greenwood returned<br />
to Canada <strong>and</strong> retired <strong>in</strong> 1973. At the end of that year<br />
he departed with Mary to Mexico, where he stayed<br />
for the next 20 years. When the Greenwoods decided<br />
to set up their home <strong>in</strong> Oaxaca, the most productive<br />
period <strong>in</strong> Mexican <strong>orchidology</strong> began. Shortly after<br />
the Greenwoods moved to Mexico permanently, Eric<br />
Hágsater revived the old orchid society “Amigos de las<br />
Orquídeas”. They began publish<strong>in</strong>g Orquídea (Mex.),<br />
where Ed became one of the editors.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
206<br />
The first years <strong>in</strong> Mexico were spent <strong>in</strong> close<br />
collaboration with Glenn Pollard <strong>and</strong> the other orchid<br />
enthusiasts liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Oaxaca. Greenwood explored the<br />
Oaxacan roads together with Octavio Suárez, a young<br />
boy who had been <strong>in</strong>troduced to him by Pollard. In the<br />
field, Ed was a terrific observer, always look<strong>in</strong>g for the<br />
rarest, smallest, <strong>and</strong> most <strong>in</strong>conspicuous terrestrials,<br />
<strong>in</strong> which he became a specialist. “Ed´s knowledge<br />
of Mexican Spiranth<strong>in</strong>ae eventually became very<br />
authoritative [...] However, Ed Greenwood’s most<br />
important contribution was the formation of a new<br />
generation of Mexican orchidists <strong>in</strong> systematics. His<br />
endless enthusiasm was contagious <strong>and</strong> jo<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g him on<br />
field trips was very enlighten<strong>in</strong>g (Light et al., 2002: v).”<br />
In 1987 he had to travel to Canada <strong>and</strong> from there he<br />
wrote to Dressler: “I was disappo<strong>in</strong>ted at miss<strong>in</strong>g you <strong>in</strong><br />
Guadalajara <strong>and</strong> also at not observ<strong>in</strong>g the presentations<br />
there by our AMO juniors. You had met only Nacho<br />
Aguirre, I believe; how did you like Miguel Ángel Soto<br />
<strong>and</strong> Gerardo Salazar?” (Letter to Dressler, October 31,<br />
1987). “Among his output of about 20 papers were<br />
the descriptions of 10 new orchid species” (Reddoch,<br />
2002: 251). Many others were dedicated to him,<br />
among them: Acianthera greenwoodii Soto Arenas,<br />
Anathallis greenwoodii Soto Arenas & Salazar, Bletia<br />
greenwoodiana Sosa, Dryadella greenwoodiana Soto<br />
Arenas, Salazar & Solano, Encyclia greenwoodiana<br />
I. Aguirre-Olavarrieta, Epidendrum greenwoodii<br />
Hágsater, Gale<strong>and</strong>ra greenwoodiana N. Warford,<br />
Govenia greenwoodii Dressler & Soto Arenas,<br />
Habenaria greenwoodiana R. González, Lepanthes<br />
greenwoodii G.A. Salazar & Soto Arenas, Liparis<br />
greenwodiana Espejo, Malaxis greenwoodiana<br />
Salazar & Soto Arenas, Stelis greenwoodii Soto<br />
Arenas & Solano, <strong>and</strong> Trichosalp<strong>in</strong>x greenwoodiana<br />
Soto Arenas. Greenwood had been <strong>in</strong>volved s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
1978 <strong>in</strong> the fascicles about Orchidaceae of the Flora<br />
de Veracruz, <strong>and</strong> worked later on the project of the<br />
Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na, as a specialist <strong>in</strong> the genus<br />
Govenia. Greenwood had concerns with regard to his<br />
appo<strong>in</strong>tment as a specialist for the Flora: “because I<br />
personally am located <strong>in</strong> the fr<strong>in</strong>ge zone, with mix<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of northern <strong>and</strong> tropical floral elements, there may be<br />
some highly specific targets to <strong>in</strong>vestigate. On the other<br />
h<strong>and</strong>, my total lack of funds for travel to herbaria <strong>and</strong><br />
the very limited access to have to the literature are very<br />
real limitations on my capability. There is one bright<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
spot, though; my two-year bout with heart trouble is<br />
past, after a coronary by-pass job <strong>in</strong> Houston less than<br />
three weeks ago. My work capacity won’t be limited by<br />
feebleness, I am assured” (letter to Dressler, November<br />
19, 1986). In 1986 Greenwood traveled to Costa Rica,<br />
where he came together with Dressler <strong>and</strong> met Dora<br />
Emilia Mora de Retana. In a letter to Dressler, written<br />
<strong>in</strong> March of that year, he expressed his wish to meet<br />
<strong>in</strong> Costa Rica Norris Williams, Calaway Dodson <strong>and</strong><br />
Carlyle Luer. We don’t know if his wish was fulfilled.<br />
“Fail<strong>in</strong>g health <strong>and</strong> the advantages of the Canadian<br />
public health service f<strong>in</strong>ally lured Ed <strong>and</strong> Mary back to<br />
Canada, where Ed cont<strong>in</strong>ued to correspond with many<br />
other orchid enthusiasts <strong>in</strong> Mexico <strong>and</strong> elsewhere as<br />
long as his health permitted” (Dressler, 2002: 1119).<br />
Edward W. Greenwood died <strong>in</strong> Ottawa on February<br />
24, 2002, at the age of 84. “His energy, enthusiasm,<br />
encouragement <strong>and</strong> expertise, as well as his passion for<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>, will be remembered by many who new him”<br />
(Reddoch, 2002: 252).<br />
The role of Ge<strong>org</strong>e C. Kennedy (1919-1980) <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>orchidology</strong> of Mexico is difficult to judge. On one<br />
side, his most important collections were made <strong>in</strong> South<br />
America, or <strong>in</strong> the northwestern states of Mexico, which<br />
lie outside of our area of study. On the other, we know<br />
(from her correspondence with Robert L. Dressler) that<br />
he was a frequent visitor of Ruth Oberg <strong>in</strong> Oaxaca <strong>and</strong><br />
he wrote several important articles on different genera<br />
which are widely distributed throughout Mexico,<br />
sometimes together with Halb<strong>in</strong>ger, with whom he<br />
went on several collect<strong>in</strong>g trips. A graduate of Harvard,<br />
Kennedy moved <strong>in</strong> 1952 to Los Angeles <strong>and</strong> became<br />
a research professor at the Institute of Geo-physics<br />
<strong>and</strong> Planetary Physics at UCLA, where he worked<br />
<strong>and</strong> studied until his death. “As a research professor,<br />
he taught no classes but experimented <strong>in</strong> his lab with<br />
two or three post doctoral students each year. Together<br />
they made the Kennedy Lab famous throughout the<br />
world” (Fowlie, 1990: 8). Kennedy visited Mexico on<br />
geological excursions <strong>and</strong> was immediately fasc<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
by <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> Pre-Columbian art. It was said about<br />
him that he was ‘persona non grata’ <strong>in</strong> Mexico,<br />
because he took numerous archeological pieces of<br />
the Colima culture out of the country. Hunt<strong>in</strong>g after<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> he traveled extensively, <strong>and</strong> –besides Mexico-<br />
collected <strong>in</strong> Madagascar, Burma, India, Colombia,<br />
Ecuador <strong>and</strong> Peru. He often gave many of his liv<strong>in</strong>g
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
collections from Ecuador to Dr. Calaway Dodson at<br />
Selby, but without any collection data, which made<br />
Dodson furious, s<strong>in</strong>ce this made them worthless. In a<br />
letter to Hágsater from December 1975 he compla<strong>in</strong>s<br />
that he was not allowed to take 5,000 plants out of<br />
Colombia. Three of Kennedy’s collections became the<br />
types for new <strong>orchids</strong> species: Pleurothallis kennedy<br />
Luer <strong>and</strong> Oncidium kennedy Stacy, both collected <strong>in</strong><br />
Ecuador, <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum kennedy Fowlie & Withner,<br />
frequent <strong>in</strong> the Mexican states of S<strong>in</strong>aloa <strong>and</strong> Nayarit,<br />
somewhat to the North of our are of study. He had<br />
large greenhouses <strong>in</strong> Los Angeles, <strong>and</strong> normally did<br />
not number his plants until they flowered <strong>and</strong> he had<br />
been able to photograph them. Therefore, Kennedy’s<br />
numbers correspond to his slides.<br />
Heller <strong>and</strong> Hawkes: a Nicaraguan <strong>in</strong>terlude. “In<br />
May 1973, while water<strong>in</strong>g the garden of his large estate<br />
high up the hills overlook<strong>in</strong>g Managua, Alphonse<br />
Henry Heller (1894-1973) died of a coronary. He was<br />
nearly 79 years old. Born an American, he studied<br />
m<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, worked for the Atlantic-Richfield<br />
Company, lived <strong>in</strong> San Mar<strong>in</strong>o near Los Angeles,<br />
founded his own company <strong>and</strong> became very wealthy.<br />
In 1956, at the age of 62, he retired from bus<strong>in</strong>ess, left<br />
the United States <strong>and</strong> took up residence <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua,<br />
where, as a hobby, he first worked on butterflies <strong>and</strong><br />
then started collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> as a very enthusiastic<br />
amateur” (Hamer, 1982-85: 1). Heller had already a<br />
large orchid collection <strong>in</strong> California. In a letter to<br />
Dressler, Ruth Oberg writes: “Did I tell you that the<br />
Hellers of San Mar<strong>in</strong>o <strong>and</strong> Managua, Nic. came to<br />
visit me on their way south? He moved all his orchid<br />
plants from Calif. (what a job that must have been!),<br />
<strong>and</strong> now has them planted on trees on the coffee f<strong>in</strong>ca<br />
he bought about 8 miles from Managua” (Letter to<br />
Dressler, November 5, 1957). Heller became a good<br />
friend of Oberg <strong>and</strong> visited her frequently, on his trips<br />
from California to Nicaragua.<br />
Dr. Calaway Dodson first met him <strong>in</strong> 1955 <strong>in</strong> San<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>o, <strong>and</strong> he later visited him several times <strong>in</strong><br />
Managua. This is how Dodson characterizes him:<br />
“Al Heller was an extreme <strong>in</strong>tense <strong>in</strong>dividual. His<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests were varied <strong>and</strong> when he became <strong>in</strong>terested<br />
<strong>in</strong> a particular subject such as <strong>orchids</strong>, he did so <strong>in</strong><br />
a profound manner. He consulted all experts <strong>in</strong> the<br />
field, he prepared bibliographies, lists <strong>and</strong> compiled<br />
207<br />
libraries cover<strong>in</strong>g the total range of the subject. He was<br />
untir<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> worked 16 to 20 hours per day. [...] The<br />
results of his efforts are immense. He filled more than<br />
150 notebooks, each two to three <strong>in</strong>ches thick, with<br />
notes on <strong>orchids</strong> alone. He made more than 12,000<br />
collections of Nicaraguan <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> illustrated<br />
most of them <strong>in</strong> color along with extensive notes on<br />
each collection, concern<strong>in</strong>g size, shape, habitat, etc.<br />
[...] Unfortunately, his zeal, enthusiasm, <strong>and</strong> lack of<br />
patience allowed little room for constructive criticism<br />
from scientific collaborators with the result that <strong>in</strong> most<br />
cases, communication was lost. He was particularly<br />
lax <strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g herbarium specimens to document his<br />
citations of species. [...] His illustrations were certa<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
adequate, though even he did not consider them works<br />
of art. Al Heller’s contribution to the knowledge of the<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> of Nicaragua was major even though flawed<br />
by the lack of corroborat<strong>in</strong>g specimens <strong>in</strong> some cases”.<br />
(Hamer, 1982-85: 1) “The enormous <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> known<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua from 1956 to 1973 <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />
clearly what may happen <strong>in</strong> a tropical region when an<br />
astute <strong>and</strong> dedicated person takes up the study of a major<br />
component of that flora” (Williams, 1973: 987). When<br />
A. Heller died, he left a truckload full of <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
on local <strong>orchids</strong> with draw<strong>in</strong>gs, descriptions, color<br />
slides <strong>and</strong> specimens of dried plants of Orchidaceae,<br />
as well as a large <strong>and</strong> valuable library, which were<br />
donated by his widow Christiane Heller to the Marie<br />
Selby Botanical Gardens, then under the directorship<br />
of Dr. Calaway H. Dodson. It was this material<br />
which formed the nucleus of the rapidly grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
research department of that <strong>in</strong>stitution. The donation<br />
was made with the underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g that arrangements<br />
would be made to use Heller’s work for a publication<br />
<strong>and</strong> Dodson <strong>in</strong>vited Hamer, who still resided <strong>in</strong> El<br />
Salvador, to have a look at Heller’s material, which was<br />
the base for the fascicles on Nicaragua of the Icones<br />
Plantarum Tropicarum series, written by Hamer <strong>and</strong><br />
edited by Dodson, <strong>and</strong> later for the Orchidaceae of<br />
the Flora of Nicaragua, published by the Missouri<br />
Botanical Garden (Hamer, 2001). The op<strong>in</strong>ions about<br />
Heller’s work were contradictory. As Hamer writes,<br />
“unfortunately the Heller material turned out not to be<br />
too useful; I had been warned that “... it would be a<br />
mistake to get mixed up with that project, as I feel sure<br />
the sketches must be <strong>in</strong>accurate (Dr. Fowlie) or “Yes,<br />
it is true, Heller sent us a lot of scraps, much of which<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
208<br />
was not even worth putt<strong>in</strong>g on a herbarium sheet (Dr.<br />
Garay), <strong>and</strong> “Mr. Heller made very good sketches of<br />
the <strong>orchids</strong> he collected, but usually lousy specimens<br />
or none, <strong>and</strong> these were usually with <strong>in</strong>adequate<br />
data” (Dr. Williams) (Hamer, 1985: 3). “[Heller]<br />
had prepared a manuscript or a check list total<strong>in</strong>g 57<br />
pages, all classified phylogenetically, as proposed by<br />
Dr. Dressler. His work was however never published,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce his <strong>in</strong>terests had changed” (Hamer, 1985: 1).<br />
Alfonso Heller (as he was called <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua) had<br />
amassed <strong>in</strong>formation about 650 species, with draw<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>and</strong> descriptions <strong>and</strong> sometimes photos. About 1968 he<br />
suddenly lost <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> dedicated himself<br />
to Nicaraguan archaeology.<br />
Born <strong>in</strong> Houlton, Ma<strong>in</strong>e, Alex Drum Hawkes<br />
(1927-1977) commenced work<strong>in</strong>g with <strong>orchids</strong> at the<br />
age of eleven. Such famous botanists as Oakes Ames,<br />
Liberty Hyde Bailey <strong>and</strong> David Fairchild were among<br />
his early <strong>in</strong>fluential mentors. At the age of twelve<br />
his first article on the subject was published, the<br />
forerunner of many thous<strong>and</strong>s of papers on <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> other largely tropical plants (Blowers, 1965: 15-<br />
16). He soon became <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the <strong>orchids</strong> of<br />
Tropics <strong>and</strong> at the early age of 23 he published his The<br />
Genus Habenaria <strong>in</strong> Florida (Hawkes, 1950) <strong>and</strong> one<br />
year later his checklist of Cuban <strong>orchids</strong> (Hawkes,<br />
1951). From 1952 to 1959 he edited the short-lived<br />
Orchid Journal, where important articles about the<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> of our region were published. Somewhat later<br />
he edited The Orchid Weekly (orig<strong>in</strong>ally named the<br />
South Florida Orchid Weekly) <strong>in</strong> the years 1958-1967.<br />
Then came his first book, Cultural Directions for<br />
Orchids (1960), <strong>in</strong> 1961 Orchids, Their Botany <strong>and</strong><br />
Culture <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1965 his Encyclopaedia of Cultivated<br />
Orchids, which received very poor reviews from<br />
many knowledgeable orchidologists. Probably the<br />
harshest critic was that of Leslie A. Garay. “If the<br />
author means that Ames through his writ<strong>in</strong>gs taught<br />
him <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>spired the writ<strong>in</strong>g of this monumental work,<br />
then Professor Ames for the first time, although post<br />
mortem, became a failure. Professor Ames was known<br />
to be a very exact <strong>and</strong> meticulous researcher <strong>and</strong> a<br />
most careful <strong>in</strong>vestigator; yet none of these aspects of<br />
Ames’ teach<strong>in</strong>g is apparent anywhere <strong>in</strong> Mr. Hawkes’<br />
book”. And f<strong>in</strong>ally, “I have read this book with the<br />
same critical eye as Professor Ames, to whom it is<br />
dedicated, would have, <strong>and</strong> am sure, if he were alive<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
today, he would agree with me that 12 gu<strong>in</strong>eas or<br />
$36.00 is too high a price to pay even for such a large<br />
amount of mis<strong>in</strong>formation” (Garay, 1966: 197-199).<br />
A highly qualified ‘chef’, Hawkes wrote also on<br />
cook<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> published several popular books on this<br />
subject. Hawke’s first experience <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
was <strong>in</strong> Belize, where he collected <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1958. In<br />
1959 he came to Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> established a longlast<strong>in</strong>g<br />
friendship with Heller, who very soon hired<br />
him to help him <strong>in</strong> his studies of Nicaraguan <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
“My purpose was, of course, to see <strong>and</strong> collect <strong>orchids</strong>,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> this matter I was the guest of Mr. <strong>and</strong> Mrs.<br />
Alfonso H. Heller ...” (Hawkes, 1959). He cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
travel<strong>in</strong>g to this country <strong>and</strong> throughout Central<br />
<strong>and</strong> South America, <strong>and</strong> discovered, together with<br />
Heller, many new species, which were often named<br />
<strong>in</strong> their honor: Epidendrum goodspeedianum A.D.<br />
Hawkes, Epidendrum restrepoanum A.D. Hawkes,<br />
Epidendrum curtisii A.D. Hawkes, Epidendrum<br />
neocauliflorum A.D. Hawkes, Epidendrum<br />
vulcanicola A.H. Heller, Eurystyles borealis A.H.<br />
Heller, Kegeliella atropilosa L.O. Williams & A.H.<br />
Heller, Odontoglossum subcruciforme A.H. Heller.<br />
Pleurothallis lappiformis A. Heller & L.O. Williams,<br />
Pleurothallis exesilabia A.H. Heller & A.D. Hawkes,<br />
Pleurothallis carnosilabia A.H. Heller & A.D.<br />
Hawkes, Pleurothallis chontalensis A.H. Heller<br />
& A.D. Hawkes, Sobralia chatoensis A.H. Heller<br />
& A.D. Hawkes, Sobralia tri<strong>and</strong>ra A.H. Heller &<br />
A.D. Hawkes, Epidendrum hawkesii A.H. Heller,<br />
Eria hawkesii A.H. Heller, Oncidium hawkesianum<br />
Moir, Pleurothallis alexii A.H. Heller, Pleurothallis<br />
hawkesii Flick<strong>in</strong>ger, Sobralia hawkesii A.H.<br />
Heller, Chondrorhyncha helleri Fowlie, Dressleria<br />
helleri Dodson, Lepanthes helleri A.D. Hawkes,<br />
Pleurothallis helleri A.D. Hawkes, Pleurothallis<br />
helleriana L.O. Williams, Sobralia helleri A.D.<br />
Hawkes, Stellilabium helleri L.O. Williams, <strong>and</strong><br />
Vanilla helleri A.D. Hawkes. Hawkes described the<br />
new genera Helleriella <strong>and</strong> Hellerorchis, named <strong>in</strong><br />
honor of his friend <strong>and</strong> patron. He died <strong>in</strong> Norbrook,<br />
Jamaica, where he had spent the last ten years of his<br />
life. Dur<strong>in</strong>g his years <strong>in</strong> Jamaica he wrote for the<br />
Jamaica Weekly Gleaner, conducted a radio program<br />
on gourmet cok<strong>in</strong>g, taught Portuguese at Priory<br />
School (he spoke six languages) <strong>and</strong> had become a<br />
reputable artist.
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Clarence Klaus Horich: the last of the adventurers.<br />
Clarence Klaus Horich (1930-1994) (Fig. 59A) was<br />
born probably 100 years too late. His character,<br />
romantic <strong>and</strong> adventurous, bohemian <strong>and</strong> dream<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
belonged more to the XIX century than to the hard<br />
years of the European post-war. If we want to f<strong>in</strong>d a<br />
tw<strong>in</strong> soul to Horich’s, we have to go back <strong>in</strong> time to<br />
re-discover his alter ego, Ge<strong>org</strong>e Ure Sk<strong>in</strong>ner [...],<br />
who explored Central America <strong>in</strong> the first half of the<br />
XIX century. [...] Horich dreamed sometimes with<br />
liv<strong>in</strong>g from the <strong>orchids</strong>. More probably, the <strong>orchids</strong><br />
ended liv<strong>in</strong>g from him (Ossenbach, 2003: 47-48).<br />
After learn<strong>in</strong>g garden<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Lüdenscheid (Germany),<br />
Horich emigrated <strong>in</strong> 1951 to Canada (like so many<br />
other Germans who tried to escape the miseries of<br />
the destroyed Germany) <strong>and</strong> soon found employ <strong>in</strong><br />
the orchid nursery of Albert Withers. It was Withers<br />
(who already had collected <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> South America)<br />
who encouraged Horich to follow his steps (Bock,<br />
1994: 121). In 1953 he started on his first collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
expeditions, which led him to Mexico, Central America,<br />
Colombia, Ecuador <strong>and</strong> Bolivia. He not only hunted<br />
for plants, but was also <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g animals.<br />
He went after reptiles <strong>and</strong> snakes for the Canadian<br />
Stanley Park <strong>in</strong> Oaxaca <strong>and</strong> Chiapas <strong>and</strong> traveled<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g 11 months collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> for the English<br />
firm of S<strong>and</strong>ers (Jenny, 2000: 21). In Central America,<br />
he collected <strong>in</strong>tensively <strong>in</strong> El Salvador, Guatemala<br />
<strong>and</strong> Honduras, until he f<strong>in</strong>ally settled <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>in</strong><br />
1957. In 1979 he became a Costa Rican citizen. He<br />
became a purveyor of liv<strong>in</strong>g plants for many botanical<br />
gardens, among which we f<strong>in</strong>d those of the University<br />
of Heidelberg, Montreal, Vancouver, Missouri, Vienna,<br />
Berl<strong>in</strong>, Bonn, Hannover, Frankfurt <strong>and</strong> the Lankester<br />
Botanical Garden of the University of Costa Rica.<br />
Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Jenny (2007, pers. comm.), he charged<br />
between 5 <strong>and</strong> 10 Dollars for a good plant, <strong>and</strong> up to<br />
60 Dollars for rarities such as Coryanthes. In words of<br />
Dr. Hans-Ge<strong>org</strong> Preissel, at that time director of the<br />
Botanical Garden <strong>in</strong> Hannover: “A botanical garden<br />
needs orig<strong>in</strong>al material. Horich is for us one of these<br />
pioneers who has supplied the collections that make<br />
us attractive on an <strong>in</strong>ternational level” (KRW, 1990).<br />
Noth<strong>in</strong>g could stop him: he wasn’t afraid to cross<br />
the Reventazón River on precarious ferry cables, nor to<br />
cross the Gulf of Nicoya <strong>in</strong> a small boat with a crew<br />
of Coryanthes <strong>and</strong> ants (Horich, 1984). He didn’t have<br />
209<br />
to deal with phytosanitary certificates nor with CITES’<br />
rules which would have been <strong>in</strong>tolerable obstacles for<br />
somebody like Clarence Horich. Soon he started writ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
about the plants, the habitat <strong>and</strong> especially about his<br />
adventures on collect<strong>in</strong>g trips. “Between 1953 <strong>and</strong> 1994<br />
he published more than 230 articles about <strong>orchids</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> spite of the fact that the reader had to sift carefully<br />
between facts <strong>and</strong> adventure, those articles conta<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />
best descriptions of localities <strong>and</strong> habitats we have from<br />
Central America. I always found it was a real adventure<br />
to travel <strong>and</strong> collect with him; he was one of the best<br />
plant experts <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> a day with him <strong>in</strong> the<br />
forest was someth<strong>in</strong>g like a short <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensive course<br />
<strong>in</strong> botany <strong>and</strong> ecology. His private plant collection <strong>in</strong><br />
his backyard <strong>in</strong> San José was better than most of the<br />
collections of Costa Rican plants <strong>in</strong> botanical gardens.<br />
He had an extremely good eye for small plants <strong>and</strong> he<br />
had a sixth sense where <strong>and</strong> how to f<strong>in</strong>d new th<strong>in</strong>gs”<br />
(Jenny, 2000: 21). Horich was proud to have been<br />
the guide through Costa Rica’s forests of the world’s<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g orchidologists of his time. Between 1960 <strong>and</strong><br />
1965 he traveled through the most remote regions with<br />
Jack Fowlie <strong>and</strong> Cal Dodson. In later years he was the<br />
guide of Rebecca Northen, Rudolf Jenny, Eric Hágsater<br />
<strong>and</strong> Robert Dressler, among others.<br />
Rudolf Jenny honored Horich (with whom he had<br />
collected <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1976, 1980, 1984 <strong>and</strong><br />
1986) with the dedication of a new genus: Horichia,<br />
with the type species Horichia dressleri. Many other<br />
species were dedicated to him: Cischwe<strong>in</strong>fia horichii<br />
Senghas & T. Neudecker, Coryanthes horichiana Jenny,<br />
Epidendrum horichii Hágsater, Gongora horichiana<br />
Fowlie, Lepanthes horichii Luer, Maxillaria horichii<br />
Senghas, Mesosp<strong>in</strong>idium horichii I. Bock, Mormodes<br />
horichii Fowlie, Pleurothallis horichii Luer, Stanhopea<br />
x horichiana Jenny, Telipogon horichianus Braas, <strong>and</strong><br />
Teuscheria horichiana Jenny & Braem. Horich’s lifelong<br />
companion, Elcimey Baldizón, was honored by<br />
Hágsater with Epidendrum elcimeyae <strong>and</strong> by Braas &<br />
Horich with Telipogon elcimeyae.<br />
“It appears Jack Fowlie was a character <strong>and</strong><br />
is sorely missed. The world is sorely lack<strong>in</strong>g<br />
characters these days”.<br />
Anonymous<br />
“I practice medic<strong>in</strong>e so I can afford to study <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> their native habitats” (Hether<strong>in</strong>gton, 1994: 5). Jack<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
210<br />
A. Fowlie (1929-1993) (Fig. 59B), a family physician,<br />
was one of Horich’s best friends <strong>and</strong> visited him <strong>in</strong><br />
Costa Rica on several occasions. His first expedition<br />
with Horich was <strong>in</strong> November of 1960, together with<br />
Noel Gauntlett, Jürgen Hansen <strong>and</strong> Glenn Hiatt, from<br />
the Los Angeles State & County Arboretum. Then they<br />
traveled aga<strong>in</strong>, this time to the region of Sarapiquí,<br />
together with Ralph Spencer. In one of his articles,<br />
Horich muses about Fowlie gett<strong>in</strong>g lost <strong>in</strong> the forest,<br />
loos<strong>in</strong>g a valuable camera, climb<strong>in</strong>g down a 50 meter<br />
vertical rock <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>ally com<strong>in</strong>g out with a thick<br />
bundle of Pescatoria cer<strong>in</strong>a (Horich, 1978). “Jack<br />
[...] had a busy practice when he was not travel<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
He loved to talk about <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> his travels, <strong>and</strong> he<br />
was never reluctant to give medical advice when on a<br />
trip or with orchid friends” (Hether<strong>in</strong>gton, 2004: 288).<br />
His most valuable contribution to the orchid world was<br />
his excellent photography <strong>and</strong> his ability to write of<br />
his travels <strong>and</strong> of the species he observed. Clarence<br />
Horich collaborated with Fowlie collect<strong>in</strong>g a great<br />
number of Lycaste species for the research that led to<br />
the publication of the latter’s most important work:<br />
The Genus Lycaste, its specification, distribution,<br />
literature <strong>and</strong> cultivation – a monographic revision<br />
(1970). In 1993, Oakeley actualized Fowlie’s work,<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g the genus to 45 species <strong>and</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g some<br />
names (Oakeley, 1993). The follow<strong>in</strong>g orchid species<br />
were dedicated to Fowlie: Cyrtopodium fowliei L.C.<br />
Menezes, Encyclia fowliei Duveen, Lycaste fowliei<br />
Oakeley, Paphiopedilum fowliei L.A. Birk, <strong>and</strong><br />
Stanhopea × fowlieana Jenny.<br />
Most of these species were published <strong>in</strong> The Orchid<br />
Digest, the specialized journal of which Fowlie was<br />
the editor dur<strong>in</strong>g many years. In the words of Eric<br />
Muehlbauer, “[..] the late Jack Fowlie had been its<br />
editor dur<strong>in</strong>g the 80’s, maybe late 70’s... an <strong>in</strong>credible<br />
character. Had no grasp of written grammar <strong>and</strong> his<br />
own, very unique, ideas on Paphiopedilum taxonomy.<br />
That said, he was an <strong>in</strong>credibly productive writer who<br />
traveled to see slippers <strong>in</strong> situ, <strong>and</strong> got to know the<br />
people <strong>in</strong> the areas where they grew, <strong>and</strong> the people<br />
who collected them <strong>and</strong> grew them. His <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
helped the Orchid Digest become <strong>and</strong> rema<strong>in</strong> the great<br />
magaz<strong>in</strong>e that it still is” (Muehlbauer, 2006). “Typical<br />
of his extraord<strong>in</strong>ary <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>and</strong> drive, prior to his<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> orchid species he wrote a hardbound book,<br />
The Snakes of Arizona, <strong>in</strong> 1965. It is a fasc<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
study, though I doubt that many orchid fanciers would<br />
say that they must see or have it” (Hether<strong>in</strong>gton, 2004:<br />
289).<br />
Rafael Lucas Rodríguez <strong>and</strong> the Lankester<br />
Botanical Garden<br />
“Those who dedicate too much time to<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> beg<strong>in</strong> as orchidophiles, become soon<br />
orchidologists, <strong>and</strong> end as orchidiots...”<br />
Rafael Lucas Rodríguez, dur<strong>in</strong>g a lecture (1974)<br />
Schlechter had good reasons to dedicate Ramonia<br />
pulchella to the small village of San Ramón, which with<br />
a population of bearly 15,000, has produced more than<br />
its share of great biologists. Not satisfied with hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Alberto M. Brenes <strong>and</strong> Guillermo Acosta among its<br />
prom<strong>in</strong>ent citizens, San Ramón gave birth <strong>in</strong> the early<br />
XX century to one of the most respected figures of<br />
Costa Rica’s scientific world: Rafael Lucas Rodríguez<br />
Caballero (1915-1981) (Fig. 59C). Dur<strong>in</strong>g one of<br />
his first visits to Costa Rica, Robert Dressler visited<br />
Rafael Lucas Rodríguez <strong>in</strong> his office at the University<br />
of Costa Rica. As Dressler remembers: “After that,<br />
a visit to Costa Rica was <strong>in</strong>complete without see<strong>in</strong>g<br />
‘don Rafa’, as friends <strong>and</strong> students called him. Quite<br />
aside from our mutual <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong>, I was at once<br />
impressed by his charm, his <strong>in</strong>tellect <strong>and</strong> his l<strong>in</strong>guistic<br />
skill” (Rodríguez et al, 1986: 10).<br />
Rafael Lucas received his first lessons from his<br />
mother, Emilia Caballero, who was a teacher <strong>in</strong> his<br />
home town. After f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g elementary school, he<br />
moved with his mother to the United States, where he<br />
began his high school studies, which he later f<strong>in</strong>ished<br />
at the ‘Liceo de Costa Rica’, one of the best schools of<br />
the capital. His friends at school called him “El Sabio”<br />
(= the wise man) because of his dedication to his<br />
studies. He stayed at the same ‘Liceo’ as an assistant for<br />
Natural History, Zoology <strong>and</strong> Botany. Blessed by the<br />
Muse of arts, he was also employed dur<strong>in</strong>g those years<br />
<strong>in</strong> the workshop of the famous French sculptor Louis<br />
Ferón, where he developed his talents as a jeweller <strong>and</strong><br />
illustrator. Years later he would design the great mural<br />
which Ferón crafted for the ‘Golden Room’, <strong>in</strong> San<br />
José’s old airport build<strong>in</strong>g. In 1942, shortly after the<br />
University of Costa Rica opened its doors, Rodríguez<br />
started his studies <strong>in</strong> biology at its School of Sciences,<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1945 received a scholarship which allowed him
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
to cont<strong>in</strong>ue his specialization <strong>in</strong> plant systematics at<br />
the University of California at Berkeley. His teacher<br />
was the famous L<strong>in</strong>coln Constance, whose illustrious<br />
career at Berkeley spanned more than six decades<br />
<strong>and</strong> who wrote several years later: “Rafael was torn<br />
between a career as a professional biologist with strong<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> natural history or as an artist with a flair<br />
for graphic illustration. He was happiest when these<br />
<strong>in</strong>terests co<strong>in</strong>cided <strong>in</strong> the study of recurr<strong>in</strong>g patterns<br />
<strong>in</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>org</strong>anisms” (Rodríguez et al., 1986: 14).<br />
Rodriguez’ doctoral dissertation was a comparative<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation of the Costa Rican tree Myrrhidendron,<br />
<strong>in</strong> relation to other woody Umbellales, profusely <strong>and</strong><br />
beautifully illustrated by the author. This publication is<br />
still quoted widely years after his death.<br />
After return<strong>in</strong>g to Costa Rica <strong>in</strong> 1953, Rodríguez was<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporated as a professor at the University of Costa<br />
Rica, where he was <strong>in</strong>strumental <strong>in</strong> the creation of a<br />
Department of Biology, <strong>and</strong> was appo<strong>in</strong>ted as its first<br />
director. Under his direction, the Department assumed<br />
custody of the University Herbarium (USJ), which<br />
had been founded <strong>in</strong> 1943. Today, the department has<br />
become the School of Biology <strong>and</strong> carries his name.<br />
Rodríguez contributed enormously to the development<br />
of the studies of biology <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> was one<br />
of the first editors of the prestigious Revista de<br />
Biología Tropical. Aga<strong>in</strong> through his efforts, the first<br />
contacts between the University of Costa Rica <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Organization for Tropical Studies were established,<br />
a milestone <strong>in</strong> the history of nature conservation <strong>in</strong><br />
the country. A many-faceted man, Rodríguez was a<br />
leader of the Boy Scout movement <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, a<br />
passionate stamp collector, <strong>and</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ed his teach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> biology with s<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the University Choir.<br />
As his friend <strong>and</strong> fellow artist Francisco Amighetti<br />
wrote: “Like many scientists <strong>and</strong> artists, Rafael Lucas<br />
Rodríguez had the privilege of matur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>telectually<br />
while still preserv<strong>in</strong>g his childhood spirit <strong>in</strong>tact”.<br />
Strongly <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> Orientalistim, he believed <strong>in</strong> a<br />
theosophical <strong>in</strong>terpretation of nature <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tended to<br />
form his students not only as biologists but as true<br />
humanists. His passion for botanical illustration led<br />
him to <strong>org</strong>anize a special course for the School of Arts,<br />
which he called ‘watercolor pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>g for biologists’.<br />
It was because of his reputation as a botanical<br />
illustrator that Rodríguez first became <strong>in</strong>terested<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong>. One day <strong>in</strong> the early 1960’s he was<br />
211<br />
approached by the well-known orchidologist Charles<br />
Lankester, who asked him to produce an illustration<br />
from a live orchid: it was a specimen of Pescatorea<br />
cer<strong>in</strong>a (L<strong>in</strong>dl. & Paxton) Rchb. f. (Fig. 59D) which<br />
became the first of a large number of beautiful orchid<br />
watercolors. As L<strong>in</strong>coln Constance said, his pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
were ‘artistically g<strong>org</strong>eous but scientifically accurate’<br />
(Rodríguez et al., 1986: 14). Rafael Lucas began <strong>in</strong><br />
1966 his most ambitious project, a treatise with the title<br />
Orquídeas del Istmo Centro<strong>america</strong>no, a manuscript<br />
that unfortunately was never published, of which large<br />
parts are still preserved <strong>in</strong> the archives of the Lankester<br />
Botanical Garden, <strong>and</strong> that began with the words, <strong>in</strong><br />
Rafael Lucas’ characteristic calligraphy: “Central<br />
America is famous for the abundance <strong>and</strong> above all,<br />
the variety of its <strong>orchids</strong>” (Fig. 60A).<br />
It was for this project that Rafael Lucas began his<br />
series of illustrations, which reached the impressive<br />
number of 1,092. As Robert Dressler recalls, as time<br />
went on, his skill <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>and</strong> it was easy to see<br />
which were the older pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>and</strong> which newer. Then<br />
he changed to a larger format, with the <strong>in</strong>tention of<br />
redo<strong>in</strong>g all of the earlier pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs, as flowers became<br />
available. However, many of the illustrations rema<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
unf<strong>in</strong>ished at the time of his death. What Rafael Lucas<br />
did not have was a good h<strong>and</strong> at cultivat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
As Dressler puts it: “He didn’t have a green thumb”<br />
(Rodríguez et al., 1986: 11). His office was usually<br />
decorated with the dy<strong>in</strong>g rema<strong>in</strong>s of many plants that<br />
his friends had brought <strong>in</strong> for him to pa<strong>in</strong>t. He was<br />
neither a field man. Luis D. Gómez, one of his pupils,<br />
tells us that he once had to drag his professor <strong>in</strong>to the<br />
field, to admire a tree which was ladden with masses<br />
of flower<strong>in</strong>g Trisetella triaristella (pers. comm, 2004).<br />
It is not clear why Rafael Lucas did not publish his<br />
work. He might have been a perfectionist, wait<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to f<strong>in</strong>ish his series of pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs before comitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
anyth<strong>in</strong>g to press; he might also, be<strong>in</strong>g a specialist<br />
<strong>in</strong> other plant families, have felt somewhat <strong>in</strong>secure<br />
about Orchidaceae. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to L.D. Gómez, don<br />
Rafa always compla<strong>in</strong>ed about the lack of literature,<br />
reference collections <strong>and</strong> time to travel <strong>and</strong> study type<br />
specimens. He never stopped study<strong>in</strong>g: his notebooks<br />
are full of annotations <strong>and</strong> sketches, <strong>and</strong> he often<br />
pasted a photocopy of the orig<strong>in</strong>al description of a<br />
species next to one of his detailed pencil sketches.<br />
In 1969, members of the Lat<strong>in</strong>-American Committee<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
212<br />
of Orchidology proposed to Miguel A. Ramírez the<br />
idea of found<strong>in</strong>g a Costa Rican <strong>org</strong>anization which<br />
should unite all those <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the cultivation<br />
<strong>and</strong> conservation of <strong>orchids</strong>. Ramírez responded with<br />
enthusiasm <strong>and</strong> found immediate support from Rafael<br />
Lucas Rodríguez, Dorothy Lankester, daughter of<br />
Charles Lankester, who had recently passed away, <strong>and</strong><br />
Roy Lent. The first meet<strong>in</strong>g of the group was held <strong>in</strong> a<br />
classroom at the School of Biology of the University<br />
of Costa Rica on May 16, 1970, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> July of that<br />
same year the Costa Rican Orchid Society (Asociación<br />
Costarricense de Orquideología, or A.C.O.) was<br />
officially constituted, with Miguel A. Ramírez as<br />
its first president. And here the l<strong>in</strong>ks of history can<br />
be easily understood: it was Lankester who seduced<br />
Rafael Lucas Rodríguez <strong>in</strong>to the world of <strong>orchids</strong> when<br />
he first asked him to pa<strong>in</strong>t Pescatoria cer<strong>in</strong>a. And it<br />
was one of the ma<strong>in</strong> purposes of A.C.O. to save ‘El<br />
Silvestre’, the orchid garden of Charles Lankester <strong>and</strong><br />
Rafael Lucas Rodríguez who made the <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
contacts <strong>and</strong> <strong>org</strong>anized a network of <strong>in</strong>stitutions that<br />
eventually provided the funds to buy the property <strong>and</strong><br />
donate it to the University of Costa Rica. On March 2,<br />
1973, Rafael Lucas had the satisfaction of giv<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
open<strong>in</strong>g address dur<strong>in</strong>g the official <strong>in</strong>auguration of the<br />
Lankester Botanical Garden (Fig. 60B).<br />
Rafael Lucas Rodríguez was not only a great biologist<br />
<strong>and</strong> a conv<strong>in</strong>ced humanist, he was also a man of charm<br />
<strong>and</strong> humor. Robert Dressler, his friend <strong>and</strong> admirer,<br />
remembers an episode which describes vividly Rafael<br />
Lucas’ character: “In one major botanical congress,<br />
we learned that Dr. Rodríguez was to present an afterd<strong>in</strong>ner<br />
speech on Recent advances <strong>in</strong> Algology. None<br />
of us knew him to be <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> algae, <strong>and</strong> there was<br />
much speculation on the subject of the speech, but Don<br />
Rafa smil<strong>in</strong>gly evaded all lead<strong>in</strong>g questions. When<br />
the time came, the speech had little to do with algae.<br />
Rather, he went back to the Greek, algos = ‘pa<strong>in</strong>’, <strong>and</strong><br />
laid the foundations for a new science, the study of<br />
pa<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> more specifically, the pa<strong>in</strong> caused by sitt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on hard chairs <strong>in</strong> classrooms <strong>and</strong> auditoria, listen<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
poorly prepared, or overly long lectures illustrated by<br />
blurry or upside-down slides. The talk was charm<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
erudite <strong>and</strong> very funny. No one suffered the slightest<br />
pa<strong>in</strong> on that occasion” (Rodríguez et al., 1986: 10).<br />
Rafael Lucas was <strong>in</strong>strumental <strong>in</strong> Dressler’s early<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> Costa Rican <strong>orchids</strong>, as it becomes clear<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
when one reads through their mutual correspondence.<br />
In 1977 Rafael Lucas was awarded the highest<br />
academic honor of the country: the ‘Magón’, National<br />
Award for Cultural Achievement, as a recognition of<br />
his extraord<strong>in</strong>ary contributions to botanical science.<br />
In the same year, the lagoons of Palo Verde, <strong>in</strong> the<br />
prov<strong>in</strong>ce of Guanacaste, were declared as a Wildlife<br />
Refuge under the name Refugio Nacional de Fauna<br />
Silvestre Rafael Lucas Rodríguez Caballero (today<br />
part of the Palo Verde National Park). In 1979, an<br />
exhibit of his botanical illustrations was staged at the<br />
Museum of Botany <strong>and</strong> the Arts at the Marie Selby<br />
Botanical Garden <strong>in</strong> Sarasota, Florida.<br />
On some occasions, Rafael Lucas pa<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>orchids</strong><br />
without realiz<strong>in</strong>g that they were species new to science,<br />
<strong>and</strong> which were later, <strong>in</strong> many cases, dedicated to him.<br />
This was the case with Epidendrum rafael-lucasii<br />
Hágsater, Lepanthes rafaeliana Pupul<strong>in</strong>, Masdevallia<br />
rafaeliana Luer, Encyclia ossenbachiana Pupul<strong>in</strong>, <strong>and</strong><br />
Maxillaria rodrigueziana J.T. Atwood & Mora-Ret.<br />
Shortly before his death, <strong>in</strong> 1980, his pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs were<br />
exhibited at the National Museum <strong>in</strong> San José. In 1986,<br />
the University of Costa Rica published a beautiful<br />
volume, authored by Dora E. Mora, María E. Barahona<br />
<strong>and</strong> Norris H. Williams, with some texts from Dr.<br />
Rodríguez, featur<strong>in</strong>g 143 of the most beautiful orchid<br />
pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs by Rafael Lucas, under the name of Géneros<br />
de Orquídeas de Costa Rica (Rodríguez et al., 1986).<br />
Rafael Lucas Rodríguez passed away on January<br />
29, 1981, after a long disease. We leave the f<strong>in</strong>al<br />
words to Francisco Amighetti, Robert Dressler <strong>and</strong><br />
Rudolf Jenny: “A good man <strong>in</strong> the broadest sense of<br />
the word … [his pa<strong>in</strong>t<strong>in</strong>gs] are a wonderful tool for<br />
anyone study<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>orchids</strong> of Costa Rica, <strong>and</strong> their<br />
value will only <strong>in</strong>crease as the availability of <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> their natural habitat dim<strong>in</strong>ishes everywhere.…<br />
Dr. Rodríguez death was a tragedy, <strong>and</strong> we can only<br />
imag<strong>in</strong>e what he might have done with another ten or<br />
twenty years of life… that charm <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tellect that was<br />
Don Rafa can never be replaced…An extraord<strong>in</strong>arely<br />
friendly person, a true gentleman <strong>and</strong> artist ”<br />
(Rodríguez et al., 1986: 11).<br />
Unfortunately, only about 150 of Rafael Lucas’<br />
1,092 illustrations were recovered by the University<br />
of Costa Rica, ma<strong>in</strong>ly those that were used for the<br />
publication of his book. The rest rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the h<strong>and</strong>s<br />
of his family. The largest part of the legacy of Costa
A<br />
B<br />
C<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Figure 60. A — First paragraph of Rodriguez’s Orchids of the Central American Isthmus. Courtesy of Lankester Botanical<br />
Garden, University of Costa Rica. B — Rafael Lucas Rodríguez <strong>in</strong>augurat<strong>in</strong>g the Lankester Botanical Garden on March<br />
2, 1973. Courtesy of Ricardo Lankester. C — Rebecca Northen (third from left) with her husb<strong>and</strong>, Charles Lankester, <strong>and</strong><br />
one of Lankester daughters, dur<strong>in</strong>g a visit to Costa Rica. Courtesy of James Watson, American Orchid Society.<br />
213<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
214<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
C D<br />
Figure 61. A — Dora Emilia Mora de Retana (1940-2001). In Dressler, 2001: 1076. B — Joaquín Bernardo García Castro<br />
(1944-2001). Courtesy of Eduado Bitter. C — Marie Selby (1885-1971). Courtesy of Wesley Higg<strong>in</strong>s, Marie Selby<br />
Botanical Gardens. D — The Marie Selby Botanical Gardens. In Luer, 1983: 13.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
Rica’s most important orchid illustrator is therefore<br />
still unknown to the scientific community. Rafael<br />
Lucas named Odontoglossum hortensiae <strong>in</strong> 1979 <strong>in</strong><br />
honor of his wife Hortensia Sevilla.<br />
Rebecca Tyson Northen (1911-2004) (Fig. 60C)<br />
played a vital role <strong>in</strong> the future preservation of<br />
Lankester Garden <strong>in</strong> Costa Rica, an <strong>in</strong>stitution that has<br />
become the lead<strong>in</strong>g research station for Orchidaceae<br />
<strong>in</strong> our region. She had made the acqua<strong>in</strong>tance of<br />
Charles Lankester <strong>in</strong> the 1950s <strong>and</strong> was the leader of<br />
the campaign that led to the purchase of the garden<br />
by the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust <strong>and</strong> the<br />
American Orchid Society, to be later donated to the<br />
University of Costa Rica. Unquestionable one of the<br />
most recognizable <strong>and</strong> popular personalities <strong>in</strong> the<br />
orchid community, Rebecca was friend <strong>and</strong> educator<br />
to countless <strong>in</strong>dividuals throughout our fraternity. A<br />
tra<strong>in</strong>ed biologist, Rebecca traveled extensively with her<br />
husb<strong>and</strong> Henry <strong>in</strong> Central <strong>and</strong> South America, study<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> collect<strong>in</strong>g <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> the wild (Anonymous, 2004:<br />
410). Dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1st World Orchid Conference, held <strong>in</strong><br />
St. Louis, Missouri, <strong>in</strong> 1951, Gordon Dillon <strong>in</strong>troduced<br />
her as “the mother <strong>and</strong> father of beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g orchid<br />
growers” (Watson, 2002: 12).<br />
Myth <strong>and</strong> reality: Costa Rica dur<strong>in</strong>g the years of<br />
Dora E. Mora <strong>and</strong> Joaquín García. Dora Emilia<br />
Mora de Retana (1940-2001) (Fig. 61A) was for<br />
many years, after Rafael Lucas Rodríguez, the only<br />
Costa Rican orchidologist with a scientific tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
Botany. She went her first steps <strong>in</strong> the field of Botany<br />
at the side of don Rafael Lucas. Soon however she<br />
began to sh<strong>in</strong>e with her own light until she became this<br />
almost mythical figure (although often controversial,<br />
especially because of her almost dictatorial way to<br />
conduct the affairs at Lankester Garden) that we will<br />
always remember. With the bless<strong>in</strong>g of Rafael Lucas<br />
Rodríguez, she took over as Director of the Lankester<br />
Garden <strong>in</strong> the year of 1979, <strong>and</strong> kept that post until she<br />
retired <strong>in</strong> the year 2000. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the 22 years <strong>in</strong> which<br />
she was the Director, Dora Emilia had the merit of<br />
convert<strong>in</strong>g Lankester Garden <strong>in</strong> an obligatory meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t for orchidologists from all over the world who<br />
visited Costa Rica. Slowly but surely, the Lankester<br />
Botanical Garden was transformed from a small farm<br />
of 10,7 hectares to a botanical garden of world fame.<br />
To the old farm of Charles Lankester came important<br />
215<br />
scientists such as Calaway Dodson, Robert Dressler,<br />
Carlyle Luer, Eric Hágsater, John Atwood, Rudolf<br />
Jenny, Henry Oakeley <strong>and</strong> many others. Knowledge<br />
about Costa Rican <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased enormously:<br />
Ames, <strong>in</strong> 1937, had registered for Costa Rica 133<br />
genera <strong>and</strong> 959 species (St<strong>and</strong>ley, 1937). In the Lista<br />
actualizada de las orquídeas de Costa Rica (1992),<br />
published by Dora Emilia Mora <strong>and</strong> Joaquín García,<br />
these numbers <strong>in</strong>creased to 179 genera <strong>and</strong> 1,416<br />
species.<br />
From 1984 on, Dora Emilia <strong>org</strong>anized courses <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>orchidology</strong> at the University of Costa Rica. The first of<br />
these courses was given by Dr. Robert L. Dressler, who<br />
at the request of Dora Emilia spent several months <strong>in</strong><br />
Costa Rica as an <strong>in</strong>vited professor. The projects which<br />
resulted from the collaboration between Dora Emilia<br />
<strong>and</strong> Dr. John T. Atwood where the most important<br />
contributions to the <strong>in</strong>ternational projection of the name<br />
of the Lankester Botanical Garden. Together with him<br />
she published fascicles 15 <strong>and</strong> 16 of Icones Plantarum<br />
Tropicarum, on the <strong>orchids</strong> of Costa Rica (1992-93),<br />
<strong>and</strong> the treatise about Maxillari<strong>in</strong>ae y Oncidi<strong>in</strong>ae <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Flora Costaricensis of the Field Museum of Chicago<br />
(1999). Her friends were always loyal <strong>and</strong> dedicated<br />
five new species to Dora Emilia Mora de Retana.<br />
Eric Hágsater named <strong>in</strong> her honor Epidendrum moraretanae,<br />
Günter Gerlach Keferste<strong>in</strong>ia retanae, Robert<br />
Dressler Sobralia doremiliae, Carlyle Luer Stelis<br />
morae <strong>and</strong> Calaway Dodson <strong>and</strong> Rodrigo Escobar<br />
Telipogon retanarum.Dora Emilia Mora de Retana’s<br />
scientific contributions rema<strong>in</strong>ed on a domestic level.<br />
Her greatest achievement was to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> dur<strong>in</strong>g long<br />
years a botanical garden amidst enormous f<strong>in</strong>ancial<br />
difficulties <strong>and</strong> to convert it <strong>in</strong>to a research center<br />
to which she was able to attract the world’s lead<strong>in</strong>g<br />
orchidologists.<br />
The year 2001 was not a good one: barely six weeks<br />
after the death of Dora Emilia, Dr. Joaquín Bernardo<br />
García Castro (1944-2001) (Fig. 61B) passed away<br />
<strong>in</strong> San José. A good friend <strong>and</strong> collaborator of Dora<br />
Emilia Mora, we read about him <strong>in</strong> the words of<br />
J<strong>org</strong>e Warner: “Dr. García had a great <strong>in</strong>fluence on<br />
the development of orchid cultivation as a hobby. He<br />
was always will<strong>in</strong>g to share his knowledge with the<br />
beg<strong>in</strong>ners. He was a master among the orchid growers,<br />
who listened carefully as he expla<strong>in</strong>ed, with <strong>in</strong>-depth<br />
experience <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> a very simple form, such complicated<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
216<br />
items as the biochemistry of the color of the flowers<br />
or the genetic basics for the production of orchid<br />
hybrids. As a member of the Asociación Costarricense<br />
de Orquideología (A.C.O.) <strong>and</strong> especially dur<strong>in</strong>g his<br />
two terms as its President (August 1986 - July 1988<br />
<strong>and</strong> August 1991 - July 1992), Dr. García was known<br />
for his ability to promote, dur<strong>in</strong>g a period when orchid<br />
hybrids were very popular, the cultivation <strong>and</strong> study<br />
of the native species” (Warner, 2002: 1). Joaquín<br />
García had a prodigious memory. From John Atwood<br />
we have these words: “I do not have the bra<strong>in</strong>s of<br />
Joaquín; therefore I need a well-<strong>org</strong>anized library”<br />
(Warner, 2002: 1). Eduardo Bitter, his life-long friend,<br />
remembers Joaquín García’s many-sided culture:<br />
“Though his <strong>in</strong>satiable thirst for knowledge <strong>and</strong> his<br />
immense <strong>in</strong>tellectual capacity, he was an expert <strong>in</strong><br />
many fields: plastic arts, music, theatre, literature,<br />
<strong>and</strong> many others” (Bitter, 2002: 3). And aga<strong>in</strong> J<strong>org</strong>e<br />
Warner: “Joaquín was always a great friend of the<br />
Lankester Botanical Garden. In fulfillment of his last<br />
wish, his ashes are buried, s<strong>in</strong>ce September 22 [2001]<br />
besides a tree that was planted <strong>in</strong> his honor <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Garden. With his <strong>and</strong> Dora Emilia’s death, six weeks<br />
earlier, we closed a chapter <strong>in</strong> the recent history of<br />
Costa Rica’s <strong>orchidology</strong>” (Warner, 2002: 2). Together<br />
with Dora Emilia Mora he published a half dozen of<br />
new species <strong>and</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ations. Franco Pupul<strong>in</strong> named<br />
<strong>in</strong> his honor Prosthechea joaqu<strong>in</strong>garciana.<br />
The Marie Selby Botanical Gardens. When Marie<br />
Selby (1885-1971) (Fig. 61C) was still young, her<br />
family moved to Marietta, Ohio where her father<br />
studied geology <strong>and</strong> developed oil-drill<strong>in</strong>g equipment.<br />
The family frequently went on camp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> hik<strong>in</strong>g<br />
trips, creat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Marie a strong love of nature at a<br />
young age. Marie met <strong>and</strong> married William Selby<br />
(1884-1956), a partner with his father <strong>in</strong> the Selby Oil<br />
<strong>and</strong> Gas Company (later to become Texaco Oil). They<br />
were wed on January 31, 1908 <strong>in</strong> Marietta, Ohio. One<br />
of their first shared <strong>in</strong>terests was automobile rac<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong><br />
subsequently Marie became the first American woman<br />
to cross the USA by car. William Selby enjoyed fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> had visited Sarasota before his marriage. When<br />
he brought his wife to the west coast of Florida, they<br />
purchased seven acres of l<strong>and</strong> border<strong>in</strong>g on Sarasota<br />
Bay <strong>and</strong> Hudson Bayou. They built a Spanish-style<br />
house <strong>and</strong> lived a quiet life enjoy<strong>in</strong>g nature, garden<strong>in</strong>g<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
<strong>and</strong> boat<strong>in</strong>g. Marie was a charter member of Sarasota’s<br />
first garden club, the Founders’ Circle (Marie Selby<br />
Botanical Gardens, 2006).<br />
William Selby died on 4 December 1956, after sett<strong>in</strong>g<br />
up the William B. <strong>and</strong> Marie Selby Foundation for the<br />
community of Sarasota. This Foundation cont<strong>in</strong>ues<br />
to fund many important education <strong>and</strong> community<br />
projects, although it is <strong>in</strong> no way connected to Selby<br />
Gardens except by name alone. After William’s death,<br />
Marie lived quietly <strong>in</strong> their home until her death on 9<br />
June 1971. In her will, she left their rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g major<br />
asset, the bayside property, “for the enjoyment of the<br />
general public” as a botanical garden. The first trustees<br />
of the Gardens decided to create a tropically oriented<br />
botanical garden with a strong research department.<br />
Research was prioritized because it was considered<br />
a means of br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g attention very quickly to a new<br />
botanical garden. Further, taxonomy was selected as<br />
the <strong>in</strong>itial focus because it was thought that this work<br />
was relatively <strong>in</strong>expensive (ironically, <strong>in</strong> today’s world<br />
of DNA <strong>and</strong> gene mapp<strong>in</strong>g, taxonomy has become<br />
one of the most expensive scientific pursuits). Selby<br />
Foundation funded the purchase of the botanical<br />
library, an essential gift that enabled the research<br />
program to flourish.<br />
Dr. Cal Dodson, orchid biologist from University of<br />
Miami, was the first director of Selby Gardens. Mrs.<br />
Selby’s physician, Dr. Carlyle Luer, also a renowned<br />
orchid specialist, went to Ecuador to <strong>in</strong>terview <strong>and</strong><br />
persuade Dr. Dodson to take on the leadership of Selby<br />
Gardens. Despite the fact that Mrs. Selby was a lover of<br />
roses, a mission specializ<strong>in</strong>g on epiphytes was chosen<br />
because the group represented approximately 20%<br />
of all flower<strong>in</strong>g plants, <strong>and</strong> many (like <strong>orchids</strong>) were<br />
spectacular to display. Development of the Gardens<br />
began <strong>in</strong> March 1972 with l<strong>and</strong>scap<strong>in</strong>g based on a<br />
plan from the Department of L<strong>and</strong>scape Architecture<br />
at the University of Florida, <strong>and</strong> with construction of<br />
greenhouses. Selby Gardens was officially opened to<br />
the public on 7 July, 1975. In a very short span of time,<br />
Selby Gardens came a long way (Anonymous, 1977: 1)<br />
(Fig. 61D). In its first 30 years, the research program has<br />
grown, evolved, <strong>and</strong> diversified. There are three major<br />
components to the research program: orchid research,<br />
bromeliad research, <strong>and</strong> canopy ecology (the latter<br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g the habitat where these epiphytes live).<br />
Other tropical botanical topics of study are still part
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
of Selby’s research component, but these three are the<br />
most <strong>in</strong>ternationally recognized. The orchid program<br />
has featured many world renowned orchidologists<br />
over Selby’s 30 years, <strong>and</strong> will hope to exp<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the<br />
next 25 years to reflect the new directions of genetic<br />
research <strong>and</strong> conservation biology. The bromeliad<br />
identification center has grown to become the world’s<br />
foremost site for taxonomic work on this small albeit<br />
unique epiphytic plant family. Only <strong>in</strong> the past 20<br />
years has Selby become renown for canopy ecology.<br />
In addition to hous<strong>in</strong>g epiphytes, the forest canopy<br />
is reputed to house over half of the species on Earth.<br />
This importance of canopy science has exp<strong>and</strong>ed as<br />
a consequence of the critical global needs to survey<br />
this habitat before deforestation practices result <strong>in</strong> its<br />
disappearance.<br />
The research department boasts several valuable<br />
collections. S<strong>in</strong>ce many <strong>orchids</strong>, bromeliads <strong>and</strong><br />
other epiphytes are no longer common <strong>in</strong> the wild,<br />
the collections de Selby have become a valuable<br />
global resource. These collections <strong>in</strong>clude a herbarium<br />
(dried “library” of pressed plants) number<strong>in</strong>g over<br />
80,000; a spirit collection of <strong>orchids</strong> (flowers of the<br />
orchid family preserved <strong>in</strong> jars of alcohol so as to<br />
reta<strong>in</strong> their three-dimensional qualities); a specialized<br />
library of botanical volumes; slides <strong>and</strong> video<br />
collections of tropical plant-related visuals; botanical<br />
files <strong>in</strong> the Orchid Identification <strong>and</strong> Bromeliad<br />
Identification Centers; <strong>and</strong> live collections of tropical<br />
plants <strong>in</strong> the greenhouses. Of special importance,<br />
the herbarium boasts approximately 1,200 type<br />
specimens, which represent the first collection of a<br />
new species. In 2000, the research department was<br />
restructured to better serve the needs of an exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> dynamic program over the next 25 years. The<br />
research department is exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Over 30 years, a<br />
proportionally high number of dist<strong>in</strong>guished botanists<br />
have worked for <strong>and</strong> contributed to Selby’s research<br />
program. Tropical research has been conducted <strong>in</strong><br />
Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Costa Rica, Panama, Belize,<br />
Samoa, Australia, Malaysia, <strong>and</strong> Cameroon as well as<br />
Florida. Important events, such as the first <strong>and</strong> second<br />
International Canopy Conferences (1994 <strong>and</strong> 1998),<br />
the First International Epiphyte Conference (1991),<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Orchid Conservation Workshop (1997), have<br />
been hosted here. Important publications such as<br />
the Icones Plantarum Tropicarum (a field guide to<br />
217<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>); Selbyana (the Gardens’ journal that features<br />
articles on epiphytes <strong>and</strong> other tropical plants, <strong>and</strong><br />
canopy biology); <strong>and</strong> most recently a new local series<br />
of Florida floral field guides have been produced by<br />
Selby scientists. The official Selby Botanical Gardens<br />
Press, which oversees all publications of the Gardens,<br />
was launched <strong>in</strong> 2000.<br />
Three new species of <strong>orchids</strong>, Erythrodes selbyana<br />
Dodson, Telipogon selbyanus N.H. Williams &<br />
Dressler, <strong>and</strong> Coryanthes selbyana Archila were<br />
named <strong>in</strong> honor of the Marie Selby Botanical Gardens.<br />
The Marie Selby Botanical Gardens have collaborated<br />
closely, s<strong>in</strong>ce the early 1990’s, with the Lankester<br />
Botanical Garden of the University of Costa Rica, <strong>and</strong><br />
have made the Central American region one of their<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> research areas.<br />
The Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na<br />
That you are ‘jefe’ of this part of the<br />
program [the <strong>orchids</strong>] is welcome news.<br />
Ed Greenwood <strong>in</strong> a letter<br />
to R. Dressler, May 18, 1983<br />
The first major regional flora ever written <strong>in</strong> Spanish,<br />
Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na is a collaborative effort of the<br />
Missouri Botanical Garden, the Instituto de Biología<br />
of the National Autonomous University of Mexico<br />
(UNAM), the Natural History Museum, London, <strong>and</strong><br />
numerous specialists world-wide. In Spanish, the<br />
Flora pretends to describe, for the first time, all the<br />
vascular plants grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the southeasternmost (sic)<br />
states of Mexico (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the Yucatán Pen<strong>in</strong>sula) <strong>and</strong><br />
all the Central American republics.<br />
The idea of the Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na was promoted<br />
by Peter H. Raven, Director of the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden, who s<strong>in</strong>ce 1972 has actively promoted the<br />
concept of a Central American Flora. In that year,<br />
Raven <strong>org</strong>anized a meet<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong> conjunction with the<br />
XIX Annual Symposium of Systematics, to discuss the<br />
feasibility of the project. Although a general agreement<br />
was reached regard<strong>in</strong>g the necessity <strong>and</strong> usefulness<br />
of the project, most among those attend<strong>in</strong>g though<br />
that the time was not ripe to beg<strong>in</strong> with it. One of the<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> reasons to doubt that it was the right moment to<br />
start with this project was that the Flora of Guatemala<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Flora of Panama had not yet been f<strong>in</strong>ished. In<br />
1979, after the conclusion of the Flora of Guatemala<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
218<br />
(1977) <strong>and</strong> the imm<strong>in</strong>ent publication of the last parts<br />
of the Flora of Panama, a much broader <strong>in</strong>frastructure<br />
was created, enough to beg<strong>in</strong> with a more extense<br />
treatment of the flora of the region. On these bases,<br />
Raven, together with José Sarukhán K., then Director<br />
of the Instituto de Biología of the National Autonomous<br />
University of Mexico, <strong>and</strong> John F.M. Cannon, Curator<br />
of Botany of the British Museum (Natural History), as<br />
it was called at that time, proposed a floristic project,<br />
even more ambitious, that should cover not only Central<br />
America, but also the tropical regions of Mexico, this is,<br />
the most important part of the tropical areas of the North<br />
American cont<strong>in</strong>ent. These three <strong>in</strong>stitutions became the<br />
<strong>org</strong>anizers of the Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na project.<br />
However, there were still doubts <strong>and</strong> criticisms, at<br />
least amongst the orchidologists. It is <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
follow an exchange of letters between Ed Greenwood<br />
<strong>and</strong> Robert Dressler regard<strong>in</strong>g the subject of the Flora<br />
Meso<strong>america</strong>na. “Missouri Botanical Garden is try<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to <strong>org</strong>anize a new “Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na” <strong>and</strong> have<br />
asked me for an outl<strong>in</strong>e of the <strong>orchids</strong>, with possible<br />
contributors. I will give them your name, as well as<br />
Eric [Hágsater] <strong>and</strong> several others from Mexico.<br />
I don’t know how much we can do, but it could be<br />
an <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g project” (Dressler to Greenwood,<br />
December 2, 1980). “The “Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na”<br />
project seems dubious to me. Louis Williams reported<br />
that the plan is to cover the area from about the Isthmus<br />
of Tehuantepec through Panama, us<strong>in</strong>g descriptions of<br />
not over 100 words <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>imum references. Only 5<br />
years are to be allowed for completion <strong>and</strong> a rather<br />
small amount of money, which I have f<strong>org</strong>otten for<br />
the moment. The descriptions appear too brief to<br />
serve for more than aids to determ<strong>in</strong>ation, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> view<br />
of almost everyone’s f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs on the richness of the<br />
flora <strong>and</strong> the poor state of knowledge, the result will<br />
be vulnerable to criticism such as yours of Williams<br />
<strong>and</strong> Allen “Orchids of Panama”, which covered only<br />
about half of the species present. Of course we will<br />
help <strong>in</strong> any way we can if Pete Raven asks us. I fear<br />
that there will be gaps <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> El Salvador”<br />
(Greenwood to Dressler, December 11, 1980). “I agree<br />
with all your criticisms of the Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na<br />
project. [...] There was a meet<strong>in</strong>g just a couple of years<br />
ago <strong>in</strong> which everyone said “we’re not ready”, but<br />
Missouri has decided to go ahead, anyway. The project<br />
is not without some botanical imperialism, <strong>and</strong> has left<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
some ill feel<strong>in</strong>gs locally” (Dressler [from Panama] to<br />
Greenwood, January 9, 1981). “Eric [Hágsater] has put<br />
my name, <strong>and</strong> those of several other amateurs on the<br />
list of contributors. I don’t really object to this, though<br />
I have some misgiv<strong>in</strong>gs about do<strong>in</strong>g a full flora of an<br />
area so little explored ...” (Greenwood to Dressler, May<br />
18, 1983). And f<strong>in</strong>ally: “I don’ really know what to say<br />
about the Flora Meso<strong>america</strong>na. Like yourself, I feel<br />
very far from the herbaria here, <strong>and</strong> field work is both<br />
more fun <strong>and</strong>, I th<strong>in</strong>k, more urgent right now. [...] I<br />
really don’t want to get bogged down <strong>in</strong> floristic work.<br />
This is a poor place to do it, <strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>stitute [Dressler<br />
was at the time work<strong>in</strong>g at the Smithsonian Tropical<br />
Research Institute ] has very little <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> this k<strong>in</strong>d<br />
of work. I really don’t see much hope of do<strong>in</strong>g a decent<br />
treatment of the Central American <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> the near<br />
future. I realize that I haven’t answered your questions.<br />
The th<strong>in</strong>g is that I don’t have any answers” (Dressler to<br />
Greenwood, July 20, 1983).<br />
Notwithst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g, the project went ahead, <strong>and</strong><br />
Dressler kept his position of editor for Orchidaceae.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>itial time frame was never ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed. 25 years<br />
after the meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Missouri, several volumes have<br />
been published, but the Orchidaceae are still wait<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Fritz Hamer <strong>and</strong> the <strong>orchids</strong> of El Salvador <strong>and</strong><br />
Nicaragua. Fritz Hamer (1912-2004) (Fig. 62A), who<br />
passed away recently, the most prom<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>and</strong> maybe<br />
the only real expert on the <strong>orchids</strong> of El Salvador <strong>and</strong><br />
Nicaragua dur<strong>in</strong>g the second half of the XX century,<br />
was the last of a long list of German collectors <strong>and</strong><br />
scientists who played a relevant role <strong>in</strong> the history of<br />
Central American <strong>orchidology</strong>. Fritz Hamer was born<br />
<strong>in</strong> Hamburg, Germany, on November 22, 1912, where<br />
he grew up <strong>and</strong> received his education <strong>in</strong> bus<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> a<br />
Dutch-owned export company. In 1936 his company<br />
sent him to Venezuela <strong>and</strong> a year later to Guatemala,<br />
where the onset of World War II found him. In 1942<br />
he was repatriated to Germany, where he served <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Army dur<strong>in</strong>g the campaign aga<strong>in</strong>st Russia. At the end<br />
of the war he went back to Guatemala for a short period<br />
of time <strong>and</strong> established himself later <strong>in</strong> El Salvador,<br />
where he formed a successful company which imported<br />
<strong>and</strong> distributed mach<strong>in</strong>ery <strong>and</strong> equipment, <strong>and</strong> which<br />
still exists (Douglass, 1980: 19).<br />
Rebecca T. Northen, <strong>in</strong> a letter to F. Hamer,<br />
congratulated him to his work: “This is a most
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
remarkable achievement, a real work of love. To search<br />
out the <strong>orchids</strong> rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a country so denuded of<br />
forest – to f<strong>in</strong>d what is left, <strong>and</strong> put them on record<br />
– must have been a tremendous task. And to make<br />
anatomical draw<strong>in</strong>gs of all, <strong>and</strong> photographs of most<br />
[species], was, I know, a pa<strong>in</strong>stak<strong>in</strong>g task. I admire<br />
you for do<strong>in</strong>g it, <strong>and</strong> appreciate the results” (Kennedy,<br />
1977: 212).<br />
His <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> started relatively late <strong>in</strong> life.<br />
Around 1960, someone gave him a Miltonia which<br />
caught his artistic eye <strong>and</strong> led to his first orchid draw<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
He began explor<strong>in</strong>g the country <strong>in</strong> search of <strong>orchids</strong>,<br />
which he cultivated patiently, prepar<strong>in</strong>g photographs,<br />
illustrations <strong>and</strong> descriptions. Hamer soon discovered<br />
the lack of adequate bibliography about the <strong>orchids</strong> of<br />
his adoptive country. After St<strong>and</strong>ley’s <strong>and</strong> Calderón’s<br />
Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary list of the plants of El Salvador (1925),<br />
<strong>in</strong> which 63 species of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> 28 genera were<br />
described, noth<strong>in</strong>g else had been published about the<br />
orchid flora of the country. Motivated by this, Hamer,<br />
who had already published a few articles on the<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> of the country, began <strong>in</strong> 1971 the preparation<br />
of his fundamental work The Orchids of El Salvador,<br />
whose first two volumes were published <strong>in</strong> 1974 by the<br />
M<strong>in</strong>istry of Education of El Salvador. 279 species <strong>in</strong> 67<br />
genera were described. Hamer, who had no scientific<br />
background <strong>in</strong> the natural sciences, received valuable<br />
help <strong>in</strong> this <strong>and</strong> all future works from Leslie A. Garay,<br />
who became a mentor <strong>and</strong> friend for the rest of Hamer’s<br />
life. Social <strong>and</strong> political unrest, which led later to civil<br />
war, made Hamer ab<strong>and</strong>on El Salvador <strong>and</strong> move to<br />
Florida, where he became part of the scientific staff of<br />
the Marie Selby Botanical Gardens. It was there where<br />
he published, <strong>in</strong> 1981, the third volume of his work,<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g the number of Salvadorian <strong>orchids</strong> to 362<br />
species <strong>in</strong> 93 genera.<br />
When Alphonse Heller died <strong>in</strong> Nicaragua, all of his<br />
draw<strong>in</strong>gs, descriptions, color slides <strong>and</strong> specimens of<br />
dried plants of Orchidaceae, as well as a large <strong>and</strong> valuable<br />
library, were donated by Christiane Heller to the Marie<br />
Selby Botanical Gardens, then under the directorship of<br />
Dr. Calaway H. Dodson. The donation was made with<br />
the underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g that arrangements would be made to<br />
use Heller’s work for a publication <strong>and</strong> Dodson <strong>in</strong>vited<br />
Hamer, who still resided <strong>in</strong> El Salvador, to have a look at<br />
Heller’s material. Then there was another development.<br />
The Missouri Botanical Garden had committed itself to<br />
219<br />
prepar<strong>in</strong>g a Flora de Nicaragua, <strong>in</strong> cooperation with<br />
the University of Managua, <strong>and</strong> Hamer was asked to<br />
take over the family of <strong>orchids</strong> with<strong>in</strong> that Flora. With<br />
Heller’s material as a base, Hamer visited the herbaria<br />
at Kew, the Field Museum <strong>in</strong> Chicago, the Escuela<br />
Agrícola Pan<strong>america</strong>na at “El Zamorano” <strong>in</strong> Honduras,<br />
at Managua <strong>and</strong> at the University of Michigan, f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that there was more material available from former<br />
expeditions to Nicaragua. Fascicle seven of the first<br />
series of Icones Plantarum Tropicarum, edited by<br />
Dodson, which conta<strong>in</strong>ed the first 100 descriptions <strong>and</strong><br />
illustrations by Hamer on the <strong>orchids</strong> of Nicaragua,<br />
was published <strong>in</strong> 1982. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the next years, Hamer<br />
published <strong>500</strong> additional plates for the Icones (Hamer,<br />
1982-1985).<br />
Thus it was aga<strong>in</strong> Hamer who filled a void <strong>in</strong><br />
the bibliography of the <strong>orchids</strong> of Central America.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the doubtful ‘Flora nicaragüense’ of Miguel<br />
Ramírez Goyena (1909), <strong>in</strong> which 94 species were<br />
listed, noth<strong>in</strong>g else had ever been published about<br />
the orchidaceous flora of that country. Between 1988<br />
<strong>and</strong> 1990 Hamer published <strong>in</strong> the scientific journal<br />
Selbyana (Vol. 10 <strong>and</strong> 11) his Orchids of Central<br />
America – an Illustrated Field Guide, <strong>in</strong> which he<br />
reproduced all his illustrations of the <strong>orchids</strong> of the<br />
region, although without descriptions. The project<br />
of the Flora de Nicaragua of the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden became f<strong>in</strong>ally a reality <strong>in</strong> 2001, <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> it<br />
was Hamer, already 89 years of age, who authored<br />
the chapter on Orchidaceae, describ<strong>in</strong>g 587 species <strong>in</strong><br />
144 genera. A fundamental author for the knowledge<br />
of the <strong>orchids</strong> of our region, Hamer collaborated also<br />
with Dr. Carlyle A. Luer translat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to German the<br />
seven volumes of Thesaurus Dracularum (1988-1994)<br />
<strong>and</strong> the first six volumes of A Treasure of Masdevallia<br />
(1996-2001). Dur<strong>in</strong>g his life, Hamer published 14<br />
new species <strong>and</strong> 9 new comb<strong>in</strong>ations of Orchidaceae:<br />
Bulbophyllum b<strong>and</strong>ischii Garay, Hamer & Siegerist,<br />
Bulbophyllum burfordiense Garay, Hamer & Siegerist,<br />
Bulbophyllum fraudulentum Garay, Hamer & Siegerist,<br />
Bulbophyllum kegelii Hamer & Garay, Cyrtopodium<br />
punctatum L<strong>in</strong>dl. var. salvadorense Hamer & Garay,<br />
Dichaea muricatoides Hamer & Garay, Epidendrum<br />
glumarum Hamer & Garay, Isochilus aurantiacus<br />
Hamer & Garay, Isochilus pitalensis Hamer &<br />
Garay, Neo-urbania nicaraguensis Hamer &<br />
Garay, Mormodes × salvadorensis Hamer & Garay,<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
220<br />
Oncidium cheirophorum Rchb.f. var. exauriculatum<br />
Hamer & Garay, Synarmosepalum kettridgei Garay,<br />
Hamer & Siegerist, Beloglottis ecallosa (Ames & C.<br />
Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.) Hamer & Garay, Calanthe calanthoides<br />
(Rich. & Galeotti) Hamer & Garay, Cirrhopetalum<br />
gusdorfii (J. J. Sm.) Garay, F. Hamer & E. S. Siegerist,<br />
Eltroplectris roseoalba (Rchb.f.) Hamer & Garay,<br />
Encyclia dick<strong>in</strong>soniana (Withner) Hamer, Epidendrum<br />
pseudopygmaea (F<strong>in</strong>et) Hamer & Garay, Miltonioides<br />
pauciflora (L. O. Williams) Hamer & Garay,<br />
Neolehmannia curvicolumna (Ames, F. T. Hubb. &<br />
C. Schwe<strong>in</strong>f.) Hamer, <strong>and</strong> Scaphyglottis m<strong>in</strong>uta (A.<br />
Rich. & Galeotti) Hamer & Garay. Other species<br />
were described based on collections by Hamer <strong>and</strong><br />
dedicated to him: Beloglottis hameri Garay, Pelexia<br />
hameri Garay, <strong>and</strong> Ponthieva hameri Dressler.<br />
Hamer was married for 42 years to Hedwig Pfister,<br />
a neurologist, to whom he dedicated one of the new<br />
species he had discovered: Maxillaria hedwigiae<br />
Hamer & Dodson. He had three sons, one of which<br />
was murdered <strong>in</strong> 2003 by kidnappers <strong>in</strong> El Salvador.<br />
Overwhelmed by this tragedy, which cast a shadow<br />
over the last months of his life, Fritz Hamer passed<br />
away <strong>in</strong> Sarasota, Florida, on January 13, 2004. His<br />
extensive library was donated by his wife Hedwig to<br />
the Botanical Garden of La Laguna, <strong>in</strong> San Salvador.<br />
The orchid collection of the Garden was named, <strong>in</strong><br />
2005, “Fritz Hamer Orchid Collection”.<br />
Guatemala: the heirs of Baron von Tuerckheim .<br />
Otto T<strong>in</strong>schert (1915-2006) (Fig. 62B), a giant <strong>in</strong> the<br />
history of the <strong>orchidology</strong> of Guatemala, passed away<br />
on May 16, 2006, at the age of 91. ‘Don Otto’ had been<br />
born <strong>in</strong> Ottendorf, near the German Atlantic Coast, on<br />
March 2, 1915. In love with the sea s<strong>in</strong>ce his youth, he<br />
studied at the Navy Academy at Stralsund <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1936<br />
sailed around the world on board of school ship ‘Gorch<br />
Fock’ <strong>and</strong> visited Guatemala, fall<strong>in</strong>g immediately <strong>in</strong><br />
love with the country, as he liked to tell. As an officer,<br />
he served <strong>in</strong> the German Navy dur<strong>in</strong>g World War II,<br />
comm<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g a submar<strong>in</strong>e dur<strong>in</strong>g the last years of the<br />
conflict. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the difficult post-war years, he found<br />
work with a relative, who imported cotton, <strong>and</strong> became<br />
soon an expert <strong>in</strong> the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of the quality of the<br />
fiber. After be<strong>in</strong>g sent to Nicaragua to select cotton that<br />
was to be exported to Germany, he received an offer<br />
to work <strong>in</strong> that country <strong>and</strong> accepted, “th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g that I<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
would be near Guatemala”. While attend<strong>in</strong>g a meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of Central American cotton producers, he met Mr. José<br />
Quezada, from Guatemala, who conv<strong>in</strong>ced him to work<br />
<strong>in</strong> his plantations. Thus he came to Guatemala <strong>in</strong> 1957,<br />
with his wife <strong>and</strong> two young children, to live <strong>in</strong> a small<br />
house amidst the cotton plantations of Retalhuleu. The<br />
third of his sons was born this same year <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
City. While work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Guatemala’s southern coast, he<br />
began to admire the native <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> started a small<br />
collection <strong>in</strong> his garden. He always told that “after<br />
kill<strong>in</strong>g enough of them” he f<strong>in</strong>ally understood that<br />
he had to learn how to grow them, <strong>and</strong> wrote to his<br />
relatives <strong>in</strong> Germany to send him a book on <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
This was the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of his life-long romance with<br />
these plants.He established himself permanently <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala, travel<strong>in</strong>g after that only to Germany for his<br />
yearly visits to his relatives <strong>and</strong> the reunions with his<br />
old submar<strong>in</strong>e crew. In a small VW beetle he traveled<br />
throughout Guatemala on difficult dirt roads, eager to<br />
learn about the culture of the many Mayan tribes <strong>and</strong><br />
to admire the ru<strong>in</strong>s of their magnificent architecture.<br />
Interested <strong>in</strong> the enormous genetic potential that<br />
he saw <strong>in</strong> the native <strong>orchids</strong> of his collection, he<br />
soon learned to grow them from seed, improvis<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
small laboratory <strong>and</strong> construct<strong>in</strong>g his own equipment,<br />
which later <strong>in</strong>cluded a home-made lam<strong>in</strong>ar flow<br />
hood. Thus he began the first important l<strong>in</strong>e of<br />
work for which he became well-known, produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a great number of hybrids, many of which received<br />
important AOS awards <strong>and</strong> became commercially<br />
important <strong>in</strong> the United States. When his laboratory<br />
facilities improved, he began what would become<br />
his ma<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> life: the reproduction from<br />
seed of especially <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g native species, which<br />
were threatened by ext<strong>in</strong>ction. His first big success<br />
was Lycaste sk<strong>in</strong>neri var. alba (‘The White Nun’),<br />
Guatemala’s National Flower, which today is<br />
almost impossible to f<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> nature. Most plants of<br />
this species which are currently cultivated came<br />
from Otto’s laboratory. Disappo<strong>in</strong>ted by the tragic<br />
situation of the deforestation <strong>in</strong> Guatemala, <strong>and</strong> with<br />
little hope of deta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g it, he began, with a small<br />
group of <strong>in</strong>terested friends, to promote the creation<br />
of a National Botanical Garden, which could fill <strong>in</strong><br />
the voids <strong>in</strong> the areas of research, study, susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
use <strong>and</strong> conservation of the country’s flora. He<br />
worked arduously towards this ideal, conv<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
<strong>and</strong> motivat<strong>in</strong>g universities, foundations <strong>and</strong> other<br />
<strong>org</strong>anizations. This idea, which was first born <strong>in</strong><br />
Otto’s m<strong>in</strong>d, is still be<strong>in</strong>g discussed, with some hope<br />
of it becom<strong>in</strong>g reality. In the same field, he worked <strong>in</strong><br />
Petén, a region whose forests were heavily exploited<br />
for wood, try<strong>in</strong>g to rescue the enormous numbers<br />
of plants of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> other <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g epiphytes,<br />
which are left to rot after the large felled trees are<br />
cleaned off their branches, before transport<strong>in</strong>g them<br />
to the sawmills. For this project he obta<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />
support of the Armed Forces, who allowed him to<br />
plant the rescued plants on the trees of a forest at an<br />
Air Force base. The Air Force would also contribute<br />
with labor <strong>and</strong> the logg<strong>in</strong>g companies were expected<br />
to br<strong>in</strong>g from the mounta<strong>in</strong>s everyth<strong>in</strong>g that grew<br />
on the trunks of the trees <strong>and</strong> was usually left over.<br />
Although the loggers <strong>in</strong>itially accepted, they never<br />
kept their part of the deal.<br />
In recognition for his conservation efforts, Otto<br />
T<strong>in</strong>schert was <strong>in</strong> 1999 presented by the President of<br />
Guatemala, Álvaro Arzú Irigoyen, with the Presidential<br />
Medal of the Environment. Franco Pupul<strong>in</strong> named a<br />
new Guatemalan species <strong>in</strong> his honor: Keferste<strong>in</strong>ia<br />
t<strong>in</strong>schertiana (2004), now also found <strong>in</strong> Mexico. He was<br />
a mentor to many students <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the cultivation<br />
of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> the methods of reproduction of these<br />
plants. He was always will<strong>in</strong>g to share his knowledge<br />
<strong>and</strong> to collaborate with persons or <strong>in</strong>stitutions who<br />
asked him for help, T<strong>in</strong>schert co-authored with Moisés<br />
Béhar the book Guatemala y sus Orquídeas (1999),<br />
dest<strong>in</strong>ed to br<strong>in</strong>g to the wide public the beauty of the<br />
local native species. In the <strong>in</strong>ternational field, Otto<br />
was a member of the Conservation Committee of the<br />
American Orchid Society <strong>and</strong> of the Meso<strong>america</strong>n<br />
Orchid Specialist Group of the International Union for<br />
the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). He participated <strong>in</strong><br />
several World Orchid Conferences.<br />
He was a hard worker, an honest man <strong>and</strong> an<br />
enthusiastic <strong>and</strong> joyful person, beloved by all who<br />
knew him. He loved liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Guatemala <strong>and</strong> had<br />
bought, long years ago, an old ab<strong>and</strong>oned corn field,<br />
without trees except for one old avocado. Otto planted<br />
over 3,000 trees <strong>and</strong> built his home. In the meantime the<br />
property lies <strong>in</strong> Guatemala’s most exclusive residential<br />
area <strong>and</strong> the house, <strong>in</strong> the midst of forests <strong>and</strong> gardens,<br />
is truly what Otto called “my home-made paradise”.<br />
There he spent his last years, <strong>in</strong> the company of friends<br />
221<br />
<strong>and</strong> relatives who loved him, grow<strong>in</strong>g his <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
help<strong>in</strong>g the young beg<strong>in</strong>ners as much as he could. This<br />
was undoubtedly his best legacy (Béhar & Ossenbach,<br />
2006: 490).<br />
Otto Mittelstaedt (1919-2000) (Fig. 62C), was “an<br />
extraord<strong>in</strong>ary man <strong>and</strong> a beautiful person, who helped<br />
more than anyone to the knowledge of the <strong>orchids</strong><br />
of Guatemala” (In the words of Moisés Behar, his<br />
close friend). He was the son of the German Paul<br />
von Mittelstaedt <strong>and</strong> Emilia Villegas, a Spaniard. His<br />
father came to Guatemala <strong>in</strong> 1896, from the port of<br />
Kiel, <strong>and</strong> began to work, together with countrymen<br />
who had established themselves earlier, <strong>in</strong> the grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of coffee. Mittelstaedt was born <strong>in</strong> Cobán, Guatemala,<br />
on April 19, 1919. He went to Grammar <strong>and</strong> High<br />
School at the German High School of the capital.<br />
Shortly after f<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g High School he married Maria<br />
Concepción Sobalvarro, <strong>and</strong> moved with his wife to<br />
live <strong>and</strong> work <strong>in</strong> a coffee plantation that had been<br />
bought by his mother <strong>in</strong> the coffee region of southern<br />
Guatemala. Work<strong>in</strong>g with the energy <strong>and</strong> enthusiasm<br />
that were his traits, together with his wife <strong>and</strong> h<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
h<strong>and</strong> with the workers, he transformed the property <strong>in</strong><br />
a short period of time <strong>in</strong> one of the most productive<br />
<strong>and</strong> best <strong>org</strong>anized coffee plantations of the country.<br />
In the 1980’s, with the coffee plantation that he had<br />
<strong>in</strong>herited from his mother <strong>in</strong> full production <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> a<br />
good f<strong>in</strong>ancial situation, but yet still <strong>in</strong> the prime of<br />
his life, he returned to his native <strong>and</strong> beloved Cobán<br />
to dedicate himself to his passion for <strong>orchids</strong>, leav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the coffee plantation to his sons. Cobán, capital city of<br />
the department of Alta Verapaz, lies <strong>in</strong> a region with a<br />
high level of humidity <strong>and</strong> altitudes which range from<br />
3,000 meters to sea level. “In Cobán it ra<strong>in</strong>s dur<strong>in</strong>g 13<br />
months of the year”, say its <strong>in</strong>habitants. Mounta<strong>in</strong>ous<br />
<strong>and</strong> with such a variety of climates, it is the region<br />
with the largest density <strong>and</strong> diversity of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
Guatemala. Through the good efforts of his son-<strong>in</strong>law,<br />
Don Otto acquired a rural property, close to the<br />
city, which had already a small nursery with some<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>, ma<strong>in</strong>ly Lycaste. When Mittelstaedt acquired<br />
the property, the terraces where full of metal bird<br />
cages, s<strong>in</strong>ce the previous owner had dedicated himself<br />
to illegal cock-fights.<br />
Mittelstaedt became part of the small group<br />
of amateurs of the ‘Asociación Verapacence de<br />
Orquideología’ (= Orchid Society of Alta Verapaz),<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
222<br />
<strong>and</strong> dedicated himself to strengthen the <strong>org</strong>anization<br />
of the group, plann<strong>in</strong>g collect<strong>in</strong>g excursions to the<br />
mounta<strong>in</strong>s, an annual exhibition <strong>and</strong> contribut<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to <strong>in</strong>crease the number <strong>and</strong> the knowledge of its<br />
members. He was elected Secretary of the Society<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> this position, which he held until his death,<br />
he acted really as an Executive Director. With the<br />
Society, he explored the mounta<strong>in</strong>s of the area <strong>and</strong> of<br />
other regions of Guatemala to appreciate its <strong>orchids</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> to collect specimens, always <strong>in</strong>sist<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> avoid<strong>in</strong>g<br />
depredation. Dur<strong>in</strong>g these excursions several new<br />
species were found <strong>and</strong> many others, which although<br />
already described, had not been seen <strong>in</strong> their natural<br />
habitats for many years. He worked without tir<strong>in</strong>g<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the whole day, with the help of Juanito, his<br />
right h<strong>and</strong>, car<strong>in</strong>g for <strong>and</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g his collection,<br />
which came to be the largest <strong>and</strong> most complete<br />
collection of national <strong>orchids</strong>, specializ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Lycaste<br />
(which he reproduced from the back bulbs), until he<br />
had over 1,000 plants, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> conditions very<br />
similar to their natural habitat, under a plantation<br />
of giant ferns. His nursery ‘Vivero Alta Verapaz’<br />
was for many years of great <strong>in</strong>terest for tourists<br />
<strong>and</strong> orchid lovers who visited Cobán. Every night<br />
he worked <strong>in</strong> his small studio, quiet <strong>and</strong> separate<br />
from the ma<strong>in</strong> house, typ<strong>in</strong>g with two f<strong>in</strong>gers on<br />
an old typewriter. He received the ma<strong>in</strong> orchid<br />
journals, <strong>and</strong> formed an important collection of<br />
books. He wrote Las Orquídeas, Guía Práctica para<br />
su Cultivo (= The Orchids, practical guide to their<br />
cultivation) <strong>and</strong> Orquídeas terrestres de Guatemala<br />
(= Terrestrial Orchids of Guatemala), which he<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ted privately. The latter are not well known <strong>and</strong><br />
have not been studied <strong>in</strong> the country. He also wrote<br />
various articles about little known genera <strong>and</strong> several<br />
amus<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> didactic stories. All these publications<br />
were typed by him, reproduced on a mimeograph,<br />
<strong>and</strong> primitively bound <strong>in</strong> a very limited edition of no<br />
more than 100 copies, without a commercial <strong>in</strong>terest<br />
<strong>and</strong> with a purely didactic f<strong>in</strong>ality <strong>and</strong> only for the<br />
use of friends <strong>and</strong> members of the Society. He took<br />
it upon himself to <strong>org</strong>anize the annual exhibitions,<br />
held at the beautiful Convent of Santo Dom<strong>in</strong>go <strong>in</strong><br />
Cobán, specialized <strong>in</strong> native species of Guatemala.<br />
The judges were members of the American Orchid<br />
Society, always very <strong>in</strong>terested to come to Guatemala,<br />
which sometimes made it difficult to limit the number<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
of <strong>in</strong>vited judges. Both the exhibitions <strong>and</strong> his private<br />
collection attracted numerous foreign visitors. Otto,<br />
besides be<strong>in</strong>g a hard worker, was a very k<strong>in</strong>d person,<br />
a good enterta<strong>in</strong>er <strong>and</strong> a man who offered with<br />
pleasure, <strong>and</strong> no second <strong>in</strong>terest, all of his knowledge.<br />
Although he loved travel<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> the country, he<br />
did not like to leave Guatemala <strong>and</strong>, notwithst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
his <strong>in</strong>terest for <strong>orchids</strong>, he did not accept <strong>in</strong>vitations<br />
to attend exhibitions <strong>in</strong> order to give lectures <strong>in</strong> other<br />
countries. He died <strong>in</strong> Cobán. Two new species were<br />
dedicated to him: Lepanthes mittelstaedtii Luer & M.<br />
Behar <strong>and</strong> Epidendrum mittelstaedtii Hágsater.<br />
Oscar Archila (1939-2007) (Fig. 62D) was the son<br />
of a Spaniard <strong>and</strong> a German-Indian (Quetchí) mother,<br />
from whom he <strong>in</strong>herited the empiric knowledge <strong>and</strong><br />
the passion for <strong>orchids</strong>. Together with his sons, he<br />
founded more than 35 years ago an Orchid Experiment<br />
Station, with the “most complete” (In the words of his<br />
son Fredy ) collection of Guatemalan Encyclias, with<br />
over 35,000 plants <strong>in</strong> cultivation. The Station functions<br />
as a rescue center for flora <strong>and</strong> is certified under the<br />
regulations of CITES <strong>and</strong> CONAP (National Council<br />
for Protected Areas). Archila made his first contacts<br />
with nature as a hunter, <strong>and</strong> later as an orchid collector<br />
<strong>and</strong> grower. He spent days without end collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the mounta<strong>in</strong>s, even dur<strong>in</strong>g the civil war years <strong>in</strong><br />
the 1970s <strong>and</strong> 1980s, risk<strong>in</strong>g go<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to war areas<br />
<strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>ed fields, <strong>in</strong> his efforts of reach<strong>in</strong>g remote<br />
collect<strong>in</strong>g grounds <strong>in</strong> the search for rare species. Oscar<br />
Archila passed away <strong>in</strong> Cobán, on December 12, 2007.<br />
The Experiment Station cont<strong>in</strong>ues <strong>in</strong> the h<strong>and</strong>s of his<br />
sons.<br />
The Flora of Panama (II). The Flora of Panama of<br />
the Missouri Botanical Garden had been <strong>in</strong>itiated by<br />
Robert E. Woodson, who edited the first parts with the<br />
assistance, until 1952, of Robert W. Shery. From about<br />
the time of Shery’s departure until the late 1950’s there<br />
was a hiatus on the activity of the Flora.<br />
In the 1960’s a series of expeditions was sent to<br />
Panama from St. Louis. John Duncan Dwyer (1915-<br />
2005) (Fig. 63A) was one of the most noteworthy<br />
collectors of that period. Dr. Dwyer had jo<strong>in</strong>ed the Sa<strong>in</strong>t<br />
Louis University <strong>in</strong> 1953 <strong>and</strong> immediately became the<br />
chairman of the biology department, a position he<br />
held until 1963. He taught at the University for more<br />
than 30 years <strong>and</strong> was well known for his excellence
A<br />
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
C D<br />
Figure 62. A — Fritz Hamer (1912-2004). Courtesy of his widow, Hedwig Hamer. B — Otto T<strong>in</strong>schert (1915-2006).<br />
Courtesy of Moisés Béhar. C — Otto Mittelstaedt (1919-2000). Courtesy of Moisés Béhar. D — Oscar Archila (1939-<br />
2007). Courtesy of his son, Fredy Archila.<br />
B<br />
223<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
224<br />
C<br />
A<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
Figure 63. A — John Duncan Dwyer (1915-2005). B — Repr<strong>in</strong>t of the Flora of Panama, Orchidaceae, by Williams <strong>and</strong><br />
Allen. Missouri Botanical Garden, 1980. C — Frontispiece of the first fascicle of Icones Plantarum Tropicarum. Marie<br />
Selby Botanical Gardens, 1980. D — Frontispiece of the first fascicle of Icones Orchidacearum. AMO Herbarium, 1990.<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
B<br />
D
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
<strong>in</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g, research <strong>and</strong> service. He retired <strong>in</strong> 1985,<br />
becom<strong>in</strong>g professor emeritus <strong>in</strong> biology. Although Dr.<br />
Dwyer’s specialty was the classification <strong>and</strong> evolution<br />
of tropical, Lat<strong>in</strong> American plants, his primary work<br />
concentrated on plant groups that made useful drugs<br />
<strong>and</strong> res<strong>in</strong>s. He became a pioneer <strong>in</strong> the young field of<br />
bio-prospect<strong>in</strong>g when he devised simple ways for plant<br />
collectors to discrim<strong>in</strong>ate between species that could<br />
prove beneficial to human health <strong>and</strong> those that could<br />
not. A world traveler, Dr. Dwyer completed field work<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Republic of Panama, Belize <strong>and</strong> Guatemala. He<br />
also collected <strong>and</strong> preserved plant specimens <strong>in</strong> other<br />
Central American countries as well as <strong>in</strong> Colombia,<br />
Peru, Ecuador <strong>and</strong> Saudi Arabia. Many of these<br />
specimens are housed at the Missouri Botanical Garden.<br />
Dr. Dwyer was a research associate of the Missouri<br />
Botanical Garden s<strong>in</strong>ce 1954, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1984 was elected<br />
Fellow of the L<strong>in</strong>nean Society of London, which was<br />
founded <strong>in</strong> 1788 <strong>and</strong> is the oldest exist<strong>in</strong>g society <strong>in</strong><br />
the world devoted to the life sciences. Interest<strong>in</strong>gly,<br />
Dr. Dwyer also served as a consultant for the St. Louis<br />
Coroner’s Office, exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g victims of poison<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
plant tox<strong>in</strong>s. Dur<strong>in</strong>g his field trips <strong>in</strong> Central America,<br />
Dwyer collected, among others, Encyclia belizensis<br />
(Rchb. f.) Schltr. <strong>and</strong> Ornithocephalus <strong>in</strong>flexus L<strong>in</strong>dl,<br />
both <strong>in</strong> Belize. In Guatemala he found Maxillaria<br />
friedrichsthalli Rchb. f. <strong>and</strong> Pleurothallis brighamii<br />
S. Watson, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Panama the type specimen of<br />
Epidendrum dwyeri (Dwyer & Hayden 7733), which<br />
was dedicated to him by Eric Hágsater.<br />
Thomas B. Croat, who directed the project <strong>in</strong> the<br />
1970’s, rel<strong>in</strong>quished management of the Flora of<br />
Panama <strong>in</strong> 1977 to William Gerald D’Arcy (1931-<br />
1999), who saw the work to completion (D’Arcy, 1980:<br />
vi). Dr. D’Arcy was born <strong>in</strong> 1931 <strong>in</strong> Calgary, Canada,<br />
<strong>and</strong> graduated with honors <strong>in</strong> political economy from<br />
the University of Alberta <strong>in</strong> 1954. Between 1960 <strong>and</strong><br />
1966, he owned <strong>and</strong> managed a softdr<strong>in</strong>k bottl<strong>in</strong>g<br />
factory <strong>in</strong> Tortola <strong>in</strong> the British Virg<strong>in</strong> Isl<strong>and</strong>s, where<br />
he k<strong>in</strong>dled an <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the local flora. Encouraged<br />
by several botanists, he decided to change careers.<br />
Dr. D’Arcy enrolled <strong>in</strong> the botany master’s program<br />
at the University of Florida. In 1968, he was recruited<br />
for the Ph.D. program at Wash<strong>in</strong>gton University <strong>and</strong><br />
the Missouri Botanical Garden, where he worked<br />
under Walter Lewis. He became <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Flora of Panama program <strong>and</strong> wrote his thesis on the<br />
225<br />
Solanaceae of Panama. He received his degree <strong>in</strong> 1972<br />
<strong>and</strong>, at age 41, began his career as a research botanist at<br />
the Missouri Botanical Garden. There he compiled the<br />
first computerized database for the Flora of Panama<br />
(or any other large flora) us<strong>in</strong>g software he wrote<br />
himself, s<strong>in</strong>ce it was before the era of readily available<br />
technology. While <strong>in</strong> Panama, D’Arcy collected, among<br />
others, Epidendrum bisulcatum Ames (D’Arcy 10944),<br />
Pleurothallis cf. dentipetala Rolfe ex Ames (D’Arcy<br />
10927), Pleurothallis crocodiliceps Rchb. f. (D’Arcy<br />
10897b), <strong>and</strong> Sigmatostalix picturatissima Kraenzl.<br />
(D’Arcy 10600A). In April 1980, with all treatments<br />
ready <strong>in</strong> at least a manuscript form, a symposium<br />
was held <strong>in</strong> Panama City to celebrate completion of<br />
the Flora. In this same year, the Missouri Botanical<br />
Garden published a repr<strong>in</strong>t of the Orchidaceae by<br />
Williams <strong>and</strong> Allen, which <strong>in</strong>cluded “A checklist of<br />
the <strong>orchids</strong> of Panama as known today”, by Dr. Robert<br />
L. Dressler (Williams & Allen, 1980) (Fig. 63B). Many<br />
new species of plants were dedicated to him, among<br />
them Rondeletia darcy Dwyer from the Rubiaceae <strong>and</strong><br />
Anturium darcy Croat, from the Araceae.<br />
Icones Plantarum Tropicarum & Icones<br />
Orchidacearum. In 1980 the Marie Selby Botanical<br />
Gardens began a project which was enormously useful<br />
for researchers <strong>and</strong> amateur-lovers of our <strong>orchids</strong>: the<br />
first of the two series of Icones Plantarum Tropicarum<br />
(IPT) (Fig. 63C). Although both series also treated South<br />
American <strong>orchids</strong>, the Icones of Nicaragua <strong>and</strong> Costa<br />
Rica were of great importance. As doctor Calaway H.<br />
Dodson wrote: “the Icones Plantarum Tropicarum<br />
concept is not new <strong>in</strong> publish<strong>in</strong>g. Similar projects<br />
date back to the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g of plant classification. The<br />
idea that ‘a picture is worth a thous<strong>and</strong> words’ is well<br />
applied here. Most treatments of floras of tropical<br />
countries published dur<strong>in</strong>g the last 50 years have been<br />
long on text <strong>and</strong> short on illustrations. The expense<br />
of preparation <strong>and</strong> publication of illustrations was<br />
commonly cited as the reason. [...] The publication<br />
of a series of illustrations by Dunsterville & Garay<br />
<strong>in</strong> Venezuelan Orchids Illustrated prompted the<br />
development of the IPT project. In that case, 6<br />
volumes conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g 1,000 superb illustrations with<br />
accompany<strong>in</strong>g text were published over a 17 year<br />
period (1959-1976). “...A large number of species are<br />
known only by published descriptions <strong>and</strong> herbarium<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
226<br />
specimens. For the orchid taxonomist this is rather like<br />
a chocolate cake with the sugar left out – pretty difficult<br />
to utilize. The situation was made more palatable when<br />
Stalky Dunsterville <strong>and</strong> Leslie Garay published their<br />
splendid series on the <strong>orchids</strong> of Venezuela. One<br />
corner of the cake was now sweet” (Dodson, 1981).<br />
“Cal Dodson <strong>and</strong> I talked a lot about the Icones dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
our long field trips <strong>in</strong> Ecuador. His <strong>in</strong>tention, when<br />
he was director at Selby, was to put at the disposal of<br />
orchidologists <strong>and</strong> amateurs all draw<strong>in</strong>gs which were<br />
<strong>in</strong> the archives. S<strong>in</strong>ce he only wanted to publish the<br />
illustrations, he did not <strong>in</strong>tent a very scientific text<br />
which would imply the revision of a lot of material,<br />
but would only <strong>in</strong>clude the basic <strong>in</strong>formation related<br />
to the specimen used for the illustration. Hence the<br />
simple description, which should be a complement<br />
to the illustrations, add<strong>in</strong>g short notes from his<br />
experience, of that of the collectors <strong>and</strong> illustrators.<br />
It was important to cite the specimen on which the<br />
illustration was based. Due to this <strong>in</strong>tention, he did<br />
not <strong>in</strong>tent a taxonomic revision, although eventually<br />
several new species were published. After the change<br />
of direction at Selby, Cal decided to cont<strong>in</strong>ue with<br />
IPT II <strong>in</strong> San Louis, Missouri. I know that he tried to<br />
obta<strong>in</strong> permission from the widow of Rafael Lucas<br />
Rodríguez to publish his draw<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> the series, but she<br />
thought that a fortune should be paid to her, so that an<br />
agreement was not possible. Fortunately, Rafael Lucas<br />
allowed me to photograph (slides) <strong>and</strong> photocopy all<br />
his illustrations of Epidendrum, which has been very<br />
useful for my work” (Hágsater, 2007, pers. comm.).<br />
In 1990, Eric Hágsater <strong>and</strong> his collaborators at the<br />
AMO Herbarium of the Mexican capital began with<br />
the publication of a similar series to IPT, which was<br />
called Icones Orchidacearum (Fig. 63D). “Icones<br />
Orchidacearum, as a difference to IPT, has <strong>in</strong>tended<br />
from the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to be a very rigorous taxonomic<br />
work, <strong>in</strong> two directions. On one side, it wants to be<br />
the work of reference for the <strong>orchids</strong> of Mexico, with<br />
the collaboration of multiple authors <strong>in</strong> the genera of<br />
their expertise, <strong>and</strong> with the illustrations of many other<br />
collaborators, try<strong>in</strong>g to promote botanical illustration<br />
among young biologists, follow<strong>in</strong>g a certa<strong>in</strong> pattern<br />
regard<strong>in</strong>g the details to be illustrated. The ‘executive’<br />
editor was <strong>in</strong>itially Gerardo Salazar, now substituted<br />
by Miguel Ángel Soto, who has already <strong>in</strong> preparation<br />
the next volume, which will be number 10. The dream<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
would be to complete all Mexican species. On the<br />
other side, there is the series on the genus Epidendrum,<br />
where I have had the collaboration of several executive<br />
editors, today Luis Sánchez. This series <strong>in</strong>tends to be<br />
the publication of the revision of the genus, giv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
place <strong>in</strong> the beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to new species, <strong>and</strong> now also<br />
to those previously described, for which we have been<br />
prepar<strong>in</strong>g illustrations based on the type specimens or,<br />
if not possible, from material that has been collected<br />
or grown, or other herbarium specimens when noth<strong>in</strong>g<br />
else is available” (Hágsater, 2007, pers. commm.).<br />
The National Orchid Societies. We have read about<br />
the <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> shown by the prehispanic<br />
cultures <strong>in</strong> Central America. Orchids were grown<br />
<strong>and</strong> collected by the first <strong>in</strong>habitants of our region<br />
not only for medic<strong>in</strong>al <strong>and</strong> economical purposes, but<br />
also for their ornamental value. From Friar Francisco<br />
Jiménez we learned how, dur<strong>in</strong>g colonial times, the<br />
Indians <strong>in</strong> Guatemala collected <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>and</strong> put their<br />
flowers on the altars, while Francisco Antonio de<br />
Fuentes y Guzmán describes the practical uses given<br />
to <strong>orchids</strong> by musicians <strong>and</strong> c<strong>and</strong>y-makers. Bateman,<br />
<strong>in</strong> one of his vivid descriptions, gives us the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
account on the popularity of <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> XIX century<br />
Mexico: “In Mexico, where the ‘language of flowers’<br />
is understood by all, the Orchidaceae seem to compose<br />
nearly the entire alphabet. Not an <strong>in</strong>fant is baptised,<br />
not a marriage is celebrated, not a funeral obsequy<br />
performed, at which the aid of these flowers is not called<br />
<strong>in</strong> by the sentimental natives, to assist the expression<br />
of their feel<strong>in</strong>gs; -they are offered by the devotee at the<br />
shr<strong>in</strong>e of his favorite sa<strong>in</strong>t, by the lover at the feet of<br />
his mistress, <strong>and</strong> by the sorrow<strong>in</strong>g survivor at the grave<br />
of his friend... (Bateman, 1837-1843: 8).” Seemann,<br />
<strong>in</strong> his Botany of the H.M.S. Herald, tells us how <strong>in</strong><br />
Panama “[The] Espiritu Santo or Holy Ghost plant<br />
(Peristeria elata, Hook.) bears a flower resembl<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
dove, <strong>and</strong> is, like the Flor de semana santa (= Holy<br />
Week Flower), another Orchidea, almost held <strong>in</strong><br />
religious veneration, <strong>and</strong> eagerly sought for when <strong>in</strong><br />
blossom” (Seemann, 1852-1857: 71). Boyle, <strong>in</strong> 1893,<br />
writes about the craz<strong>in</strong>ess for the alba varieties of<br />
certa<strong>in</strong> species: “Even the half-castes of Mexico, who<br />
have no soul, apparently, for th<strong>in</strong>gs above horseflesh<br />
<strong>and</strong> cockfights, <strong>and</strong> love-mak<strong>in</strong>g, reverence this<br />
sa<strong>in</strong>tly bloom [Laelia anceps var. alba]. The Indians
ossenbaCh — Orchids <strong>and</strong> <strong>orchidology</strong> <strong>in</strong> Central America<br />
adore it. Like their brethren to the south, who have<br />
removed every plant from Cattleya Sk<strong>in</strong>neri alba<br />
for generations unknown, to set upon their churches,<br />
they collect this supreme effort of Nature <strong>and</strong> replant<br />
it round their huts. So thoroughly has the work been<br />
done <strong>in</strong> either case that no s<strong>in</strong>gle specimen was ever<br />
seen <strong>in</strong> the forest. Every one has been bought from the<br />
Indians, <strong>and</strong> the supply is exhausted; that is to say, a<br />
good many more are known to exist, but very rarely<br />
now can the owner be persuaded to part with one. [...]<br />
Roezl <strong>and</strong> the early collectors had a ‘good time’ buy<strong>in</strong>g<br />
these semi-sacred flowers from the priests, brib<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
parishioners to steal them, or, when occasion served,<br />
play<strong>in</strong>g the thief themselves” (Boyle, 1983: 120-121).<br />
As we have seen, literature is full of examples of<br />
the <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>orchids</strong> <strong>in</strong> our region dur<strong>in</strong>g the XIX<br />
century. But it was not until the 1940’s that the first<br />
efforts were made to create <strong>org</strong>anizations with the<br />
purpose of unit<strong>in</strong>g all those <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the grow<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
study <strong>and</strong> conservation of <strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
In Mexico, <strong>in</strong> 1942, a group was formed with<br />
the name “Amigos de las Orquídeas” (= Friends of<br />
the Orchids) which <strong>org</strong>anized <strong>in</strong> Chiapas the First<br />
International Congress of Orchidology, sponsored by<br />
Rafael Pascasio Gamboa, then governor of the state.<br />
The “Amigos de las Orquídeas” functioned dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
15 years but then lost most of his members <strong>and</strong> ceased to<br />
exist. In 1966, Joaquín Ibarrola had the idea of reviv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the “Amigos de las Orquídeas” <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 1971 the new<br />
association was legally registered by Eric Hágsater as<br />
“Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología, A. C.” (=<br />
Mexican Society of Orchidology). It keeps meet<strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
then <strong>in</strong> Mexico City, as well as <strong>in</strong> the regional offices<br />
of Cuernavaca, Morelos; Jalapa, Veracruz; Morelia,<br />
Michoacán; Huixquilucán <strong>and</strong> Atizapán, Mexico; as<br />
well as with associated members throughout the country.<br />
The journal Orquídea is a scientific publication of the<br />
Mexican Society of Orchidology, focused ma<strong>in</strong>ly on<br />
the orchid flora of Mexico <strong>and</strong> Tropical America. This<br />
journal, which was first published <strong>in</strong> 1971, <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
papers on systematics, ecology, conservation, anatomy,<br />
physiology <strong>and</strong> other aspects of the biology of the<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>.<br />
In 1968, Helena de Osp<strong>in</strong>a, president of the<br />
Orchid Society of Colombia <strong>and</strong> wife of Mariano<br />
Osp<strong>in</strong>a, president of the Lat<strong>in</strong> American Committee<br />
of Orchidology, traveled through Central America<br />
227<br />
promot<strong>in</strong>g the creation of national orchid societies.<br />
In El Salvador the ambassador of Colombia <strong>in</strong>vited a<br />
group of <strong>in</strong>terested friends <strong>and</strong> on October 21, 1968,<br />
the Salvadorian Society for Orchidology (ASO) was<br />
founded with an <strong>in</strong>itial 30 members. The Society has<br />
as its objectives the study, cultivation, conservation<br />
<strong>and</strong> propagation of <strong>orchids</strong>, with special <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the<br />
native species of El Salvador. Dur<strong>in</strong>g the first years, the<br />
members of ASO, guided by German botanist Oskar<br />
Pank <strong>and</strong> by Cleon Clason, an excellent photographer,<br />
dedicated themselves to explore the country, collect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
species which were classified <strong>and</strong> described by Fritz<br />
Hamer <strong>and</strong> became the base for his future publications.<br />
Then came the war years, which forced the collectors to<br />
rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the cities, <strong>and</strong> more <strong>and</strong> more foreign plants<br />
began to be imported.<br />
In Costa Rica, the same Helena de Osp<strong>in</strong>a proposed<br />
to Miguel Ángel Ramírez the idea of creat<strong>in</strong>g an<br />
<strong>org</strong>anization with all those <strong>in</strong>terested <strong>in</strong> the cultivation<br />
<strong>and</strong> conservation of <strong>orchids</strong>. On April 4, 1970, Ramírez<br />
sent out a letter to several well-known orchid-lovers,<br />
<strong>in</strong>vit<strong>in</strong>g them to found the Costa Rican Society of<br />
Orchidology. With the help of Dorothy Lankester <strong>and</strong><br />
Rafael Lucas Rodríguez Caballero, the first meet<strong>in</strong>g was<br />
held on May 16, 1970, <strong>in</strong> the School of Biology of the<br />
University of Costa Rica. On July 31, 1970, <strong>in</strong> a meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />
held at the residence of María Eugenia de Roy <strong>and</strong><br />
with the collaboration of Fritz Tr<strong>in</strong>ler <strong>and</strong> Dirk t’Höen,<br />
the bylaws of the new association were presented <strong>and</strong><br />
approved. The Society was legally registered this same<br />
year. Under the presidency of Miguel Ángel Ramírez the<br />
first National Orchid Show was held <strong>in</strong> San José, dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
May 8 <strong>and</strong> 9 of 1971, with a total of 147 plants be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
exhibited.<br />
In 1973, a group of conscious persons, know<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
the dangers to which many native species of Guatemalan<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> were exposed, founded the “Asociación<br />
Guatemalteca de Orquideología (AGO)” (= Guatemalan<br />
Socierty of Orchidology) to conserve <strong>and</strong> protect their<br />
<strong>orchids</strong>. Among the found<strong>in</strong>g members rose the great<br />
figure of Dr. Moisés Behar, today retired <strong>in</strong> Curitiba,<br />
Brazil. Today AGO has more than 100 members, all<br />
enthusiasts of the <strong>orchids</strong>, their cultivation, identification,<br />
propagation <strong>and</strong> conservation. The efforts of AGO’s<br />
members have been <strong>in</strong>ternationally recognized. The<br />
annual orchid shows are held <strong>in</strong> February <strong>in</strong> Guatemala<br />
City, with a great variety of genera <strong>and</strong> species, both<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.
228<br />
native <strong>and</strong> exotic. The Society supports the ma<strong>in</strong>tenance<br />
<strong>and</strong> preservation, as well as the proper h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g of the<br />
natural habitats of the <strong>orchids</strong>. Several years later, <strong>in</strong> 1979,<br />
the “Asociación Altaverapacense de Orquideología” (=<br />
Orchid Society of Alta Verapaz) was founded <strong>in</strong> Cobán,<br />
Guatemala, after a visit by Dr. Karlhe<strong>in</strong>z Senghas of the<br />
University of Heidelberg.<br />
In the year of 1977, a large number of orchid<br />
enthusiasts came together <strong>in</strong> Panama to listen to the<br />
experiences <strong>in</strong> orchid grow<strong>in</strong>g of Robert Dressler,<br />
renowned scientist of the Smithsonian Institute.<br />
LANKESTERIANA<br />
LANKESTERIANA 9(1—2), August 2009. © Universidad de Costa Rica, 2009.<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g this meet<strong>in</strong>g Walter Maduro was elected as<br />
the first president of a new association, called the<br />
Panamanian Society of Orchidology. One year later<br />
the first national orchid show was held at the Museum<br />
of the Panamanian Man, an exhibition that brought<br />
together the native <strong>and</strong> exotic species <strong>and</strong> hybrids of<br />
<strong>orchids</strong> owned by the members of the new society.<br />
In the month of October of 1992 the association was<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ally registered <strong>in</strong> the Public Registry. Its logo shows<br />
Panama’s National Flower, Peristeria elata, popularly<br />
known as the Holy Ghost Orchid.<br />
aCknowleDgeMenTs. Many friends have helped to make this book a reality. To try <strong>and</strong> comment on each one’s specific<br />
contribution could lead to unjust appreciations <strong>and</strong> unf<strong>org</strong>ivable oversights. Therefore, I will limit myself to mention<strong>in</strong>g them<br />
<strong>in</strong> alphabetical order, begg<strong>in</strong>g for excuses if I f<strong>org</strong>ot anybody: Fredy Archila, Joseph Arditti, Michael J. Balick, Moisés Behar,<br />
Eduardo Bitter, Mario Blanco, Paloma Blanco, Pilar Casasa, Pilar de San Pío, Susan Donogue, Kerry Dressler, Robert Dressler,<br />
Jaime García, Günter Gerlach, Luis Diego Gómez, Eric Hágsater, Hedwig Hamer, Barry Hammel, Stanley Heckadon-Moreno,<br />
Leonardo Hernández, Wesley Higg<strong>in</strong>s, Luko Hilje, Pierre Jacquet, Rudolf Jenny, Pavel K<strong>in</strong>dlmann, Stephen Kirby, Isobyl<br />
la Croix, Ricardo Lankester, Hilda León-Paéz, J<strong>org</strong>e León, Leoncio López Ocón, Steve Mann<strong>in</strong>g, Stuart McCook, Helga<br />
Nevermann, Marc Nir, Mary Noble McQuerry, Henry Oakeley, Gabriela Ossenbach, Enid Picado, Franco Pupul<strong>in</strong>, Leonora<br />
Rodríguez, Gustavo Romero, Willy Salazar, Luis Sánchez Saldaña, Esthela S<strong>and</strong>oval, Walter Schug, Philip Seaton, Michael<br />
Seaward, Miguel Ángel Soto Arenas, Angela Todd, Silvia Troyo, Erich Vogt Sartorius, James Watson, <strong>and</strong> Mayela Zamora.<br />
To all, once aga<strong>in</strong>, a thous<strong>and</strong> thanks!