Contents Advances in Plant Breeding and Prospects for the Future RK Gumber and RS Gill 1 Wheat Improvement Strategies for Warmer Areas of the Country SK Singh, SA Desai, RS Shukla, V Tiwari & Indu Sharma 5 Role of Marker-Assisted Selection in Plant Breeding Manoj Kumar, Narendra Singh, Paritosh Kumar, Dr. P.C.Gupta 9 An Over-View of Somatic Embryogenesis in Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Hira Singh and T S Dhillon 16 Impact of Alien Cytoplasms on Phenological and Yield Traits under Different Irrigation Environment in Sunflower Vikrant Tyagi and S. K. Dhillon 18 Characterisation of Male Sterile and Male Fertile Lines for Floral Traits in Wheat Ashwin B. Dahake, A.K. Chhabra, S.K. Sethi and Ravika 20 Study the Genetic Divergence among Different Genotypes through D2 and Molecular Marker Analysis in Garlic (Allium sativum L.) Chandanshive Aniket Vilas, Sabina Islam, Subodh Joshi, M K Rana A D Munshi 22 Morpho-Physiological Response of Drought Stress in A Diversity Fixed Foundation Set of Indian Mustard (Brassica juncea L.Czern & Coss) Javed Akhatar* and S. S. Banga 25 Agronomic Performance of Novel Terminal Flowering Variants in Brassica juncea L. Czern & Coss (Indian mustard) 28 Harjeevan Kaur and S.S. Banga Selection Indices for Earliness, Yield and Quality Traits in Sugarcane for Subtropical Region of India Gulzar S. Sanghera, Vikrant Tyagi, Rajinder Kumar and K S Thind 31 Sensory Evaluation of Carrot Vegetable Prepared from Organically and Inorganically Grown Carrot Bajpai Preeti and Punia Darshan 35 Identification of Stem Rust Resistance Genes in Elite Bread Wheat Genotypes Manoj Saini, SK Singh, P Sharma, V Tiwari and Indu Sharma 38 Plant Disease Management: Innovative and Modern Approaches Jagtar Singh Dhiman 41 Inheritance of Powdery Mildew Resistance in WH542 X Synthetic 43 RIL Population Meha Sharma, Parveen Chhuneja, Kuldeep Singh, Satinder Kaur 49 Screening of Recombinant Inbred Lines (RILs) of Wheat Triticum Aestivum L. for Karnal Bunt Resistance Ravika, A.K.Chhabra, V.Chawla, Rajender Baniwal and Ashwin B. Dahake 52 Defending Wheat from Stripe Rust in Punjab 55 Madhu Meeta Jindal, Achla Sharma,Vijay Kumar, Jugraj Singh Marok, Indu Bhagat, Puja Srivastava and N. S Bains Bacterial Leaf Blight Disease of Rice: Its Occurrence and Biological Control Anil K. Singh, Prakash Singh, P. K. Singh1 Ravi P. Singh, H. B. Singh and Jitendra Kumar 59 Management of Chickpea (K 850) Wilt against Fusarium oxysporum ciceri Vipul Kumar, Mohammad Shahid, Anita Puyam and Mukesh Srivastava 63 Bio-Efficacy of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis against Bacterial Wilt of Tomato caused by Ralstonia solanacearum E.F. Smith (Yabuuchi et. al.) C. Gopalakrishnan, Rashmi B. Artal and B. Thippeswamy 67 Bioefficacy of Insecticides, Biopesticides and their Combinations against Peach Leaf Curl Aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kaltenbach) infesting peach Gagandeep Singh and Divender Gupta 71 Distribution of Anthocorid Bugs on Different Flora in Sub-Temperate and Temperate Zone of Himachal Pradesh (India) Nisha Devi, P R Gupta and KC Sharma 74 Biology of Citrus Psylla, Diaphorina Citri Kuwayama on Three Host Plants During Summer Season Hijam S. Devi And D. R. Sharma 78 Prospective of Black Gram PIs as Pest Control Agents by Targeting Development of Melon Fruit Fly Amrit Pal Kaur, Satwinder K. Sohal 81 Insect Pests Association and Evaluation for Efficacy of Organic Inputs in Organically Grown Cabbage Surender Kumar Sharma and Neha Thakur and K.S. Verma 83 Ant Biodiversity and its Relationship to Ecosystem Rakesh Kumar, Himender Bharti & Gurjant Singh Gatoria 90 Effect of Some Plant Extracts on the Parasitization of Egg Parasitoid Trichogramma Chilonis Ishii (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) Kangjam Bumpy and Neerja Agrawal 99 Implementation and Impact of IPM in India Narendra Singh, Manoj Kumar, A.R.Naqvi 102 Prospective of Microbial Chitin Deacetylase Enzyme in Improvement of Agriculture Sonu Rani Kashyap and Neelam Garg 106 Pest Diversity of Arctiid Moths (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Arctiinae) from India Rahul Joshi 109 Diversity of an Economically Important Group of Moths – Geometridae (Lepidoptera) from Western Ghats of India 111 Tarun Goyal Resource Conservation Technologies in Agriculture S S Manhas, K S Brar & J S Brar 115 Furrow Irrigated Broad Bed Planting System: For Better Water Management in Kharif Maize Jasvir Singh Gill and Gurpreet Kaur 118 Factors Influencing Adoption of Direct Seeding of Rice Technology in Punjab Agriculture Sumit Bhardwaj, Baljinder Kaur Sidana and Parminder Kaur 120 Comparative Performance of Different Resource Conservation Technologies System in Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Dipender Kumar, R.K. Naresh, Madhulika Pandey 129 Nitrous Oxide Mitigation Potential of Conservation Agriculture Practices for Wheat Crop Vivek Shankar, Grewal, M. S., Tek Sapkota and Jat, M.L 131 Phenotypic and Plant Growth Promoting (PGP) Diversity of Mesorhizobia from Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L. Rhizosphere 138 Gaganpreet Kaur, Poonam Sharma and Kailash Chand Kumawat Effect of Rock Phosphate Incubated with FYM and Bio-Fertilizer on Productivity, Soil Fertility, Quality and Economics of Wheat 143 K.G. Vyas, A.M. Patel, P.K. Bhatt, C.H. Raval, B.L. Yadav, V.B. Mor and Monika Sharma Productivity and Economics as Influenced by Different Summer Pearl Millet Based Intercropping Systems B.L. Yadav, B.S. Patel, K.G. Vyas, P.K. Bhatt, C.H. Raval, V.B. Mor, B. Saini and Monika Sharma 147 Influence of Plant Growth Regulators on Chlorophyll of Cotton Plants Rajni and J S Deol 150 Crop Performance and Irrigation Water Productivity of Rice (Oryza sativa) in Relation to Divergent Establishment Methods 152 Rajan Bhatt and S S Kukal Isolation and Characterization of Non-Rhizobial Endophytes Bacteria in Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) K.C. Kumawat, Poonam Sharma, B.S. Gill and G. Kaur 155 Economic Returns and Enhanced Quality in Orchid (Dendrobium Sonia 17 ) Using Biosafe Compound-Chitosan Dr. SunilaKumari, Dr. Jitendra Singh, Dr. Panj F. G. 161 Effect of Microbial Inoculation in Potato (solanum tuberosum L.) On Soil Microflora D S Khurana, Madhu Gangwar, Sakshi Verma, Kulbir Singh and Hira Singh 166 Effect of Inorganic Fertilizer, Organic Manure and Bio-Fertilizer on Growth, Yield and Quality of Plum cv. Santa Rosa 170 Archana Chauhan and Neena Chauhan Wedge Grafting a New Method of Mango Propagation Neena Chauhan and V K Joshi 182 Carnation cv. ‘Master’ Response to Fertilization Arvinder Singh, Nomita Laishram, B.P. Sharma, Y.C. Gupta, B.S. Dilta and S.K. Bhardwaj 185 Persistence and Metabolic Degradation of Imidacloprid in Sandy Loam Soil Romila Akoijam and Balwinder Singh 190 Effect of Different Sources and Levels of Phosphorus With and Without Psb on Yield and Economics of Isabgol V.B. Mor, J.J. Patel, A.M. Patel, K.G.Vyas, P.K. Bhatt, C.H. Raval and B.L. Yadav 193 Storage Root Number and Nitrogen Fertigation Enhances Clonal Multiplication of Alstroemeria cv. ‘Pluto’ Arvinder Singh, I.T. Nazki and Z.A. Qadri 197 Soil Bacteria as Protease Producer and Genomic Library Construction of Protease Gene Amandeep Kaur, Seema Ahuja and Geetika Sharma 203 Enhancement of Indoor Environment through Interiorscaping B. S. Dilta, Suman Thapa, B. P. Sharma and Narender Negi 206 Relationship to Fluoride Content with Various Parameters of Ground Waters in Nawan Tehsil (Nagaur) Rajasthan R. Anwala, V. Bhunwal, I.J. Gulati 210 Concept of High Density Planting in Fruit Crops Wineet Chawla, Tamasi Koley and S. S .Bal 222 Studies on Integrated Nutrient Management in Soybean (Glycine max L). D. Sridevi, Syed Ahmad Hussain, M. Yakadri, and A.Vijaya Gopal 235 Phytoremediation Potential of Brassica Juncea L.Cultivars Surbhi Sharma and Shanti S.Sharma 238 Effect of Organic Fertilizer vs. Biofertilizer on Biochemical Parameters of Bread Wheat. [Triticum aestivum L.] Kowsar Jan, Aabid M. Rather and M.V. Boswal 244 Optimisation of Agronomic Management Practices towards Exploration of the Possibility of Growing Jute Seed Crop in the Northern Humid Part of West Bengal P. Poddar & H. Das 248 Pushkarmool: a Potential Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Harpal Singh, Bhupender Dutt and Chanderlekha Sharma 256 Challenges and Approaches to Development of Sustainable Agriculture in India R. K. Mahajan 261 Agricultural Economy of Punjab: Growth to Crisis Sukhpal Singh, H S Kingra, Sangeet and Shruti Bhogal 269 A Study on Co2 Emission in Relation to Agricultural Growth and Food Security in India G.S. Mahadevaiah, Gunjan Bhandari and Gourav Kumar Vani 271 Crop Productivity, Diversification and Sustainability Sukhpreet Singh, Ram Sharn and Meenakshi Mohinia 274 Assessment of Extent of Entrepreneurial Success among the Protected Agriculture Entrepreneurs. Gondkar Sachin Sopan, B.K. Singh & R.S.Hudda 279 An Economic Analysis of Happy Seeder Technology for Paddy Straw Management G. S. Romana, Mandeep Singh and Gurmeet Singh 283 Hydroponics – Most Potential way to Sustainable Agriculture Sandeep Singh, Research Scholar 288 Compatibility Studies on the Development of Finger Millet Flour Based Pasta Amir Gull, P. Kumar and K. Prasad 292 Studies on Physicochemical and Phytochemical Parameters of Spinach Juice Stored with Thermal and Chemical Presevation 295 Gurpreet Kaur, Poonam Aggarwal and Amarjit Kaur Advances in the Production Technology of Phalaenopsis Narender Negi, S. R. Dhiman and B. S. Dilta 299 Harnessing Potentials of Seabuckthorn for Ecological and Economical Development of Cold Deserts of Himachal Pradesh 301 H.P Sankhyan Rajan Bawa and D.P Sharma Development and Conservation of Bamboo Resources for Environmental Sustainability in Himachal Pradesh H.P Sankhyan and N.B Singh 306 Role of Floriculture in Sustainable Development of Socio-economic Status of Indian Farmers Tamasi Koley, Arvind Kumar Verma, Wineet Chawla 310 Spatial Temporal Variation in Agricultural Productivity in Punjab Imrozpreet Singh, Maninder Kaur, Ram Sharn 316 Rural Tourism: Tool for Environment Conservation and Management Arminder Singh 328 Comparative Study of Physical Properties of Ambient and Cryoground Coriander Powder Sakshi, S. Balasubramanian, B. S. Khatkar 338 Some Problems Concerning Sustainability of Agriculure Balwinder Singh Brar 341 Abstracts 345 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-I AdvAnCes in PLAnt Breeding And ProsPeCts for the future 1 rK gumber1 and rs gill2 Additional Director Research, 2Plant Breeder, PAU During the last 50 years, significant improvement has been achieved in the production and productivity of all major crops including cereals, legumes, and oilseeds. This progress was mainly achieved through conventional breeding, utilizing important genes for yield contributing traits such as the dwarfing genes in wheat and rice, which led to the so-called green revolution (Reynolds and Borlaug 2006). The successful development and utilization of maize hybrids beginning in about 1930 was another landmark in crop breeding which gave idea about the exploitation of heterosis being presently used in several crops. Hybrid maize has made significant contribution to increased maize productivity during 20th century both in developed and developing countries. The average yield advantage of hybrids versus cultivars is approximately 15%. Spectacular enhancement of inherent potential of crops in the form of unexpected levels of agricultural production belied the predictions of famous British economist ‘Thomas Malthus’ who prophesised in 1798 that ‘the power of the population is infinitely greater than the power of the earth to produce subsistence for man. The world witnessed a massive increase in the productivity levels of all the major crops especially in the 20th century. The yield levels have been in general doubled , though even five to six fold increases have been witnessed during last half of a century. The plant breeding became the centre stage of this transformation in the form of enhanced inherent potential of crop plants (Chahal and Gosal 2002). The coordinated efforts of plant breeding and crop management technology was able to meet man’s basic need for food so effectively that less than 5 per cent of our people can produce food for all of us that has freed rest of us to develop the culture and way of life that prevails today (Burton 1981). However, the world’s capacity to sustain favorable food production -population balance has again come under spotlight in view of continued population growth and drastic slowdown in growth of cereal production. The population growth curve is maintaining its trend and 9th doubling is expected to end up with 8 billion people by 2020. Nobel Laureate Norman Borlaug believed that the average yields of corps need to be increased by 50 percent by 2025 if food demands are to be met. At the global level, the rate of yield growth for most crops has been decelerating in the past few decades, while still increasing in absolute terms (FAO production year book 2012). Rice production increased at the rate of about 2% during 1970s, and during 1980s and at 1.1% during 1990’s but during the first three years of this century there has been no increase (Khush 2006). In an assessment of genetic gains for grain yield in CIMMYT spring bread wheat across international environments by Sharma et al (2012) across 919 environments in 69 countries, mean yields of the five highest yielding entries showed an annual gain of 27.8 kg ha−1 (0.65%) compared to Attila a widely grown international check. To meet with the demands of burgeoning population the agriculture production needs to be enhanced not only at a higher rate but also in higher magnitude than what already been achieved in the past. The production and productivity of several crops further continues to be adversely affected due to various biotic and abiotic stresses. Plants are attacked by many disease-causing organisms including bacteria, fungi, viruses, and nematodes. These pathogens cause large crop losses and probably since the beginning of agriculture have contributed to human hunger and malnutrition. The control of plant diseases is thus of fundamental importance and is a major objective of plant-breeding programs worldwide. Use of chemicals against pests leads to environmental pollution and health hazards. Therefore, development of cultivars with inbuilt resistance is the most effective, most economical and least hazardous method of pest control. Genetic resistance in plants can be considered a major form of biological control of pest. Resistant cultivars have been used effectively for the control of diseases and insect pests. Multiple disease resistance has been an integral component trait in crop improvement and integrated disease management strategies. The abiotic stresses and climate change are becoming increasingly serious threats to crop production worldwide at a time when staple food supply will need to be significantly higher to meet the demand of the growing human population. It has been estimated that approximately 70% of yield reduction is the direct result of abiotic stresses. Crop breeding for adaptation to abiotic stress–prone environments remains a challenging task because of the complexity of the stress adaptive mechanisms in plants and particularly cereal crops, which are the staple food of most of the world’s population. Limited available water is the single most important factor that reduces global crop yields. Agriculture currently accounts for 70% of the fresh water used by humans, an amount that is expected to increase17 % by 2025 (Molden 2007). The underground aquifers are rapidly being depleted due to excessive water use. Although the perception of .drought .may 1 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” be distinctly different among people, farmers and scientists agree that water shortage is a key limiting factor for crop yields (Passioura 2007). Water deficiency significantly impedes sexual plant reproduction, particularly at the early stages, when development may irreversibly cease although the plant may remain alive (Boyer and Westgate 2004). Ovule abortion or pollen sterility occurs in cereal crops underwater stress and this in turn increases abscisic acid in the plant that may lead to inhibited photosynthesis. . Salinity affects crop yields and pollutes the environment, thereby negatively impacting the economic welfare of nations. There are about 100 countries directly affected by salinity (Rengasamy 2006) with the major impact in those where soil degradation, aridity, and salinization, in part caused by deforesation, prevail. Most of the commonly used food staples are sensitive to salinity. Researchers are assessing halophytes (i.e., salt-tolerant plants), which constitute about 1% of the world’s flora, as potential gene sources to improve salinity tolerance in field crops. Halophytes have evolved a range of adaptation mechanisms to tolerate high salinity. These include adjustment of their internal water relations through ion compartmentation in vacuoles, the accumulation of compatible organic solutes, succulence, and salt-secreting glands and bladders (Flowers et al. 1986). In addition, acid soils constitute about 38% of farmland in Southeast Asia; 31% of Latin America; and 20 % in East Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and North America. Aluminum (Al) toxicity in these soils is the major constraint to crop production. It is the second most important abiotic constaint to world food production after drought. At low pH (<5), Al is released as Al3+ into the soil, reducing root growth and development due to poor uptake of water and nutrient and resulting in reduced crop yields. The use of lime in acidic soils is a common agricultural practice to raise soil pH and minimize adverse effects of Al toxicity on crop plants. However, the energy costs for application or actual cost of lime often prohibits widespread adoption of this practice. Natural genetic variation for Al tolerance has been identified in many crop species, and Al-tolerant cultivars in some crops are commercially grown (Samac and Tesfaye 2003). Climate change caused by global warming is expected to significantly affect grain yields of the most important cereals although in cooler regions we may expect grain yield increases. For example, rice grain yield declined by 10% for each 10C increase in growing-season minimum temperature in the dry season in the Philippines . A projected 10 % yield reduction in maize will bring losses equal to U.S. $ 2 billion in Africa and Latin America . The wheat yield is expected to decline 20 % in China by 2070 and13 % to32 % in south Australia (Dwivedi and Upadhyaya 2010, references inside). Breeding for drought and heat tolerance will therefore be the main task for adapting cereal crops, particularly in the most affected areas of the developing world. Furthermore, nitrous oxide (N2O) is a potent greenhouse gas generated through use of the manure or nitrogen fertilizer and susceptible to denitrification, thus often unavailable for crop uptake and utilization. Consequently, the transfer of nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) gene(s) to main cereal staples will also be an important crop improvement goal to react to climate change in an integrated and sustainable fashion. Genetic enhancement of cereal crops with respect to abiotic stress tolerance will be essential for ensuring grain yields in water-limited, increasingly hotter agricultural zones, particularly if these conditions combine with poor and saline soils, conditions that prevail in parts of the developing world. Plant breeders have been developing varieties for heat, drought and flood stresses. For example, common beans biodiversity has been used by plant breeding to develop both heat and cold tolerant varieties grown from the hot Durango region in Mexico to the cold high altitudes of Columbia and Peru. Corn genetic resources have been used in breeding varieties adapted to cultivation from sea level to over 3,000 msl as in Nepal and the Sub-1 rice tolerant to flood developed by Bangladesh breeders can survive total submersion for more than two weeks. However, to overcome more severe and frequent challenges from aggravated climatic changes, strenuous efforts are required by the plant breeders. Plant responses to different stresses are highly complex and involve changes at the transcriptome, cellular, and physiological levels. Recent evidence shows that plants respond to multiple stresses differently from how they do to individual stresses, activating a specific programme of gene expression relating to the exact environmental conditions encountered. Rather than being additive, the presence of an abiotic stress can have the effect of reducing or enhancing susceptibility to a biotic pest or pathogen, and vice versa. This interaction between biotic and abiotic stresses is orchestrated by hormone signalling pathways that may induce or antagonize one another, in particular that of abscisic acid. Specificity in multiple stress responses is further controlled by a range of molecular mechanisms that act together in a complex regulatory network. Transcription factors, kinase cascades, and reactive oxygen species are key components of this cross-talk, as are heat shock factors and small RNAs. Identifying master regulators that connect both biotic and abiotic stress response pathways is fundamental in providing opportunities for developing broad-spectrum stress-tolerant crop plants. Plants must produce a tailored response to specific multiple stress conditions, as in many cases the individual stresses would normally elicit opposing reactions. For example, heat stress usually causes plants to open their stomata in order to cool the leaves, but under drought conditions this would be disadvantageous as more water would be lost. Similarly, increased transpiration 2 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” caused by heat stress could enhance uptake of salt or heavy metals, heightening the damage from these factors. Plants must efficiently balance resource allocation between growth and defense against stress, as responding to stress can be costly and reduce fitness in terms of growth and yield. Several new tools have been added to plant breeders arsenal from time to time which have helped to fine tune and put the scientific developments on a fast track. The induced mutations provided additional variation and by the beginning of 21st century. Over 2252 varieties have been reported to be developed through mutation breeding. The technique holds relevance for special situations where genes of interest are not available for use through transgressive breeding (Kharakwal and Roy 2004). The doubled haploidy technique has helped to put the plant breeding programs on a fast track reducing the variety release time from 10-12 years to 1 to 11/2 years. The technique has been successfully exploited in a number of crops like rice, barley, brassicas, maize and wheat. Barley has over 100 direct DH cultivars. According to published information there are currently around 300 DH derived cultivars in twelve species world wide. The wheat x maize system of chromosome elimination for the generation of doubled haploids is being commercially exploited at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The new tools of molecular biology mainly the use of DNA-markers for marker-assisted breeding and the production and use of transgenic crops have opened new horizons for the plant breeders. A greater part of wild germplasm which has since long been considered unadapted and unproductive is now being absorbed in breeding programs. The concept of gene cloning has broken all the barriers of crossability for creation of new variation and achieving desired improvement. In a recent survey, it has been observed that during the first seven years of the present century (2000 to 2007), at least 10,000 marker-trait association studies (including 1,200 quantitative trait loci [QTL] mapping studies) have been conducted in major crops (Bernardo 2008). As a result, molecular markers closely linked to genes or QTL for a variety of traits of agronomic importance are now known in all major crops. The traits for which markers are available include both input traits, including tolerance to biotic/abiotic stresses and improvement in water/ nutrient uptake, and output traits, such as improvement in nutritional attributes (reviewed by Gupta et al 2010). Several successful examples of MAS have also been published during the last few years, not only for some qualitative traits but also for a few quantitative traits. Marker assisted gene pyramiding has long been used by breeders to develop cultivars with multiple resistance genes for an insect or pathogen. A good example of pyramiding major resistance genes with the aid of molecular markers is the development of rice lines with bacterial blight (BB) resistance. A three-gene line, IRBB59 (with xa5, xa13, and Xa21) was used as donor to transfer the three BB resistance genes into three new plant type lines with high yield potential, IR65598–112 and the two sister lines IR65600–42 and IR65600–96 (Sanchez et al. 2000). Sequence tagged site (STS) markers for all the three resistance genes from the previous identified RFLP and RAPD markers developed which were used for foreground selection. Similarly at Punjab Agricultural University, new basmati variety ‘Punjab Basmati-3’ has been developed in which two bacterial blight resistant genes xa13 and Xa 21 have been pyramided by using MAS strategy. The marker assisted background selection technique has provided a great impetus to backcross breeding strategy. Marker assisted background selection strategy is being followed at PAU for introgression of stripe rust resistance genes in wheat. Genetic engineering for developing stress tolerant plants, based on the introgression of genes that are known to be involved in stress response and putative tolerance, might prove to be a faster track towards improving crop varieties. There is an ongoing debate on bio-safety and ethical issues involving use of transgenic crops for commercial cultivation. However, the transgenic plants offers the greatest promise for the rapid integration of improved varieties into traditional cropping systems because improved plant lines can be generated quickly and with relative precision once suitable genes for transfer have been identified. The commercial cultivation of transgenic crops started in the early 1990s. Herbicide tolerance and insect resistance are the main GM traits that are currently under commercial cultivation, and the main crops are: soybean, maize, canola and cotton. GM crops are now commercially planted on about 100 million hectares in some 22 developed and developing countries. Argentina, Brazil, China and India are the largest developing-country producers of transgenic crops (FAO year book 2012). Further, the introduction of a multitude of “omics” tools have provided unprecedented ability to dissect the molecular and genetic basis of traits as well as the characterization of whole genomes. To conclude it is envisaged that the success of plant breeding in the 20th century led to new cultivars that to date have provided enough food for an increasing world population. However, to feed the monosterous levels of increasing population the agricultural productivity needs to be enhanced at more faster rates. The newly emerging biotic and abiotic stresses as well as environmental concerns are further complicating the situation. Thus it is a challenging task for plant breeders to enhance the genetic potential of plants fulfilling the future needs by utilizing the refined techniques of plant breeding and sophisticated tools of biotechnology which hold a great promise. 3 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” references Bernardo R (2008) Molecular markers and selection for complex traits in plants: Learning from the last 20 years. Crop Sci. 48:1649–1664. Boyer J S and M E Westgate (2004) Grain yields with limited water. J. Expt. Bot. 55:2385–2394 Burton G W (1981) Meeting human needs through plant breeding: past progress and prospects for the future. In: K J Frey (ed). Plant Breeding II.Iowa State University Press, USA. Chahal G S and Gosal S S (2002) Principles and Practices of Plant Breeding. Narosa Publ. House, New Delhi. Dwivedi S and Upadhyaya H (2010) Enhancing Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Cereals Through Breeding and Transgenic Interventions. Plant Breeding Reviews 33:13-114 Flowers T J, Hajibagheri M A and Clipson N J W (1986) Halophytes. Quart. Rev. Biol. 61: 313–337. Gupta P K, Kumar J, Mir R R and Kumar A (2010) Marker-Assisted Selection as a Component of Conventional Plant Breeding. Plant Breeding Reviews 33: 145- 217 Kharkwal M C and Roy D (2004) A century of advances in Plant Breeding Methodology. In Plant Breeding- Mendelian to Molecular Approaches. Narosa Publ. House, New Delhi. Khush G S (2006) Rice Breeding: Accomplishments and Challenges for Future Food Security Ritsumeikan International Affairs Vol .4, pp.25-36. Molden D ed. (2007) Water for food, water for life: A comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture. Earthscan, London. Passioura J (2007) The drought environment: Physical, environmental and biological perspectives. J. Expt. Bot. 58:113– 117. Rengasamy P (2006) World salinization with emphasis on Australia. J. Expt. Bot. 57:1017–1023. Reynolds M P and N E Borlaug. (2006) Applying innovations and new technologies for international collaborative wheat improvement. J. Agri. Sci. 144:95–110. Samac D A and Tesfaye M (2003) Plant improvement for tolerance to aluminum in acid soils – a review. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 75:189–207. Sanchez A C , D S Brar, Huang N, Li Z and. Khush G S (2000) Sequence tagged site marker-assisted selection for three bacterial blight resistance genes in rice. Crop Sci. 40:792–797. Sharma R C, Crossa J and Velu G (2012) Genetic Gains for Grain Yield in CIMMYT Spring Bread Wheat across International Environments Crop Sci 52:1522–1533 4 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-II WheAt imProvement strAtegies for WArmer AreAs of the Country sK singh*, sA desai1, rs shukla2, v tiwari & indu sharma Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal-132001; 1University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad; 2 JNKVV, Adhartal, Jabalpur *E-mail: sksingh.dwr@gmail.com Key words: Wheat, warmer areas, heat stress, yield India, one of the greatest success stories of Green Revolution, is the second largest producer of wheat in the world after China since 2001. Wheat is the second most important crop after rice in India and occupies approximately 30.0 million hectare area. The wheat production in India has touched a new height of 94.88 million tons in 2011-12 and nation harvested 92.46 million tonnes from 29.65m ha area during 2012-13 (Anonymous, 2013). The national wheat production accounts for approximately 14% of global wheat production that made India the wheat surplus nation as against the wheat deficient nation during 1960’s. Wheat and its various products play increasingly important role in managing India’s food security and tremendous progress in area, production and productivity of wheat to the tune of 3.0, 14.7 and 4.7 times, respectively as compared to 1950, has made India the member of elite group of wheat exporting countries. About 91.5% of the wheat is produced in six states viz. Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar and among these, Uttar Pradesh continues to be the highest producer of wheat followed by Punjab and Haryana. The contribution from Haryana and Punjab is mainly attributed to their high productivity (5.03 & 4.89 tons/ha, respectively) whereas the contribution of other states such as Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh is due to relatively large area (approx. 50% of the total area) sown to wheat. The states of low wheat productivity have shown an increasing trend in grain yield per unit area in recent past but the stagnated productivity levels in highly productive states of Punjab and Haryana is posing a major concern for future production targets. Wheat production conditions The three species of wheat namely, Triticum aestivum (Bread wheat), T. durum (Macaroni wheat) and T. dicoccum (Emmer or Khapli) grown on commercial basis in India are of spring type but cultivated during winter season. Of these species, T. aestivum continues to be the most important species accounting about 90-95 % of total wheat area of the country and is grown in almost all the wheat growing states. T. durum is next in importance with approximately 5% of total wheat area and confined mostly to central and southern parts of India. The cultivation of T. dicoccum is confined largely to the southern region mainly Karnataka and southern Maharashtra. Another wheat species T. sphaerococcum (Indian dwarf wheat) has now almost vanished and cultivated in some pockets in Gujarat. Wheat in India is cultivated in almost every state except Kerala, thus representing diverse crop growing conditions and situations. Based on the agro-climatic conditions and varying agro-ecological production conditions, the country is broadly divided into six wheat growing zones namely Northern Hills Zone (NHZ), North Western Plain Zone (NWPZ), North Eastern Plain Zone (NEPZ), Central Zone (CZ), Peninsular Zone (PZ) and Southern Hill Zone (SHZ). The growing period of wheat is variable from one agroclimatic zone to another that affect the vegetative and grain filling duration leading to differences in attainable yield. The maximum wheat growing duration is in Northern Hill Zone and minimum in Peninsular Zone. Wheat is cultivated during winter season from mid-October to April and sowings of wheat are initiated when the average of day-night temperatures equal to 23°C. The months of December and January remain to be coldest followed by comparatively warmer and higher temperatures in the months of March-April coinciding to later grown stages of the crop till maturity. Wheat is mainly grown under three production conditions, viz., timely sown, medium to good fertility, irrigated; late sown, medium fertility, irrigated and timely sown, low fertility, rainfed. In recent years, a new situation of timely sown, restricted/limited irrigation has emerged in some of the areas of the central and peninsular parts where water for irrigation is not available in sufficient quantity and thus, the wheat crop is grown with one to two irrigations only. Advances in technological development The agro-climatic conditions, local preferences and wheat based food habits, prevalence of diseases and pests, wheat based cropping systems, availability of irrigation and related input factors have direct bearing on the types of wheat varieties to be developed for commercial cultivation in the country. The Indian wheat improvement programme has significantly contributed to the release of 402 wheat varieties including bread wheat, durum wheat, dicoccum wheat and triticale through 5 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Central Variety Release Committee (CVRC) or State Variety Release Committee (SVRC) for different agro climatic zones along with relevant production technology since inception of All India Coordinated Wheat and Barley Improvement Programme in 1965. The focused research efforts to reduce the cost of cultivation, increase productivity and improve the soil health and environment have resulted in development of eco-friendly resource conservation technologies viz., zero tillage, bed planting, rotary tillage, and rotary disc drill. These resource conservation technologies are not only giving yield levels at par to the conventional practices but these reduce cost of cultivation and save energy significantly. India is free from disease epidemics during last four decades mainly because of systematic deployment of rust resistance gene in high yielding varieties. The survey and surveillance of rust virulence, incorporation of resistance genes, integrated pest management (IPM) modules and efficient protection technologies were key components to control diseases, aphids and termites. The quality requirements differ for various products like chapati, bread, biscuit and pasta and number of physical and biochemical parameters are associated with the quality of wheat and wheat products. Targeting the surplus wheat and export potentials, the quality parameters have been standardized and special emphasis was given to identify specific varieties to chapati, bread, biscuit and pasta products. A wheat quality atlas of the country was also developed at the directorate and potential regions have been identified for product specific varieties. Wheat production challenges in warmer areas of india Despite remarkable growth in global food production has shown remarkable growth but risks still exist for food crisis in the recent years. The wheat production is required to continue by 2% annual increase, more particularly in developing world including south-east Asia until 2020 to meet future demands imposed by population and prosperity growth (Reynolds et al. 2008a). This challenge will probably be further compounded by reduced water availability increased temperature due to global warming and new races of pathogen and pests. Over 7 million hectares of wheat grown in approximately 50 countries are subjected to continual heat stressing environments with mean daily temperatures greater than 17.50C in the coolest month of the year (Zhong-Hu and Rajaram 1994; Guha Sarkar et al. 2001). The Indian wheat germplasm is not only adapted to cooler areas of north but also to warmer areas of central and peninsular parts. The productivity of wheat in the country is higher in north than down south, due to temperature differences as well as longer duration and availability of water for irrigation in northern region. Wheat cultivation is limited by high temperature at both ends of the cropping season alongwith adverse effect on wheat productivity. The early heat stress at tillering and terminal heat stress at grain filling are of major concern for wheat productivity. The wheat crop is exposed to early heat stress in Central & peninsular India whereas terminal heat stress occurs in all four major wheat zones and experienced in about 16.0m ha area. In NWPZ & NEPZ, rice-wheat cropping system compelled wheat crop to be subjected to rapidly ascending temperatures coupled with hot dry winds at the post anthesis stage during grain development. On the other hand, water availability and temperature are the major environmental variables affecting crop yield in CZ & PZ. In these areas, wheat crop is exposed to drought conditions in most of the area as wheat crop depends on the stored moisture after monsoon rains resulting in receding moisture conditions. The leaf, stem rusts and leaf blight are also threat to wheat crop in these areas in the event of favourable environmental conditions for disease development. The optimal day time growth temperature during reproductive development of wheat is 15-20°C. The proximity to the equator exposes much of the wheat in South- East Asia including India to late heat stress particularly at the time of grain filling (Tandon 1994). It has already been established that high temperature stress can be a significant factor in reducing yield and quality of wheat (Stone and Nicolas 1995). Wardlaw et al (1980) estimated 3-4% yield loss have been measured for every 1°C above 15°C for most varieties mainly due to suppression of photosynthesis, induced pollen sterility, seed abortion and increased rate of development. At temperature above 30°C grain size, milling properties decrease as a result of reduced dough strength due to a reduction in the expression of HMW-glutenin versus gliadins. Climate models also predicted that yield will decrease by 10 percent for every 1 degree rise in temperature. Recent UN report predicts that earth will be warmer be 2.4oC by 2020 and crop yield in India would fall by up to 30 percent by the end of year 2020. To counter the effect of increasing temperature, there is need of wheat varieties with enhanced climate resilience, combining heat tolerance with heat avoidance (earliness), and maximized yield potential. traits for adaptation to warmer areas Yield, being a complex trait, is dependent of number of component traits of morphological, quantitative and physiological nature. Adaptability to warmer areas is efficiently indicated by physiological traits in which photosynthetic rates, early ground cover, stay green character, chlorophyll content in the leaf, membrane thermo-stability, epicuticular wax leaf rolling etc. are some physiological indicators for heat and drought tolerance (Reynolds, 2002). Cellular membrane thermostability (CMS), stomatal conductance, heat shock proteins, stem reserve mobilization, normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI), canopy temperature depression (CTD), leaf senescence, photosynthetic rate are major heat adaptive traits. 6 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Root characteristics, such as depth and abundance, rapid early ground cover by leaves, leaf glaucousness, leaf pubescence, erect leaf posture, abscisic acid (ABA) accumulation, spike photosynthesis of the assimilates for grain filling, early escape, osmotic adjustment, spectral reflectance, carbon isotope discrimination, etc. are some important drought adaptive traits. High genetic correlations of physiological parameters with grain yield were also observed. It is interesting to note that no study has shown a clear effect of dwarfing genes on drought adaptation or rooting patterns,despite the fact that specific height categories may be advantageous over others under certain water-stressed environments (Richards, 1992). genetic variability in wheat for heat & drought stress High genetic variability has been reported in wheat germplam lines and varieties for heat and drought tolerance (Blum, 1986; Slafer and Rawson, 1994). Indian landraces are supposed to be potential sources for incorporating genes for heat tolerance and Dharwar Dry has been globally recognized source for the same. Besides, wild species of same genomes were also identified for combining stress tolerance through wide hybridization. Among these, wild Triticum and Aegilops species from middle east are considered potential sources. T. dicoccum is also a good source of heat and drought tolerant genes. Under AICW&BIP network, Dharwad, Indore, Karnal, Vijapur, Varanasi, Sagar, Sabour, Junagarh, Jabalpur, Arnej, Dhanduka, Ambajogai, Bilaspur and Akola are suitable cooperating centres for evaluation of genotypes for heat & drought tolerance. Some indigenously developed genotypes namely, Job66, Job2028, RS519, RS628, Raj3777, 21(S)AD, AKW651, JOB828, MP3054, RS488, RS491, WT245 were promising for drought and early heat tolerance whereas C306, WJ89, WH730, CBW12, NIAW34, NIAW845, RAJ4037 and HD2808 were identified for heat tolerance. Genotypes were also identified as sources for stem reserve mobilization (C306,WH1025, PBW579), transpirational efficiency (AKAW3867-10, WR1551), chlorophyll content (KLP787, KO624, PBW579), membrane thermostability (RAJ4083, WH1025, PBW579), stomatal conductance (RS1002, VL908, WR1551), high photosynthetic activity (WH1025, AKAW3867-10, GW2006-47) and early vigor (C306, WH1025, Raj4083). Further, T. longissimum, T. polonicum, T. sphaerococcum, T. carthalicum, Ae. peregreena, Ae.kotschyii were potential donors for heat, drought tolerance and grain weight. Wheat improvement programme for warmer areas Wheat is the most widely grown crop in the world; unfortunately it is also one of the most sensitive to future global warming. Scientists around the world strive to develop new wheat varieties each year through different strategies that incorporate improved features. Some breeding programmes target fully irrigated conditions that favour very high yields, while others focus on dry and hot conditions where yield maintenance under stress is a priority. Breeding program for heat tolerance is an integral component of wheat breeding program at both national and international level. As the varieties of one region are generally not suitable for the others, and separate breeding objectives will be needed for each situation (Rajaram, 1988). Thus, wheat improvement programme for developing high yielding cultivars needs combination of conventional methodologies and advanced tools of molecular and physiological evaluation. The shuttle breeding approach is an essential feature of the wheat improvement programme for targeted areas. The DWR, being nodal as well as coordinating centre, is emphasizing development of specific crosses, generation advancement and screening of breeding material in targeted environments and sharing of the material with various wheat breeding centre. The collaborative programmes have been strengthened for developing heat tolerance during different growth stages. Many donors for heat tolerance have been identified which are being used in the breeding programme. Breeding material is being shared with Dharwar, Niphad, Akola, Jabalpur, Powarkheda, Bilaspur, Junagarh and Vijapur centres under shuttle breeding scheme and the selections are being made under targeted environments under irrigated, limited irrigation and rainfed conditions. A set of same breeding material is also evaluated under high fertility conditions. The preliminary results are very encouraging as some advanced lines showed higher yield levels with enhanced flexibility to stress conditions under warmer areas and were advanced to the national coordinated evaluation system. future perspectives The strategy of integrating research outputs with strengthening of local wheat improvement centres has resulted in increasing wheat production in central and peninsular India in recent years. Wheat improvement programme for warmer area was put in operation with a view to strengthen research capabilities of the upcoming centres in targeted area and harnessing expertise of major centres in the central and peninsular zone so that the advanced wheat genotypes can reach at farmers field. Prediction of critical impacts of climate change on crop yield, cropping practices and crop disease spread and disease resistance will be more helpful in this regard. Further, approaches to increase water use efficiency needs to be emphasized through combination of drought-resistant genotypes and water-saving technologies so that wheat breeding and improved agronomic practices can be balanced to increase yield and enhance resilience to climate changes. 7 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” references Anonymous. 2013. Progress Report of All India Coordinated Wheat & barley Improvement Project, 2012-13, Project Director’s Report. Ed. Indu Sharma. Directorate of Wheat Research, India. Pp 104. Blum A. 1986. The effect of heat stress on wheat leaf and ear photosynthesis. J. Exp. Bot., 37:111-118. Falcon WP & Naylor RL. 2005. Rethinking food security for the 21st century’. American Journal ofAgricultural Economics, 87 (5), December, 1113–1127. Guha Sarkar CK, Srivastava PS & Deshmukh PS.2001. Grain growth rate and heat susceptibility index: Traits for breeding genotypes tolerant to terminal high temperature stress in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L). Indian J Genet 61(3): 209-212. Rajaram S. 1988 Breeding and testing strategies to develop wheats for rice-wheat rotation areas. In: Klatt AR (ed) Wheat production constraints in tropical environments. CIMMYT, Mexico DF: 187-196. Reynolds MP. 2002. Physiological approaches to wheat breeding. In Bread wheat improvement and production, Eds. Curtis, BC, Rajaram S & Macpherson, H Gómez, FAO Plant Production and Protection Series No. 30. Pp 143-165. Reynolds MP, Hobbs P, Ortiz R, Pietragalla J & Braun HJ. 2008a. International Wheat Improvement:Highlights from an Expert Symposium. In Reynolds M.P., J. Pietragalla, and H.-J. Braun, (eds) International Symposium on Wheat Yield Potential: Challenges to International Wheat Breeding. Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT. Richards RA. 1992. The effect of dwarfing genes in spring wheat in dry environments. II.Growth, water use and water use efficiency. Austr. J. Agric. Res., 43: 529-539. Slafer GA & Rawson HM. 1994. Sensitivity of wheat phasic development to majorenvironmental factors: a re-examination of some assumptions made by physiologists andmodellers. Austr. J. Plant Physiol., 21: 393-426. Stone PJ and Nicolas ME. 1995. Effect of timing of heat stress during grain filling on two wheat varieties differing in heat tolerance. I. Grain growth. Aust J Plant Physiol 22: 927-934. Tandon JP. 1994. Wheat cultivation, research, organistion and production technology in the hot dry regions of India In: DA Saunders and GP Hettel (eds). Wheat in heat stressed environments:Irrigated Dry Areas and Rice Farming Systems. Proceedings of the International Conference, Wheat in Hot, Dry, irrigated Environments, Mexico, D.F. CIMMYT. Wardlaw IF, Sofield I & Cartwright PM. 1980. Factors limiting the rate of dry matter accumulation in the grain of wheat grown at high temperature. Austr. J. Plant Physiol., 7:387-400. Zhong-Hu H and Rajaram S. 1994. Differential responses of bread wheat characters to high temperature. Euphytica 72: 197-203. 8 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-III roLe of mArKer-Assisted seLeCtion in PLAnt Breeding manoj Kumar* narendra singh**Paritosh Kumar***dr.P.C.gupta**** *M.Sc. Scholar Dept. of Plant Breeding and Genetics, **Dept. of Entomology *** Dept. of Plant Pathology, **** Prof. Dept. of Plant Breeding and Genetics, COA, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner. Email *manoj.vishnoi108@gmail.com Abstract Marker-assisted selection now plays a prominent role in the field of plant breeding. MAS is the breeding strategy in which selection for a gene is based on molecular markers closely linked to the gene of interest rather than the gene itself, and the markers are used to monitor the incorporation of the desirable allele from the donor source. DNA markers have enormous potential to improve the efficiency and precision of conventional plant breeding via marker-assisted selection (MAS). The large number of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) mapping studies for diverse crops species have provided an abundance of DNA marker–trait associations. In this article, we present an overview of the advantages of MAS and its most widely used applications in plant breeding, providing examples from cereal crops, Finally, we discuss reasons why the greater adoption of MAS in the future is inevitable, although the extent of its use will depend on available resources, especially for orphan crops, and may be delayed in less-developed countries. Achieving a substantial impact on crop improvement by MAS represents the great challenge for agriculture in the next few decades. Keywords: marker-assisted selection; plant breeding; QTL mapping; marker-assisted backcrossing; introduction Molecular marker assisted selection a useful additional tool in plant breeding programs to make selection more efficient (Joshi et al, 2011) over the last few decades plant genomics has been studied extensively bring about a revolution in this area, making molecular markers useful for plant genomic analysis, therefore becoming and important tool in this revolution. The theoretical advantages of using genetic markers and the potential value of genetic marker linkage maps and direct selection in plant breeding were first reported about eighty years ago. Plant breeding in combination with developments in agricultural technology such as agrochemicals has made remarkable progress in increasing crop yields for over a century. DNA marker technology has dramatically enhanced the efficiency of plant breeding. However, plant breeders must constantly respond to many changes. First, agricultural practices change, which creates the need for developing genotypes with specific agronomic characteristics. Second, target environments and the organisms within them are constantly changing. For example, fungal and insect pests continually evolve and overcome host– plant resistance. New land areas are regularly being used for farming, exposing plants to altered growing conditions. Finally, consumer preferences and requirements change. Plant breeders therefore face the endless task of continually developing new crop varieties. Given the context of current yield trends, predicted population growth and pressure on the environment, traits relating to yield stability and sustainability should be a major focus of plant breeding efforts. These traits include durable disease resistance, abiotic stress tolerance and nutrient and water-use efficiency, Furthermore, there is a need to develop varieties for cultivation in marginal land areas, especially in developing countries, and give greater emphasis to improving minor or ‘orphan’ crops. Despite optimism about continued yield improvement from conventional breeding, new technologies such as biotechnology will be needed to maximize the probability of success. One area of biotechnology, DNA marker technology, derived from research in molecular genetics and genomics, offers great promise for plant breeding. Owing to genetic linkage, DNA markers can be used to detect the presence of allelic variation in the genes underlying these traits. By using DNA markers to assist in plant breeding, efficiency and precision could be greatly increased. The use of DNA markers in plant breeding is called marker-assisted selection (MAS) and is a component of the new discipline of ‘molecular breeding’. MAS refer to the use of DNA markers that are tightly-linked to target loci as a substitute for or to assist phenotypic screening. By determining the allele of a DNA marker, plants that possess particular genes or quantitative trait loci (QTLs) may be identified based on their genotype rather than their phenotype. MAS can be more efficient, effective and reliable than phenotypic selection. Furthermore, MAS can shorten the development time of varieties significantly, so in some cases it will be more cost-effective than selection based on phenotypes. MAS also allow the breeding of complex traits not feasible through previous conventional methods. Although certainly not the silver bullet for all problems, MAS is a promising approach to conventional plant breeding. “Marker-assisted selection has held promise for impacting, perhaps revolutionising, plant breeding disciplines.” 9 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Qtl mapping and its role in Plant Breeding Quantitative characters have been a major area of study in genetics for over a century, as they are a common feature of natural variation in populations of all eukaryotes, including crop plants. For most of the period up to 1980, the study of quantitative traits has involved statistical techniques based on means, variances and covariances of relatives. These studied provided a conceptual base for partitioning the total phenotypic variance into genetic and environmental variances, and further analyzing the genetic variance in terms of additive, dominance and epistatic effects. From this information, it became feasible to estimate the heritability of the trait and predict the response of the trait to selection. It was also possible to estimate the minimum number of genes that controlled the trait of interest. However, little was known about what these genes were, where they are located, and how they controlled the trait(s), apart from the fact that for any given trait, there were several such genes segregating in a Mendelian fashion in any given population, and in most cases their effects were approximately additive (Kearsey and Pooni, 1996). These genes were termed ‘polygenes’ by Mather (1949). Sax’s (1923) experiment with beans demonstrated that the effect of an individual locus affecting a quantitative trait could be isolated though a series of crosses resulting in randomization of the genetic background with respect to all genes not linked to the genetic markers under observation. Even though all of the markers used by Sax were morphological seed markers with complete dominance, he was able to show a significant effect on seed weight associated with some of his markers. Despite this demonstration, there were extremely few successful detections of marker-QTL linkage in crop plants during 1930-80s, and of these, even fewer were repeated. The major limitation was the lack of availability of adequate polymorphic markers. (i) the discovery of extensive, yet easily visualized, variability at the DNA level that could be used as markers; and (ii) development of statistical packages that can help in analyzing variation in a quantitative trait in congruence with molecular marker data generated in a segregating population. With phenomenal improvements in molecular marker technology in the last two decades, identification and utilization of polymorphic DNA markers as a framework around which the polygenes could be located, has improved multiple-fold. It is now clear that a genetic map saturated with polymorphic codominant Mendelian markers can be generated for almost any species. Nearly saturated genetic maps have already been produced for most species of economic or scientific interest. We now refer the polygenes by a more catchy acronym, ‘QTL’ (Quantitative Trait Loci), a term first coined by Gelderman (1975). A QTL is defined as “a region of the genome that is associated with an effect on a quantitative trait”. Conceptually, a QTL can be a single gene, or it may be a cluster of linked genes that affect the trait. been reported in most crop plants for diverse traits including yield, quality, disease and insect resistance, abiotic stress tolerance, and environmental adaptation. Here, a brief overview of the principle of QTL mapping, salient requirements for QTL mapping, common statistical tools and techniques employed in QTL analysis, and the strengths, constraints and applications of QTL mapping for crop improvement shall be provided. 10 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Principle of Qtl mapping It is not difficult in populations of most crop plants to identify and map a good number of segregating markers (10 to 50) per chromosome. However, most of these markers would be in non-coding regions of the genome and might not affect the trait of interest directly; but, a few o f these markers might be linked to genomic regions (QTLs) that do influence the trait of interest. Where such linkage occurs, the marker locus and the QTL will co segregate. Therefore, the basic principle of determining whether a QTL is linked to a marker is to partition the mapping population into different genotypic classes based on genotypes at the marker locus, and the apply correlative statistics to determine whether the individuals of one genotype differ significantly with the individuals of other genotype with respect to the trait being measured. Situations where genes fail to segregate independently are said to display “linkage disequilibrium”. QTL analysis, thus, depends on linkage disequilibrium. With natural populations, consistent association between QTL and marker genotype will not usually exist, except in a very rare situation where the marker is completely linked to the QTL. There before, QTL analysis is usually undertaken in segregating mapping populations, inbred lines (RILs), near- isogenic lines (NILs), doubled haploid lines (DHs), and back cross populations. such as F2-derived populations, recombinant objectives of Qtl mapping The vast majority of molecular marker research in quantitative traits has been devoted to mapping QTL. These experiments basically have the following major objectives: (i) (ii) To identify the regions of the genome that affect the trait of interest To analyze the effect of the QTL on the trait: salient requirement for Qtl mapping • • • • A suitable mapping population generated from phenotypically contrasting parents A saturated linkage map based on molecular markers Reliable phenotypic screening of mapping population Appropriate statistical packages to analyze the genotypic information with phenotypic information for QTL detection. 11 in combination International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” marker-Assisted Backcrossing (mABC) Backcrossing has been a widely used technique in plant breeding for almost a century it is used in plant breeding to transfer (introgress) favourable traits from a donor plant into an elite genotype (recurrent parent). In repeated crossings the original cross is backcrossed with the recurrent parent until most of the genes stemming from the donor are eliminated (BECKER 1993). However, the donor segments attached to the target allele can remain relatively large, even after many backcrossing generations. In order to minimize this linkage drag, marker assays can be of advantage (FRISCH et al.1999). Markers can be used in the context of MABC to either control the target gene (foreground selection) or to accelerate the reconstruction of the recurrent parent genotype (background selection). According to TANKSLEY et al. (1989), in traditional backcross breeding the reconstruction of the recurrent parent genotype requires more than six generations, while this may be reduced to only three generations in MABC.These findings are confirmed by results of FRISCH et al. (1999), who showed in a computer simulation that MAS can reconstruct a level of recurrent parent genome in BC3 which would only be reached in BC7 without the use of markers. The use of DNA markers in backcrossing greatly increases the efficiency of selection. Using conventional breeding methods, the donor segment can remain very large even with many BC generations (e.g. more than 10; Ribaut & Hoisington 1998; Salina et al. 2003). By using markers that flank a target gene (e.g. less than 5 cM on either side), linkage drag can be minimized. Since double recombination events occurring on both sides of a target locus are extremely rare, recombinant selection is usually performed using at least two BC generations (Frisch et al. 1999b). The third level of MAB involves selecting BC progeny with the greatest proportion of recurrent parent (RP) genome, using markers that are unlinked to the target locus—we refer to this as ‘background selection’. In the literature, background selection refers to the use of tightly linked flanking markers for recombinant selection and unlinked markers to select for the RP (Hospital & Charcosset 1997; Frisch et al.1999b). Background markers are markers that are unlinked to the target gene/QTL on all other chromosomes, in other words, markers that can be used to select against the donor genome. This is extremely useful because the RP recovery can be greatly accelerated. With conventional backcrossing, it takes a minimum of six BC generations to recover the RP and there may still be several donor chromosome fragments unlinked to the target gene. Using markers, it can be achieved by BC4, BC3 or even BC2 (Hospital & Charcosset 1997; Frisch et al. 1999a,b), thus saving two to four BC generations. The use of background selection during MAB to accelerate the development of an RP with an additional (or a few) genes has been referred to as ‘complete line conversion’ (Ribaut et al. 2002). Figure: Levels of selection during marker-assisted backcrossing. (a) Target locus selection, (b) recombinant selection and (c) background selection. MABC is especially efficient if a single allele is to be transferred into a different genetic background, for example, in order to improve an existing variety for a specific trait. However, if the performance of a plant is determined by a complex genotype it is unlikely. 12 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 13 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” gene Pyramiding realizing the Potential of markerassisted selection for Crop improvement Considering the enormous potential of MAS in plant breeding, achieving a tangible impact on crop improvement represents the great challenge of molecular breeding in the early part of the twenty-first century. Solutions to the above-mentioned obstacles of MAS need to be developed in order to achieve a greater impact. In the short term, the most important factors that should enable the impact of MAS to be realized include:—a greater level of integration among conventional breeding, QTL mapping/validation and MAS,—careful planning and execution of QTL mapping studies (especially for complex quantitative traits) and an emphasis on validating results prior to MAS,—optimization of methods used in MAS such as DNA extraction and marker genotyping, especially in terms of cost reduction and efficiency, and—efficient systems for data storage (from in-house laboratory information management systems (LIMS) to publicly available databases). For MAS to reach its full potential for crop improvement, the advantages of MAS over conventional breeding need to be fully exploited. This may depend on extant studies evaluating alternative schemes prior to experimentation. Computer simulations may indicate the most effective breeding schemes in order to maximize genetic gain and minimize costs Based on the schemes of MAS reviewed in this paper, the most important areas to target include:—use of markers for the selection of parents in breeding programmes,—continued use of MAS for high-priority traits that are difficult, time consuming or expensive to measure, —using markers to minimize linkage drag via recombinant selection,—screening of multiple traits per line (i.e per unit of DNA), especially populations derived from multiple —exploiting the ability to rapidly eliminate unsuitable lines after early generation selection or tandem selection in breeding programmes, thus allowing breeders to concentrate on the most promising materials, and—exploiting the time savings for line development(especially using background selection) for accelerated variety release. For MAS in orphan crops and breeding programmes in developing countries, emphasis should be given to careful prioritization of traits for marker development as well as simplifying and optimizing methods to reduce marker genotyping costs.F1s for pyramiding, Advances in functional genomics will lead to the rapid identification of gene functions in the major cereal crops. This strategy usually relies on fine mapping using 14 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” molecular markers, as well as other methods such as gene-expression studies (microarray), mutants and gene knockouts, RNAi and association genetics. The identification of gene function will allow the development of allele-specific markers that will be more efficient than using linked DNA markers. Conclusions Plant breeding has made remarkable progress in crop improvement and it is critical that this continue. It seems clear that current breeding programmes continue to make progress through commonly used breeding approaches. MAS could greatly assist plant breeders in reaching this goal although, to date, the impact on variety development has been minimal. For the potential of MAS to be realized, it is imperative that there should be a greater integration with breeding programmes and that current barrier be well understood and appropriate solutions developed. The exploitation of the advantages of MAS relative to conventional breeding could have a great impact on crop improvement. The high cost of MAS will continue to be a major obstacle for its adoption for some crop species and plant breeding in developing countries in the near future. Specific MAS strategies may need to be tailored to specific crops, traits and available budgets. New marker technology can potentially reduce the cost of MAS considerably. If the effectiveness of the new methods is validated and the equipment can be easily obtained, this should allow MAS to become more widely applicable for crop breeding programmes. references Backer,(1993) Molecular markers to exploit genotype–environment interactions of relevance in organic growing systems. Euphytica 163: 523 – 531. Frisch, et al (1999). Comparison of Selection Strategies for Marker-Assisted Backcrossing of a Gene. Crop Science 39, 1295-1301. Hospital, F., Charcosset, A., 1997. Marker-assisted introgression of quantitative trait loci. Genetics, 147, 1469–1485. into elite breeding lines. Theor. Appl. Genet., 92,191-203. Joshi,et al (2011), Molecular markers in plant genome analysis. http/www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jul25/articles 15. htm. Pp 1-19. Kearsey, M.J. and Pooni, H.S. (1996). The Genetical Analysis of Quantitative Traits. Chapman and Hall, London. Ribaut, et al( 2002). Marker-Assisted Selection to Improve Drought Adaptation in Maize: The Backcross Approach, Perspectives, Limitations, and Alternatives. Journal of Experimental Botany, 58, 351-360. Ribaut, J.M., and D. Hoisington. 1998. Marker-assisted selection: New tools and strategies. Trends Plant Sci. 3:236–239. Salina, E., Dobrovolskaya, O., Efremova, T., Leonova, I. & Roder, M. S. 2003 Microsatellite monitoring of recombination around the Vrn-B1 locus of wheat during early backcross breeding. Plant Breed. 122, 116–119. Tansley, S.D. and Nelson, J.C. (1996). Advanced backcross QTL analysis: a method for simultaneous discover y and transfer of valuable QTLs from unadapted germplasm in to elite breeding lines. Theor. Appl. Genet. 92, 191–203. 15 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-IV An over-vieW of somAtiC emBryogenesis in PePPer (CApsICum Annuum L.) hira singh and t s dhillon Department of Vegetable Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana E-mail: hira@pau.edu Abstract Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is an agronomically important non-tuberous solanaceous crop grown primarily for its fruit. It is an important commercial vegetable and spice crop, which is grown worldwide for its ripe and unripe fruits. Pepper is susceptible to a number of diseases, pests and many other abiotic stresses capable of causing serious crop losses. This problem has been addressed by hybridizing pepper with wild resistant sources, which present a wide genetic diversity and are source of useful agronomic traits. Now, the application of the in vitro technologies to this crop has given a considerable success. Pepper tissue present morphogenetic potential that is very useful for developmental studies as well as new plant tissue cultural and molecular biological techniques to produce somaclonal variations, improved varieties such as in vitro selection against various abiotic stresses and genetic transformation. In this paper, important factors that affect the in vitro somatic embryogenesis are discussed. Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) is an important commercial vegetable and spice crop, which is low in sodium and calories, free from cholesterol, has high vitamin C as well as minerals content and good source of vitamin A & B complex (OchoaAlejo and Ramirez-Malagon 2001, Danise 2003). Pepper is susceptible to several diseases, pests and many other abiotic stresses capable of causing serious crop losses. This problem has been addressed by hybridizing pepper with wild resistant sources, which present a wide genetic diversity and source of useful agronomic traits. But traditional improvement methods may be pampered by the scarcity of natural resistance source for some important traits. The application of in vitro technologies to pepper resulted in considerable success. Somatic embryogenesis is the process by which a single cell undergoes a developmental pathway leading to production of regenerable, non-zygotic embryos capable of germinating and developing into whole plants. The production of plantlets by callus regeneration, cell suspensions and protoplast cultures could present some deviations with regard to the mother plant. This is the way to increase the genetic variability, which helps in further crop improvement. Indeed, after regeneration, plants can express new potentialities rarely obtained by another way. This method is also associated with a selective stress (toxins, pH, salinity, high or low temperature), so used to obtain resistant lines. This technique is also useful for large-scale clonal propagation and for gene transfer systems because it facilitates in vitro selection of transformed totipotent cells and reduces the chances of production of chimeras. Many scientists reviewed the application of biotechnology in pepper (Steinitz et al 1999, Ochoa-Alejo and Ramirez-Malagon 2001). In this paper, regarding somatic embryogenesis via callus in hot pepper, relevant review has been analyzed. Plant tissue culture work on Capsicum spp was initiated by Smith and Heiser in 1957 and steadily growing pepper callus was established by Novak (1974), Dix and Street (1975) and so no. Agrawal et al (1989) obtained callus in pepper from hypocotyl, cotyledon, stem, stem node and shoot tip explants cultured on MS medium with 0.5-1.0 mgl-1 of BAP induced green and compact callus. Cotyledon, hypocotyl and root explants were grown on 17 different media, production of large amounts of callus was best on MS medium having 2.0 mgl-1 NAA and 0.3 mgl-1 BA (Ge et al 1989). C. baccatum had a faster in vitro morphogenetic response than C. annuum (Pundeva and Simeonova 1992). Gatz (1994) studied callus formation from cotyledons were on MS medium supplemented with IAA and BA, each at 0.2- 25.0 mgl-1 alone or in combination. IAA induced callus and root formation, whereas, BA at the highest concentration stimulated callus growth and formation of adventitious buds. Szasz et al (1995) obtained callus at the cut surface of hypocotyls when cultured on MS medium containing 2.0 mgl-1 BAP and 1.0 mgl-1 IAA. Buyukalaca and Mavituna (1996) For embryogenic callus formation, explant zygotic embryos were placed on MS medium having 9.05 µM 2,4-D. Kintzios et al (1996) reported that callus induction was influenced significantly by the position of the leaves on the donor plant. Shoot tip, cotyledon and hypocotyl explants (2 weeks old) were cultured on MS medium with B5/L2 vitamin in different concentrations of 2,4-D, BA, IAA and Zeatin. Abundant callus developed on explants cultured on initial media with 2,4-D (Berljack 1998). Kintzios et al (2000) cultured leaves on MS medium with 9.0 mM 2,4-D and 12.9 mM BA and observed heart and torpedoshaped embryos. Yang et al (2002) conducted study on callus induction and plantlet regeneration from the hypocotyls of Japanese C. annuum var. conoides. NAA at 2.0 mgl-1 decreased the rates of callus induction with a decrease in BA concentration. The medium supplemented with 2.0 mgl-1 NAA and 0.1 mgl-1 BA was the best for callus induction. The ratio of NAA:BA was important for root formation, where the higher the ratio of NAA:BA, the higher the number of regenerated 16 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” roots. Cytokinin had a positive effect on bud differentiation. The media supplemented with 2mgl-1 Kin or 2mgl-1 Kin, 0.02 mgl-1 NAA and 3330.01 mgl-1 Particulate Phosphorus were beneficial for bud formation and induction of cluster buds. BA at 2.0 mgl-1 also induced bud formation, but the induction rate was very low with only a single bud formed. Yang and Yan (2002) revealed that higher use of NAA and BA in callus induction medium, induced callus produced more roots. Kaparakis and Alderson (2003) reported two types of callus produced by pepper cultured in various media containing auxins, cytokinin and TIBA. Callus produced on media with auxins alone was friable, grey-green and compact, whereas, with BAP addition, low concentration of auxin or when the medium contained TIBA alone, the callus produced was white and very hard. Mezghani et al (2004) cultured petioles of hot pepper in MS medium supplemented with 5.0 mM 2,4-D and 5.0 mM BA and incubated in a growth chamber under continuous darkness at 25°C and no differences were clearly observed based on hormone levels. Callus initiated from cotyledonary leaf segments in a medium containing 2.0 mgl-1 NAA and subcultured on 3.0 mgl-1 BA and 1.0 mgl-1 GA3 produced 4-6 shoot buds. Shoots were rooted in MS medium containing 1.0 mgl-1 IBA, hardened and successfully established in natural soil (Soniya and Nair 2004). Conclusion The observation common to regeneration studies from somatic cells is the marked source genotype dependency of the developmental process to a given set of culture conditions. This may suggest that an expectation to find protocols of high reproducibility across a wide range of Capsicum annuum genotypes is perhaps unrealistic. However, the problem of regeneration from callus cultures will have to be overcome by developing of new and modification of cultural conditions for individual genotype where somaclonal variation and genetic transformation is being expected. references Agrawal S, Chandra N and Kothari S L (1989) Plant regeneration in tissue cultures of pepper (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Mathania). Plant Cell Tiss Org Cult 16: 47-56. Berljack J (1998) In vitro organogenesis and plant regeneration from different explants of pepper (Capsicum annuum L. cv. Mathania). Plant Cell Tiss Org Cult 16: 47-55. Buyukalaca S and Mavituna F (1996) Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration of pepper in liquid media. Plant Cell Tiss Org Cult 46(3): 227-35. Gatz A (1994) Callus formation and organogenesis from Capsicum cotyledons in in vitro culture. Zeszyty Problemowe Postepow Nauk Rolniczych 414: 379-86. Ge K L, Sasakuma T and Tanaka M (1989) Callus induction and plant regeneration in Capsicum. Acta Bot Sin 31(12): 962-65. Kaparakis G and Alderson P G (2003) Differential callus type formation by auxins and cytokinin in in vitro cultures of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Plant Biosystems 137(3): 275- 80. Kintzios S, Drossopoulos J B, Shortsianitis E and Peppes D (2000) Induction of somatic embryogenesis from young, fully expanded leaves of chilli pepper (Capsicum annuum L.): effect of leaf position, illumination and explant pretreatment with high cytokinin concentrations. Scientia Hort 85(1-2): 137- 44. Kintzios S, Drossopoulos J, Manousaridou M and Holevas C D (1996) Competence for callus induction on mature pepper leaves depends upon specific developmental stages of the donor plant. Scientia Hort 65 (4): 341- 47. Kristiansen K and Anderson S B (1993) Effects of donor plant temperature, photoperiod and age on anther culture response of Capsicum annuum L. Euphytica 67: 105-09. Mezghani N, Jemmali A and Tarchoun N (2004) Implication of the cambial tissue in the essential callus formation on hot pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) petiole explants cultivated in vitro. Capsicum Eggplant Newsletter 23: 89-92. Murashige T and Skoog F (1962) A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tabacco tissue cultures. Plant Physiol 15: 473-97. Pundeva R and Simeonova N (1992) Induction of callus and organogenesis in pepper. Capsicum Newsletter 11: 24-25. Soniya E V and Nair G M (2004) Multiple shoot regeneration and indirect organogenesis in chilli pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Capsicum Eggplant Newsletter 23: 93-96 Szasz A, Nervo G and Fari M (1995) Screening for in vitro shoot forming capacity of seedling explants in bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes and efficient plant regeneration using thidiazuron. Plant Cell Rep 14: 666-69. White P R (1963) The Cultivation of Animal and Plant Cells, Ronald Press, New York. Yang J W and Yan G L (2002) Effect of phytohormones on callus root differentiation and plantlet regeneration of hypocotyls of Capsicum annuum L. J Jilin Agri Univ 24 (3): 24-26. Yang J W, Li M J and Wang H W (2002) Callus induction and differentiation from the hypocotyls of Capsicum annuum L. Southwes China J Agri Sci 15 (1): 83-89. 17 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-V imPACt of ALien CytoPLAsms on PhenoLogiCAL And yieLd trAits under different irrigAtion environment in sunfLoWer vikrant tyagi and s. K. dhillon Deptt. of Plant Breeding and Genetics, PAU, Ludhiana, India. E-mail: vikranttyagi97@gmail.com introduction Sunflower is moderately tolerant to water stress, its production is greatly affected by drought. Evidence indicates that drought stress during the vegetative phase, flowering and seed-filling period in sunflower causes a considerable decrease in yield and oil content (Ali et al., 2009). The main aim of sunflower breeding is the obtaining of high yield commercial hybrids. Sunflower hybrids are object of breeding attention because of their agronomic and economic advantages over varieties. The central component of sunflower hybrid development is cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS). The entire sunflower hybrids in the world are based on a single cytoplasmic male sterility source i.e. Helianthus petiolaris (PET-1) which has led to a wide distribution of hybrids with related type of cytoplasm. Introduction of different cytoplasmic backgrounds into hybrid production will permit to increase the general variability of the cultivated sunflower hybrids. In this context, this research was planned to study the impact of alien cytoplasm on phenological and yield traits in sunflower hybrids having different cytoplasmic background under irrigation and water stress environment to exploit them in hybrid development program. Key Words: Impact of alien cytoplasm, sunflower sources and water stress materials and methods The present investigation was carried out at the research fields of the oilseeds section, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. A set of nine cms analogues from different cytoplasmic sources were developed using a common maintainer (Morden) and four perfect restorers from PET-1 source for these cms sources were identified. All nine cms analogues along with NC-41B (common maintainer) were crossed with four common restorer lines (to develop the set of 40 hybrids) to study the effect of different cytoplasmic sources on performance of hybrids. The experiment was conducted during spring season in the year 2011 and 2012. The material was raised in paired rows of 4.5m length with 60 cm and 30 cm inter and intra row spacing respectively, in the randomized block design. The data for early maturity and yield traits like day to flowering and days to maturity were recorded on the basis of total plants per genotype whereas seed yield per plant were recorded for five random plants in the field. To study the effect of different cytoplasmic sources the mean values of four crosses from each source were pooled and their grand mean values were calculated to study the effect of different cytoplasmic sources and compared them with the conventional petirolasis source (NC-41B) under both the environments (Normal environment and water stress environment). results and discussion The analysis of variance for days to flowering, days to maturity and seed yield/plant revealed significant differences among the sources under both the environments, individual and pooled over the years. It is pertinent to mention here that all the sources significantly differed from PET-1 source with respect to seed yield per plant under both the environments and their effect was in positive direction. Highly significant G x E (years) interactions for the days to flowering, days to maturity and yield showed differential behaviour of sources over the years under both normal and water stress conditions. This indicates variability in these sources for exploitation under varied irrigation regimes. The mean performances of hybrids from different cytoplasmic sources were compared with the mean performance of hybrids from cultivated source PET-1 to find out the impact of different sources on hybrid performance under both the environments presented in table 1. The mean performance of hybrids computed over different sources with respect to phenological and yield traits pooled over the years under the two environments are presented in table 2 (normal and stress environment). Days to flowering recorded significant differences than the control with respect to all the sources. Reduction in number of days to flowering was recorded for all cytoplasmic sources than conventional PET-1 (H. petiolaris) (73.88 days) source under both the environments except PHIR-27A (H. praecox ssp hirtus) (72.08 days) under normal environment. There was increase in 18 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” mean number of days to maturity under stress condition in comparison with control, while in normal environment only source PHIR-27A (H. praecox ssp hirtus) (101.71) was significantly late in maturity than PET-1 (H. petiolaris) (100.04) source. Table 1: Effect of different cytoplasmic sources on seed yield and phenological traits under different irrigation regimes (Pooled over the years) S. No. 1 Sources CMS-XA Days to flowering Days to maturity Seed yield per plant (g) N S N S N S 70.02** 70.25** 97.88** 97.38** 50.13** 46.98** 2 CMS-E002-91A 69.81** 68.67** 99.10* 97.79** 53.18** 42.20** 3 CMS-PKU-2A 69.94** 68.13** 99.79 98.08** 51.59** 39.58** 4 CMS-ARG-2A 68.94** 70.38** 100.25 98.00** 48.54* 36.55** 5 CMS-ARG-3A 69.44** 69.75** 99.63 97.46** 56.60** 45.18** 6 CMS-ARG-6A 69.69** 68.75** 99.06* 96.92** 50.11** 35.88** 7 CMS-DV-10A 69.81** 70.08** 99.13* 96.25** 54.09** 43.14** 8 CMS-PHIR-27A 72.08 69.67** 101.71* 99.25** 52.43** 39.58** 9 CMS-PRUN-29A 69.69** 70.00** 99.44 95.58 52.50** 49.36** 10 NC-41B (C) 71.60 73.88 100.04 95.29 46.19 24.89 SD 0.97 1.57 0.99 1.22 2.95 6.95 SE 0.31 0.50 0.31 0.38 0.93 2.20 CD 5% 0.70 1.13 0.71 0.87 2.11 4.97 CD 1% 1.14 1.84 1.16 1.43 3.46 8.15 *, ** - significant at 5 % and 1 % level respectively, N: Normal environment S: Stress environment It is pertinent to mention here that all the sources significantly differed from PET-1 (H. petiolaris) source with respect to seed yield under both the environments and importantly the effect was in positive direction. ARG-3A (H. argophyllus) (56.60 and 45.18 g), DV-10A (H. debilis ssp vestitus) (54.09 and 43.14 g) and PRUN-29A (H. debilis ssp vestitus) (52.50 and 49.36 g) highly significant yield differences than NC-41B (H. petiolaris) (46.19 and 24.89 g) under both normal and stress environments respectively. A number of previous studies by Baldani et al. (1991); Serieys 1999 have reported the positive and negative influence of cytoplasms types in sunflower. Our study supported these past findings and the present investigation there was significant increase in seed yield per plant as compared to conventional source. This may be attributed to effect of cytoplasmic genes or nuclear cytoplasmic interactions and this positive interaction can be exploited effectively for developing high yielding hybrids based on diverse sources both for normal and water stress environment. However, it is an important finding that the impact of different cytoplasmic sources on the expression of most of the traits particularly seed yield was in desirable direction and may play an important role in diversification of cytoplasm and the hybrid base for future breeding programmes. Conclusions All the sources significantly differed from PET-1 source with respect to maturity and seed yield under both the environments and importantly the effect was in positive direction, which may be exploited to development of new hybrids having different cytoplasmic background. references Ali M A, Nawab N N, Rasool G and Saleem M (2009) Estimates of variability and correlation for some quantitative traits in Cicer arietinuim. J Agric Soc Sci 4: 177-79. Baldini M, Megale P and Benvenuti A (1991) Stability analysis, cytoplasmatic effects and possible utilization on three male sterility sources in sunflower (Helianthus). Ann Bot 49: 27-36. Serieys H (1999) Identification, study and utilization in breeding programmes of new cms sources: FAO progress report (1996-1999). Helia 22: 71-84. 19 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-VI ChArACterisAtion of mALe steriLe And mALe fertiLe Lines for fLorAL trAits in WheAt Ashwin B. dahake*1, A.K. Chhabra2, s.K. sethi1 and ravika1 Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS HAU, Hisar 2Regional Research Station, Bawal (Rewari) E-mail: ashwinbreeder18@gmail.com 1 Abstract Hybrid wheat is the future of world for sustaining food security. The availability of male sterile lines through timopheevi blood may be utilised in developing wheat hybrids. The presents study has been proposed in this direction. Present research was focused on floral traits characterisation of male sterile and fertile lines. Three cytoplasmic genetic male sterile line of wheat i.e. D2802-31, WH-147A and WH-147-2A derived from T. timopheevi and twenty five male fertile lines were grown in randomized block design with three replications in normal (timely sown) environment at research farm of Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS HAU, Hisar. Analysis of variance showed presence of ample variation for the floral traits under observation. Among the 28 lines, glum opening angle and size of lodicules were more in sterile line as compared to fertile lines. Anther size, anther extrusion, filament length and pollen viability were observed more in fertile lines in comparison to sterile lines. Floral traits in relation to hybrid breeding that promote outcrossing. Our results indicated that chasmogamy is present in these lines and it is essential for exploitation of hybrid wheat. Key Words: Male sterile, Male fertile, Lodicules, Anther and Glume. introduction Wheat constitutes the world’s most important food crop and its different qualities have made this crop the most important staple food of 35 per cent population of the world. From “begging bowl” status in mid sixties, India has emerged as second largest producer of the wheat after china. Wheat production has increased more than 14 times from 6.46 million tonnes in 1952 to 85.93 million tonnes in 2012 in 201. Keeping in view the rate of increase in population and the growth rate of wheat yield the concept of hybrid wheat emerged as an alternate to meet future demand. The wheat yield has already reached at plateau through conventional breeding approaches. The concept of hybrid wheat may bring breakthrough in the yield levels. The private and public hybrid seed industry in various cross pollinated and often cross pollinated crops like pearl millet, maize, cotton etc., has already brought about significant improvements in production and productivity of these crop plants. Various treads of economic importance related to grain yield in wheat have shown heterosis in desirable direction. The availability of mal sterile lines through timopheevi blood may therefore be utilised in developing wheat hybrids. However there are certain constraint associated wheat self pollinated crops that needs to be tackled before commercialisation of wheat hybrids. The presents study has therefore been proposed in the same direction. material and methods A systematic study on male sterility, fertility lines and their floral traits are most important for development of hybrid wheat. This proposed research programme was focus on floral traits characterisation of male sterile and fertile lines study in wheat. In this experiment three cytoplasmic genetic male sterile line of wheat i.e. D 2802-31, WH-147A and WH-147-2A derived from T. timopheevi, and twenty five pollen parents were grown in randomized block design with three replications in normal (timely sown) environment at departmental farm of Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS HAU, Hisar. result and discussion Analysis of variance showed presence of ample variation for the floral traits under observation. Among the 28 lines, glum opening angle and size of lodicules were more in sterile line as compared to fertile lines. Data mention in the table. In general, glumes opening angle was more in male sterile line while maximum shown by D 2802-3A (30.33o) line. The minimum glume opening angle was in the pollen parent PBW 651 (4.67 o). Anther size were small for male sterile line, minimum being shown by WH 147 2A (0.94 mm2) and maximum shown by fertile lines WH 1105 (5.08 mm2). Filament length also shorter in male sterile line shown by WH 147 2A (2.24) and maximum filament length was in fertile line PBW 550 (8.46). Anther size, anther extrusion, filament length and pollen viability were observed more in fertile lines in comparison to sterile lines. In this study positive correlation were found between the traits glumes opening angle, anther extrusion and lodicule size. Floral traits in relation to hybrid breeding that promote outcrossing. Our results indicated that chasmogamy is present in these lines and it is essential for exploitation of hybrid wheat. 20 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Conclusion: Study of floral traits is important for hybrid breeding that promotes outcrossing. Our results indicated that chasmogamy is present in these lines and it is essential for exploitation of hybrid wheat. Table: Study of floral traits for fertile lines and male sterile in wheat Line.No. Pollen Parent Glumes opening angle (degree) Anther size (mm2) Filament length (mm) Pollen viability (%) Anther extrusion (%) Size of the lodicules(mm) 1 DBW 17 5.3 3.53 5.11 94.00 56.00 1.08 2 HD 2967 10.3 3.72 5.47 93.67 59.33 1.31 3 HD 3055 10.0 4.04 5.47 93.33 59.00 1.28 4 HD 3058 13.0 3.74 5.63 92.00 68.67 1.38 5 HD 3059 11.6 3.77 4.88 92.00 59.33 1.40 6 HUW 640 16.6 4.40 5.67 85.00 84.33 2.00 7 JAVW 584 14.3 4.82 4.77 94.00 63.33 1.66 8 Kanchan 97 14.0 3.25 4.40 83.67 66.33 1.74 9 P 11850 13.0 4.02 7.75 86.00 63.00 1.49 10 P 11852 6.0 3.38 2.92 94.33 50.33 1.06 11 PBW 343 11.6 3.47 4.60 97.00 65.00 1.18 12 PBW 550 15.3 4.93 8.46 88.00 64.33 1.60 13 PBW 621 13.6 3.82 5.21 94.67 63.67 1.47 14 PBW 648 18.0 4.04 7.21 90.33 83.67 1.43 15 PBW 651 4.6 3.63 5.61 86.33 46.00 1.00 16 RAJ 4228 16.0 3.86 5.12 82.00 86.67 1.88 17 RAJ 4229 8.3 3.60 4.54 79.00 53.00 1.49 18 RAJ 4230 9.3 2.80 3.17 80.67 60.00 1.50 19 WH 711 5.0 3.30 3.86 91.33 54.00 1.22 20 WH 712 19.6 4.02 4.64 94.67 90.33 2.29 21 WH 1081 14.0 4.73 7.84 89.33 83.33 1.51 22 WH 1061 12.6 4.33 5.41 94.67 77.00 1.50 23 WH 1062 13.3 4.39 5.94 87.00 82.00 1.69 24 WH 1063 18.3 4.93 5.55 88.00 88.33 1.99 25 WH 1105 5.6 5.08 7.88 94.67 52.67 1.04 26 D 2802-3A 30.33 1.42 2.71 0.02 11.00 3.10 27 WH 147 A 28.00 1.10 2.31 0.06 11.33 2.73 28 WH 147 2A 27.33 0.94 2.24 0.09 5.67 2.53 Grand mean 12.00 3.98 5.48 89.83 67.19 1.49 Range 4-21 2-5.17 2.30-8.93 73-98 30-93 0.80-2.40 CD at 5% 2.79 0.28 0.27 5.68 14.00 0.21 referances Adugna, A., Nanda, G.S., Singh, K. & Bains. N.S. (2004) A comparison of cytoplasmic and chemically-induced male sterility systems for hybrid seed production in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Euphytica, 135: 297–304. Gangashetti, M.G. (2000) Studies on floral traits and cytoplasmic genic male sterile lines in relation to hybrid wheat, Ph.D. Thesis, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hissar, India. Sethi, S.K. & Kumar, A. (2010) Hybrid Wheat: Developmental Approaches and Impact Analysis. In: Crop Science and Land Use for Food and Bioenergy (Eds: Behl, R.K., Merbach, W., Meliczek, H. and Kaetsch, C) Agribios International, Jodhpur, pp. 35-50. Sethi, S.K., & Chhabra, A.K. (1990) Inheritence of Cleistogamic flowering in durum wheat. Euphytica, 59(2): 147-150. 21 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-VII study the genetiC divergenCe Among different genotyPes through d2 And moLeCuLAr mArKer AnALysis in gArLiC (AllIum sAtIVum L.) 1 Chandanshive Aniket vilas1, sabina islam1, subodh Joshi1, m K rana2 A d munshi1 Division of Vegetable Science, IARI, 2NRC on DNA Fingerprinting, NBPGR, Pusa Campus, IARI, New Delhi-1100 012 aniketchandan@gmail.com Abstract The experiment comprising 35 genotypes of A. Sativum including few commercial cultivars collected from different parts of the country and maintained in the Division of Vegetable Science, IARI, New Delhi was conducted to analyse diversity at morphological and molecular levels. The 11 yield related quantitative traits were studied and subjected to Mahalanobis D2 analysis. Among 60 primers screened, 21 were polymorphic and informative enough to analyse these genotypes. A total of 120 markers were generated with 97.69% of polymorphism. Each primer amplified between three and nine bands. Based on molecular analysis, pair-wise genetic distance (GD) ranged from 0.25 to 0.84, suggesting a wide genetic base for the genotypes. Based on morphological diversity, the genotypes were grouped into 8 clusters, while based on molecular analysis, they were clustered into 5 groups. Diversity based on morphological and molecular data was not in consonance with ecological distribution. The study showed that multivariate analysis method could be a useful way to discriminate the garlic genotypes. Key words: RAPD, Allium sativum L., morphological diversity, D2 analysis, molecular diversity. introduction Garlic (Allium sativum L.) is an important bulb crop grown globally having year round demand in almost every household. Among the bulb crops, it ranks second after onion in total production and consumption. It is highly prized because of its high nutritional value besides immense medicinal properties mainly anticancerous and antithrombotic. Garlic is multiplied by vegetative propagation only, yet displays considerable morphological variation within and between cultivars. Despite its immense potential for improvement for various traits, very little work has been carried out for genetic improvement. Very little information is available regarding variability for various yield and related traits. material and methods The planting material for the present study comprised of thirty-five genotypes of garlic were laid out in a Randomized Block Design (RBD) the three replications. Observations were recorded on the randomly selected ten plants in each replication on 11 yield related quantitative traits. D2 statistic as well as RAPD markers were used for assessing the genetic divergence in the populations. In molecular study, 60 RAPD primers were used and standard protocol followed for DNA isolation and PCR amplification. results and discussions The data on mean performance of the genotypes with respect to yield and yield related traits are presented in Table. PGSA-10 was earliest to produce bulb (175.67±0.43 days), while JNDG-219 (230.33 ±0.43 days) took longest duration to produce marketable bulb. The genotype JNDGN-213 (79.46±0.51 cm) and PGSI-6 (10.33±0.66) were found superior for plant height and number of leaves per plant. The desirable genotypes with respect to polar diameter of bulb were PGSA1, PGSA-5 and ACC-40. Average bulb weight (36.33±0.19), equatorial bulb diameter (4.76±0.32) and clove diameter (3.09±0.22) were highest in ACC-200, PGSA-1 and PGSA-7, respectively and these lines could be used in further breeding programme. Following Tochers cluster analysis, the 35 genotypes were grouped into 8 clusters. Cluster I composed of 12 genotypes viz., SEL-9, SEL-PS-15, Sel-43, Sel-KarnalCS, AC-50, G-1, G-282, IC-48437, PGSI-6, PGSA-4, PGSA-6 and PGSA-10 consisting of maximum number of genotypes. Cluster II consisted of 5 genotypes (Sel-PS-10, PS-7, C-25, PSG-14 and PGSI-1). Cluster III comprised of 3 genotypes viz., G-189, IC-375116 and PGSA-1. Cluster IV consisted of 2 genotypes namely SEL-34 and PGSI-5. The genotype PGSA-5 constituted Cluster V, and the cluster VI contained only 6 genotypes, i.e., JG-03-263, PGSI-3, PGSI-4, PGSI-9, PGSA-2 and PGSA-7. Cluster VII composed of 3 genotypes (ACC40, ACC-200 and JNDG-219). Cluster VIII contained 3 genotypes (JNDGN-213, PG-19 and PGSI-2). The highest intracluster distance (2.53) was observed in cluster VI and inter-cluster distance (7.11) was noticed between V and VIII. In case of molecular study, sixty RAPD random primers were screened from which 21 primers gave polymorphic amplification. 22 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” The primer OPA11 and OPX 6 were most informative and primer OPA16 and OPX 5 least informative among the all primers. The population was group into five clusters. Diversity based on morphological and molecular data was not in consonance with ecological distribution. The main reason of mismatch between clustering based on RAPD and quantitative traits may be that, most of the quantitative traits are controlled by a large number of genes (polygenes) and these traits are highly influenced by environment. table- mean performance 35 garlic genotypes for different physical parameters Genotypes No of leaves per plant Plant height (cm) Neck thickness (cm) Days to harvesting No of cloves/ bulb Equatorial diameter of bulb (cm) Polar diameter of bulb (cm) Polar diameter of clove (cm) Equatorial diameter of clove (cm) Bulb weight (g) Avg. weight of ten cloves (g) Yield/ plot (2.5m²) (kg) Yield (q/ ha) Sel -9 8.67 51.57 0.76 220.67 26.33 3.46 3.85 2.44 1.00 18.28 15.20 2.43 97.00 Sel -PS-10 8.00 51.32 0.59 215.00 28.00 3.85 3.78 2.02 0.87 19.16 17.14 1.75 70.00 Sel - PS-15 8.33 49.58 0.90 202.67 19.67 3.78 3.97 2.40 0.91 22.26 18.33 2.17 86.80 PS-7 6.33 48.72 0.68 212.67 30.67 3.69 3.49 2.05 0.89 17.23 16.26 2.08 83.20 Sel -34 7.00 50.10 0.72 205.00 34.00 4.58 4.16 2.28 1.24 31.34 28.41 2.50 100.00 Sel – 43 8.33 54.36 0.57 213.67 33.00 4.49 4.03 2.13 1.02 25.19 22.42 2.25 90.00 Sel - Karnal CS 7.67 50.66 0.57 180.00 18.00 3.80 3.78 2.22 1.01 18.17 17.19 2.31 92.40 AC – 50 9.33 58.05 0.78 221.67 24.00 4.00 4.06 1.63 1.07 19.67 17.07 2.45 98.00 ACC – 40 7.33 49.63 0.67 230.33 26.67 4.34 4.46 2.75 1.14 29.14 30.09 2.47 98.70 ACC -200 8.00 55.59 0.70 230.00 37.67 4.17 4.35 1.70 1.23 36.33 35.22 2.52 100.80 G-1 7.67 65.91 0.69 214.33 21.00 4.05 4.25 2.47 1.03 22.72 20.80 2.75 110.00 G-189 8.33 62.35 0.81 202.67 44.33 4.47 3.66 2.53 1.11 23.91 22.67 2.95 118.00 G – 282 8.67 61.28 0.79 212.00 16.33 3.35 3.88 2.37 1.43 22.28 17.76 1.88 75.33 C -25 6.67 54.35 0.72 192.00 26.67 3.99 3.67 2.00 1.04 16.04 14.64 2.30 92.00 JNDGN-213 8.67 79.46 0.98 219.67 25.67 3.73 3.53 1.67 0.83 20.39 18.53 2.73 109.20 JNDG -219 7.00 62.46 0.84 233.33 27.33 4.76 4.03 2.14 1.08 34.37 33.36 1.75 70.00 PSG -14 6.33 73.83 0.79 185.00 35.00 3.66 3.84 2.09 0.81 18.84 12.37 2.25 90.00 JG –03-263 8.67 57.39 0.74 189.33 28.00 3.45 3.65 2.22 0.87 16.69 15.11 2.72 108.80 PG-19 9.00 78.04 0.89 186.67 24.67 2.85 3.40 2.11 0.77 10.79 8.15 1.63 65.20 IC-48437 8.33 56.72 0.55 191.67 33.33 3.88 3.41 2.00 1.25 22.13 19.91 2.70 108.00 IC-375116 8.00 67.19 0.72 183.67 44.67 3.43 3.53 2.56 1.09 21.13 15.08 2.35 94.00 PGSI – 1 8.00 60.83 0.61 222.67 37.00 3.99 4.00 1.91 0.84 16.22 14.03 2.74 109.60 PGSI – 2 8.67 65.41 1.53 213.33 23.67 3.53 4.03 2.17 0.90 20.81 20.71 2.50 100.00 PGSI – 3 8.33 59.87 0.63 213.33 17.67 3.03 3.53 2.34 1.04 11.09 12.37 3.76 152.40 PGSI – 4 8.33 57.52 0.66 215.67 20.00 3.90 3.62 2.14 1.04 18.30 14.00 3.65 146.00 PGSI – 5 8.33 60.27 0.63 217.33 18.00 4.24 3.93 1.24 2.90 23.72 29.58 3.40 136.00 PGSI – 6 10.33 61.23 0.86 224.67 28.33 4.11 4.03 2.54 0.99 25.31 24.30 3.35 134.00 PGSI – 9 8.33 52.94 0.82 222.67 24.33 3.50 4.03 1.96 0.74 19.51 18.03 4.02 160.80 PGSA -1 8.00 56.94 0.78 179.67 24.51 4.76 5.01 2.15 0.81 31.62 29.61 4.25 170.00 PGSA -2 9.00 62.44 0.82 183.67 23.67 3.34 3.32 2.29 0.92 12.50 7.81 3.12 124.80 PGSA -4 7.67 47.38 0.65 179.33 44.00 4.16 3.96 2.67 1.02 25.71 25.25 1.95 78.00 PGSA – 5 7.33 51.33 0.69 184.00 12.00 4.61 4.54 2.90 1.13 29.70 26.23 4.20 168.00 PGSA -6 7.33 53.76 0.77 176.67 16.67 4.31 4.38 2.60 0.78 22.95 25.50 2.35 94.00 PGSA – 7 8.33 46.33 0.83 182.33 34.00 2.93 3.20 3.09 0.74 10.32 14.50 2.54 101.60 PGSA -10 9.00 57.57 0.76 175.67 35.67 4.12 4.06 2.40 0.92 24.92 22.86 2.45 98.00 Range 6.3310.33 46.3379.46 0.551.53 175.67233.33 12.0044.67 2.85-4.76 3.20-5.01 1.24-3.09 0.74-2.90 10.3236.33 7.8135.22 1.634.25 65.20170.00 Mean 8.10 58.07 0.76 203.80 27.84 3.89 3.90 2.23 1.04 21.68 20.01 2.45 113.79 SE (d) 0.66 0.51 0.10 0.43 0.26 0.32 0.30 0.22 0.71 0.19 0.15 0.26 0.23 CD at 5% 1.32 1.02 0.2 0.86 0.52 0.64 0.60 0.44 1.42 0.38 0.30 0.52 0.46 23 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Conclusion The present study emphasizes on the assessment of genetic diversity in garlic by using morphological D2 analysis and molecular RAPD analysis which revealed that considerable genetic diversity present among the genotype that is used in further garlic breeding programme. refferances Abdoli M, HabibiKhaniani B, Baghalian K, Shahnazi S. 2009. Classification of Iranian Garlic (Allium sativum L.) ecotypes Using RAPD Marker. Journal of Medicinal Plants. 8: Supplement 5. Azuara H L, Silos H, Perales C S, Gomez L, Alpuche S, Macias V. 2008. Morphological and genetic characteristics allow the identification of a collection of garlic cultivars in the North Central region of Mexico. Chou W M, YuYuan P W and Ming Hung Chu 2004. RAPD Analysis on the Genetic Diversity Among Germplasm of Taiwan Soft stem Garlic (Allium sativum). Crop, Environment & Bioinformatics 1:163-170. Azuara H L, Silos H, Perales C S, Gomez L, Alpuche S, Macias V. 2008. Morphological and genetic characteristics allow the identification of a collection of garlic cultivars in the North Central region of Mexico. 24 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-VIII morPho-PhysioLogiCAL resPonse of drought stress in A diversity fiXed foundAtion set of indiAn mustArd (BrAssICA junCeA L.Czern & Coss) Javed Akhatar* and s. s. Banga Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India *E. mail: akhtarmzn2010@gmail.com Abstract Drought, one of the major environmental stresses, is the most significant factors restricting plant development, production and significantly reduces yield to the majority of agricultural fields of the world. The objective of this study was to assess morpho-physiological response to drought stress in Brassica juncea genotypes from a diversity fixed foundation set. Significant differences were found between genotypes in normal and drought stress condition for the morpho-physiological traits considered. Drought stress condition increase seed yield of the commercial check, RLC 1(157.03%) to tolerance genotype CARDA-M305 (324.25%). With the highest yield of 2509 kg ha-1 under drought stress, TENU-JT152-1 was the most drought tolerant genotypes. Significantly higher correlation detected between Drought Tolerance Index and seed yield under drought stress (r = 0.827, p<0.01) entail that the drought index can be used as one of the most important selection criteria in identifying drought resistant B. juncea genotypes. Keywords: Diversity Fixed Foundation Set (Bj DFFS), drought, drought tolerance index, leaf area index introduction Brassica is an agriculturally important genus containing species with highly diverse morphology and wide ranging utility. India is one of the largest rapeseed-mustard growing country occupying first position with 20.23% area and second position with 11.7% share to the global production (USDA, 2012). Indian mustard [Brassica juncea L.) accounts for nearly 80% of the area under these crops in the country. The complexity of water stress tolerance mechanisms explains the slow progress in yield improvement in stress-prone environments (Ashraf and Mehmood, 1990). Araus et al (2003) found that yield was well correlated with water input under different water stress conditions. In recent years, crop physiology and genomics have led to new insights in drought tolerance, providing breeders with new knowledge and tools for plant improvement (Tuberosa and Salvi, 2006). Breeding to improve water stress tolerance in mustard have been hindered by its relatively narrow gene pool, a result of ‘domestication bottlenecks’ as an agricultural crop species and fixation of breeding programmes build around relatively narrow gene pool. The present investigation is an attempt to analyze the effects of drought on seed yield, its components and physiological and also characterize genotypes for drought tolerance to identify suitable donors for utilization in the breeding program. materials and methods The experimental materials for the present investigation comprised 48 Brassica juncea Diversity Fixed Foundation Set for Brassica juncea (Bj DFFS) has been developed at Punjab Agricultural University. The set of founder lines within the Bj DFFS was compiled to represent a structured sampling of the genetic diversity across the B. juncea gene pool, Brassica juncea introgression lines, derived genotypes of Brassica juncea and germplasm lines previously selected for drought tolerance. This was developed by completing single-seed descent (SSD) fixation up to S5 generation. Experiment trail were conducted under control/C (3 irrigations) and drought/D (1 irrigations) condition in a alpha lattice design with two replications (Year 2012-13). Five yield and yield contributing traits; 50% days to flowering (50% DF), 100% days to flowering (100% DF), days to maturity (DM), leaf area index (LAI), 1000 seed weight (SW) and seed yield (SY) were recorded under normal and drought condition. Leaf area index recorded by Digital Plant Canopy Imager (CI-110/CI-120) in clear sunny day at the full vegetative growth of genotype. Drought Tolerance Index (DTI) were calculated by the formula DTI = (Yn*Yd)/ (Ýn)2 whereas, Yn= Yield under normal condtion, Yd = yield under drought condition and (Ýn)2 = square root of mean of yield under normal condition (Fernandez, 1992). Percent reduction (PR) was calculated as [(mean value non-stress traits) - (mean value of drought stress trait)]/mean value of non-stress. The MINITAB 16.2.1.0 software was used to mean values determined for all characters and these mean values were used in analysis of variance (ANOVA) to test genotype 25 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” differences and the significance of genotypes x treatment (C & D) interaction effects. After testing the homogeneity of the error variance of the individual locations, combined analyses of variance over the two environments was performed as per the formula given by Gomez and Gomez (1984). results and discussion Analysis of variance revealed high significant differences (p=0.01) among the genotypes for all characters in the study except for LAI under both conditions. This indicates that there was adequate variability among the genotypes for 50% days to flowering, 100% days to flowering, days to maturity, 1000-seed weight and seed yield. LAI and days to maturity highly significant (p=0.01) among the treatment condition and only 50% days to flowering were significant (p=0.05) in Treatment*Genotype interaction. Significant genotypic differences were observed in all 50% DF, 100% DF, LAI, DM, SW and SY under drought stress condition. Under drought condition genotypes ELM151, PBR357, RLC1and PLM4 was found to have with the highest mean values (1.93, 1.92, 1.84 and 1.81) of LAI respectively. Seed yield and 1000-seed weight B. juncea genotypes, were significantly increase by drought condition. Seed yield of the genotypes under drought stress condition ranged from 617 kg/ha (CARDA-JR049) to 2509 kg/ha (TENU-JT152-1) and seven of the genotypes TENU-JT152-1, ELM134, NRCHB101, PBR357, JC1359-23-558, NLM80 and NPJ79 with seed yields of 2509 kg/ha, 2349 kg/ha, 2238 kg/ha, 2191 kg/ha, 2180 kg/ha, 2173 kg/ha, 2164 kg/ha, respectively were outstanding in their adaptation to drought stress environment. On average drought stress increase seed yield by 58%, 100-seed weight by 13% and reduced LAI by 11%. Seed yield due to drought were increase in genotypes CARDA-M305 (324%) and RLC1 (157%) followed by CP117 (130%). In a case of 1000-seed weight of genotypes JM06026 (134%), CARDA-JR049 (112%) and K109-113 (75%) were also increase by drought stress. Three genotypes (TENU-JT152-1, JC1359-23-558 and PLM2) showed higher values of DTI (3.69, 3.01 and 2.91, respectively). Correlation coefficients between the NS and DS environments were positive and highly significant (p<0.01) for 50%DF, 100%DF and DM. Seed yield in DS environments was positive and highly correlated with drought tolerance index (DTI). Seed yield under drought were positively correlated with seed yield under non-stress environment (r=0.66**). The highest in seed yield due to drought stress was in genotypes TENU-JT152-1 and ELM134 confirming these genotypes were tolerance for drought stress and should be recommended for drought stress areas in the region. 50% DF, 100% DF, DM and LAI of B. juncea genotypes were most affected by drought stress. Within the same species genotypes show considerable differences in the degree of drought tolerance (Ali et al 1988 and Thukral et al 1985). The genotypes with higher values of leaf area index, seed yield and 1000 seed weight showed with better yielding indicating greater ability to mobilize photosythates to production of yield. The presence of strong correlation between yields of drought and control conditions indicate that genotypes which were performed control condition growing also performed under drought growing conditions (Winter et al 1988). The positive correlation of seed yield under drought condition with percent reduction (PR) and drought tolerance index (DTI) were expected, since any genotypes with higher seed under drought growing conditions also have increase values of percent reduction and drought tolerance index. Seed yield under drought were positively correlated with seed yield under nonstress environment (r=0.66) at drought stress, because of a positive association between yield production and drought tolerance index (DTI) for seed yield (r=0.38). Conclusions Out of the 48 B. juncea (BjDFFS) genotype which were included in the study “CARDA-M305” performed relatively better than others released varieties (RLC1) under drought condition. In B. juncea, better understanding of the key adaptive morphological and physiological traits and mechanisms that are associated with growth and yield under drought stress conditions can contribute to development of rapid and reliable selection criteria that are needed to identify drought resistant genotypes. references Ali M A, Ohisson I and Svensk H (1988) Drought stress responses in rape seed (Brassica juncea L. and Brassica napus L.) growth, yield component. Agri Hortique Genetica 46: 16-48. Araus J L, Villegas D, Aparicio N, Garcıa del Moral L F, EI Hani Rharrabti Y, Ferrio J P, Royo C (2003) Environmental factors determining carbon isotope discrimination and yield in durum wheat under Mediterranean conditions. Crop Sci 43: 170-80. Ashraf M and Mehmood S (1990) Response of four Brassica species to drought stress. Environmental and Experimental Botany 30: 93-00. 26 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Fernandez G C J (1992) Effective selection criteria for assessing plant stress tolerance. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Adaptation of Vegetables and other Food Crops in Temperature and Water Stress, Aug. 13–16, Shanhua, Taiwan. Gomez A K and Gomez A A (1984) Statistical Procedures for Agricultural Research, (2nd ed.), New York: John Wiley and Sons. Minitab Inc. (2007). Minitab Statistical Software, Release 15 for Windows, State College, Pennsylvania. Minitab® is a registered trademark of Minitab Inc. Thkural S K , Behl R K and Kumar R (1985) Water stress effects on some important physio-morphological attributes of oilseed Brassica, Annals of Bio 1: 209-15. Tuberosa R and Salvi S (2006) Genomics-based approaches to improve drought tolerance of crops. Trends in Plant Science 11: 405-412. USDA. (2012) United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved from www.usda.gov/oce/forum Winter S R, Musick J T and Porter K B (1988) Evaluation of screening techniques for breeding drought resistance winter wheat. Crop Science 28: 512-516. 27 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-IX AgronomiC PerformAnCe of noveL terminAL fLoWering vAriAnts in BrAssICA junCeA L. Czern & Coss (indiAn mustArd) harjeevan Kaur and s.s. Banga Oilseeds Section, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana *E. mail: harjeevankaur@rocketmail.com Abstract Determinate plant growth habit and terminal flowering variant are of special significance, and these are expected to transform hybrid Brassica breeding as it is associated with significant plant type modifications. Assessing the phenotypic variation in determinate mustard was considered important due to its drastic impact on plant phenology and yield contributing traits. One hundred twenty two determinate B. juncea genotypes were evaluated along with commercial checks of indeterminate B. juncea namely Coral432, DMH1 (hybrids) and PBR357 (standard OP check) in an alpha lattice design with 2 replications. Various flowering traits such as days to 50% and 100% flowering, duration of flowering, seed filling phase etc., many morpho-agronomical traits such as plant height, number of pods per plant, pod length, seed size, number of seeds per pod, yield etc, and few biochemical traits such as oil content, protein content and glucosinolates were measured. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for the data indicated significant treatment differences for all the morphological traits. Most morphological traits showed significant blocking effects. Wide variations were found for all the traits under consideration, with a greater number of determinate mustard genotypes showing the agronomic performance at par with the indeterminate commercial checks or superior to them. For example, genotypes with earlier flowering, dwarf stature, higher number of pods per plant etc., were identified in the determinate plants as compared to the indeterminate plants. Keywords: Determinate mustard, ANOVA, terminal flower, Brassica juncea, Indian mustard. introduction Brassica juncea predominates among oilseed Brassicas, and is grown in about 6 million hectare area, primarily in the north-western part of the country during the winter season (Shekhawat et al 2012). Two basic inflorescence types are known among flowering plants: indeterminate and determinate. In indeterminate type, the inflorescence grows indefinitely, generating flowers from their periphery. Contrarily, in determinate type, apical meristem gets transformed into a floral meristem with terminating apical growth and leading subsequent to a terminal flower (Bradley 1997, Amaya et al 1999, Adrian et al 2009). Indian mustard (B. juncea (L) Czern & Coss) is naturally indeterminate, and it results in both intra and inter-plant competition for resources within the canopy. Many late-formed flowers and branches high in the canopy not only reduce light penetration but are formed too late to yield productive pods. This results in wasted growth. In B. juncea, value of harvest Index value is typically 0.20-0.25, which is around half that of crops such as wheat. This inefficiency in the production of seeds is thought to be largely a consequence of the architecture of the inflorescence of the plant, which impacts canopy architecture. A key goal of Indian mustard breeding is to create an efficient crop canopy for enhancing harvest Index (HI) and greater remobilization of photosynthates to increase seed yield. Unlike in cereals, where dwarfing genes transformed the crop architecture and translocation patterns, there has never been any significant crop architectural change in Indian mustard. This may be attributing both to the absence of knowledge driven breeding efforts as well as lack of suitable gene sources. Recent identification of determinate type variants (Banga, unpublished) has opened up a new and promising avenue for pursuing large-scale architectural modifications. These were identified from the resynthesized genotypes of B. juncea allopolyploid lines (AABB) developed by hybridizing pure lines of B. napus (egg donor; A-genome) with a B. carinata (pollen donor; B-genome) inbred line. materials and methods plant materials Determinate plants were initially identified in A6 derived B. juncea allopolyploid lines. The determinate plants, identified in A6 generation, were selfed to generate 122 A8 progenies that bred true for determinacy. Phenotypic analysis was performed on 122 determinate progenies and three indeterminate commercial standards – PBR357 (OP), DMH1 (Hybrid) and 28 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Coral432 (Hybrid). These were sown in an alpha lattice design with 2 replications. Each genotype was sown in five rows of 2 meter length each and spacing of 30 cm apart in each replication. A spacing of 15 cm between plants was maintained. phenotyping Fifteen different morpho-physiologcal traits viz., days to 50 per-cent flowering, days to 100 per-cent flowering, days to completion of flowering, seed filling phase, days to maturity, plant height, number of pods per plant, pod length, seed size, number of seeds per pod, seed yield per entry, biological yield per entry, oil, protein and glucosinolates in seeds were recorded. statistical analysis ANOVA of each trait was calculated for an individual trait as per Alpha lattice design using Minitab software. The frequency histograms were also prepared using the Minitab software. results and discussion Determinate plant growth habit and terminal flowering variant are of special significance, and these are expected to transform hybrid Brassica breeding as it is associated with significant plant type modifications. Assessing the phenotypic variation in determinate mustard was considered important due to its drastic impact on plant phenology and yield contributing traits. Alpha lattice design was used because it provides the additional advantage of controlling two sources of variation. Analysis of variance for the data indicated significant treatment differences for all the morphological traits. Most morphological traits showed significant blocking effects, indicating the necessity of using alpha lattice designs when the number of treatments is very high. Days to 50% flowering ranged from 46 to 92 with mean value of 58.5 ± 0.93. DT127-31 was the earliest for 50% flowering (46 days). Among the indeterminate checks, hybrid Coral432 began to flower in 52 days after sowing. For days to 100% flowering, the distribution was nearly similar to that recorded for 50% flowering. Both the mean values indicated a relatively earlier onset of complete flowering in determinate B. juncea. DT127-11 was the earliest for 100% flowering (48.5 days) while hybrid Coral432 took 62 days after sowing for 100% flowering. Duration of flowering phase varied in a range of 39.76 (DTA27-18) to 84.3(DT127-42), with a mean of 68.3 ± 0.73. DT124-1-36 took the lowest time (114 days) for the seed filling phase. A larger number of determinate mustard genotypes either matured much earlier than the indeterminate commercial checks or were in sync with these. DT127-33 was earliest to mature (101 days) as compared with indeterminate checks, which matured in 148-154 days. Due to their earlier flowering and relatively a shorter duration of seed filling phase, a majority of the determinate plants showed lesser heights than that recorded for indeterminate mustard. Plant height ranged from 112 to 214.1 cm. Determinate mustard genotypes DT127-31 and DT127-11 had the least height of 112 and 114.3 cm, respectively. Dwarf stature is a preferred trait in mustard as tall plants tends to lodge easily. Number of pods per plant is a major yield contributing trait. There has been ever a concern that determinate mustard may be lower yielding due to perceived reduction in the total number of pods/plant. The data demonstrated that higher number of pods was not a function of indeterminacy. The pod number per plant in the determinate mustard genotypes varied from 239.2 to 1151 (DT127-4) with an average of 529.2 ± 13.7. Many genotypes showed pod length superior to the best check for pod length (PBR 357). The variation for seeds per pod expectedly reflected trend recorded for pod length. These ranged from 7.68 to 15.00 with an average of 11.5 ± 0.15. Seed size in determinate mustard varied from 2.580 to 6.418 with an average of 4.49 ± 0.06. Among indeterminate types, PBR357 (6.198 g/1000 seeds) was the best genotype. Only DT72-1 (6.418 g/1000 seeds) determinate genotypes excelled this size. Yield (Kg/Hectare) ranged from 1253 to 4735 with an average of 2696.33 ± 45.49 in determinate genotypes. While a very large number of genotypes outperformed the indeterminate checks, Coral432 (2196 kg/ha) and PBR357 (2692 kg/ha), only DT57-10 (3283 kg/ha), DT57-8 (3271 kg/ha), DT1-5 (3299 kg/ha), DT127-30 (3299 kg/ha) and DT124-1-69 (4735 kg/ha) etc. exceeded the best check, hybrid DMH1. The oil content was generally higher in indeterminate mustard check genotypes which may be more due to the background genetics. Determinate genotypes with high oil content included DT1-2-3 (42.53%), DT38-1(42.11%), DT1-2-5 (41.30%) etc. Determinate mustard genotypes were generally superior to the indeterminate types for the protein content. It varied from 25.96 to 30.65% with an average of 28.59 ± 0.08. Glucosinolates ranged from 70.27 to 116.42. Most of the determinate genotypes had lower glucosinolates content than the indeterminate checks. Conclusions The data revealed wide variations, for all the traits under consideration, with a greater number of determinate mustard genotypes showing the agronomic performance at par with the indeterminate commercial checks or superior to them. 29 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Acknowledgement This work was supported by Indian Council of Agricultural Research under ICAR National Professor Project “Broadening the genetic base of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) through alien introgressions and germplasm enhancement” awarded to S.S.B. references Adrian J, Torti S and Turck F (2009) From decision to commitment: the molecular memory of flowering. Mol. Plant 2:628–42. Amaya I, Ratcliffe OJ and Bradley DJ (1999) Expression of CENTRORADIALIS (CEN) and CEN–like genes in tobacco reveals a conserved mechanism controlling phase change in diverse species. Plant Cell 11:1405–17. Bradley D, Ratcliffe O, Vincent C, Carpenter R and Coen E (1997) Inflorescence commitment and architecture in Arabidopsis. Science 275:80–3 Shekhawat K, Rathore SS, Premi OP, Kandpal BK and Chauhan JS (2012) Advances in agronomic management of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea (L.) Czernj. Cosson): An Overview. Int. J. Agron. 2012:1–14. 30 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-X seLeCtion indiCes for eArLiness, yieLd And QuALity trAits in sugArCAne for suBtroPiCAL region of indiA gulzar s. sanghera, vikrant tyagi, rajinder Kumar and K s thind PAU, Regional Research Station, Kapurthala -144 601, Punjab, India Email: sangheragulzar@pau.edu Abstract Sugarcane (Saccharum spp. complex) is an important cash crop of sugar industry. It is generally grown in tropics; however its productivity depends on the varieties cultivated from different maturity group, the agro-climatic conditions of the region and cultural practices followed. The subtropical region for sugarcane cultivation occupies about 50 per cent of the national area. So, present study was under taken to evaluate twelve elite sugarcane clones belonging to early maturity group under subtropical condition of India at Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Kapurthala, during 2013 in randomized block design in plot size of 36 m2 having three replications with an inter-row spacing of 75cm. The data were recorded on eight yield and quality traits viz. cane length (m), cane diameter (cm), single cane weight (kg), juice/cane (kg), juice extraction (%), brix (%) in juice, sucrose (%) in juice, Purity (%). The analysis of variance revealed significant differences among the clones for all the traits studied. The magnitudes of phenotypic variances were higher than genotypic variances for all the traits. Moderate to high heritability coupled with high genetic advance were recorded for juice/cane, juice extraction %, single cane weight, cane length and sucrose per cent. Positive and significant associations of juice/cane, juice extraction, brix per cent and sucrose per cent in juice were recorded with single cane weight. The mean performance of different clones for traits studied ranged, cane length (1.71 – 2.70m), cane diameter (2.12 – 2.73cm), single cane weight (0.99 – 1.69kg), juice/cane (0.50 – 1.05kg), Juice extraction (44.41 – 74.48%), brix (13.35 – 18.63%), pol (11.33 – 17.22%) and purity (83.01 – 91.13%). The characters with high heritability coupled with genetic advance and positive association with cane yield are advocated as selection criteria for yield improvement in sugarcane and identification of promising early maturing clones under subtropics conditions. Key Words: Sugarcane, genetic variability, heritability, selection indices and clones introduction Sugarcane (Saccharum spp. complex) is an important cash crop of India for sugar industry. It is generally grown in both tropics and sub-tropic regions, however its productivity depends on the varieties cultivated from different maturity groups, prevailing agro-climatic conditions of the region and other cultural practices to great extent. This species has C4 photosynthesis, resulting in a vigorous biomass accumulation under tropical conditions, but it is limited in temperate regions due low temperature during early growth period and at maturity. Sugarcane is responsible for ~70% raw table sugar production worldwide (Contreras et al., 2009). The subtropical region for sugarcane cultivation occupies about 50 per cent of the national area (5.06 m ha) with a productivity of 66.9 t/ha, cane yield of 338.9 million tons and sugar 25.0 million tons during 2012-2013 (Anonymous, 2013). It is clonally propagated via stem cuttings, facilitating the preservation of cultivar genetic identity in this crop. Sugarcane varieties in commercial cultivation are complex polyploid. The heterozygous and polyploid nature of this crop has resulted in generation of greater genetic variability. The extent of genetic variability present in any crop is of paramount importance for its improvement. The information on the nature and the magnitude of variability present in the genetic material is of prime importance for a breeder to initiate any effective selection program. Genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation along with heritability as well as genetic advance are very essential to improve any trait of sugarcane because this would help in knowing whether or not the desired objective can be achieved from the material (Tyagi and Singh, 1998). Since, cane yield is a complex trait the association of different traits with it would be an important criterion for the development of high yielding, high sugared and early maturing varieties in sugarcane. So, present study was under taken to assess the extent of genetic variability, heritability, genetic advance and selection indices based on the association studies of cane yield with some important traits of elite sugarcane clones under subtropical condition of India. materials and methods The experimental material for the present study consisted of 12 genotypes of sugarcane including two standard checks viz. CoJ 64 and CoJ 85 representing early maturing group. were evaluated under subtropical condition of India at Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Kapurthala, during 2013-14 in randomized block design in plot size of 31 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 36 m2 having three replications with an inter-row spacing of 75cm. The data were recorded on eight yield and quality traits viz. cane length (m), cane diameter (cm), single cane weight (kg), juice/cane (kg), juice extraction (%), brix (%) in juice, sucrose (%) in juice and purity (%).The data were statistically analyzed and analysis of variance was used for calculating genotypic, phenotypic and environmental characters. The broad sense heritability was estimated according to the method suggested by Johnson et al. (1955) and the expected genetic advance was calculated by the method given by Robinson et al. (1949). Further, mean values of different traits were used to work out the association studies following Steel and Torrie (1980). results and discussion The analysis of variance for all the characters showed that genotypes included in the test differed significantly (p 0.05) with respect to all characters studied. This indicates that there was significant amount of phenotypic variability and all the genotypes differ with regard to the characters that opened a way to proceed for further improvement through simple selection (Punia, 1982). Mean values for single cane yield varied between 0.99-1.69Kgs while cane length ranged from 1.71-2.70 m (Table 1). Likewise juice extraction percentage varied from 44.41-74.48 with an average of 62.37 per cent. A good range of juice quality parameters was recorded viz. brix (13.35 – 18.63%), pol (11.33 – 17.22%) and purity (83.01 – 91.13%) between clones at 10 month stage. Magnitudes of phenotypic variances were higher than genotypic variances for all the traits. The high phenotypic and genotypic coefficient of variation were observed for single cane weight (PCV = 18.29; GCV = 14.44%), juice per cane (PCV =21.23; GCV = 18.77%) and juice extraction (PCV =18.35; GCV = 15.77%). High genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation for a single cane weight were reported earlier by Singh and Sangwan (1980). After partitioning phenotypic variance, it was found that genotypic variance was higher than the environmental one for five characters studied. These results indicate that a negligible role was played by the environmental factors in the inheritance of these characters in sugarcane. The high genotypic variance for different traits in sugarcane has also been reported by other researchers (Balasundarum and Bhagyalakshmi, 1978; Nair et al., 1980). Genotypic coefficient of variation is not a correct measure to know the heritable variation present and should be considered together with heritability estimates. In the present study, high heritability estimates were recorded for pol per cent (79.85%), brix (78.08%) juice per cane (76.03%) and juice extraction (75.47%) (Table 1). This suggests that simple selection for these traits would be effective. Moderate heritabilities were recorded for single cane weight, cane length and purity per cent. Similar results were obtained by Sahi et al. (1977) for juice quality characters. Heritability estimates along with expected genetic gain is more useful than the heritability value alone in predicting the resultant effect for selecting the best genotypes (Johnson et al., 1955). Maximum genetic gain was observed for juice per cane (33.72%) followed by juice extraction (28.52%), single cane weight (23.50%) and pol percent (21.71%) indicating that there exists a scope to improve cane yield and quality traits to a considerable extent by adopting suitable breeding procedures. High genetic advance (as percent of mean) for single cane weight was also reported by Tyagi and Singh (1998). Stalk diameter had low heritability with moderate genetic advance. Pandey (1989) had earlier reported the low genetic advance with moderate amount of heritability for stalk diameter suggesting a little scope in the improvement of this character. In general, genotypic correlation coefficients were higher than their corresponding phenotypic correlation coefficients indicating a fairly strong inherent relationship among the traits. The lower estimates of phenotypic correlation indicated that the relationships were affected by environment at phenotypic level. Such environmental influence in reducing the correlation coefficients in rice was also reported by Chaudhary and Singh (1994). The correlation coefficient results (Table 2) indicated that the single cane yield was positively correlated with cane diameter (1.00), cane length (0.346) and juice per cane (0.566). The pol % and brix% and purity % were negatively correlated with single cane yield. It is concluded that the increase in cane yield was due to combined effect of length of stalk and stalk girth. According to Raman et al. (1985) height and cane girth were major yield contributing factors. Our results are in agreement with these workers as far as contribution of length of stalk and stalk girth to cane yield is concerned. The negative correlation of pol% with cane yield and positive correlation with sugar yield is one of the major constraints in the improvement of sugarcane (Table 2).For plant breeders, yield in crops is one of the most important and complex traits. Continued improvement of yield remains the top priority in most breeding programs (Cox et al., 1996). Brix% and cane yield in sugarcane depends on various growth and component traits, which is the final outcome of a combination of different yield components, such as cane girth, stalk number per stool, stalk weight and pol % (Olaoye, 1995). Many component analyses have been performed for complex traits based on morphological and physiological characterizations (Bull et al., 2000; Petrasovits et al., 2007). It could be more effective that yield components were selected to increase yield because of lower heritability for yield and higher heritability for yield components. However, yield is correlated with yield components in complicated ways. Therefore, it is imperative 32 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” to reveal the genetic relationship between yield and its component traits and their interaction to various environments. This study revealed that characters with high heritability coupled with genetic advance and positive association with cane yield are advocated as selection criteria while selection to be made for higher sugar and cane yield and early maturing clones in sugarcane genotypes under subtropics conditions. table 1: genetic variability parameters for different traits in sugarcane under subtropical conditions Traits Mean Range h² % GA PCV GCV Cane length (m) 2.35 1.71-2.70 56.65 15.99 13.70 10.31 Cane diameter (cm) 2.50 2.12-2.73 26.40 15.44 10.01 5.14 Single cane weight (kg) 1.30 0.99-1.69 62.39 23.50 18.29 14.44 Juice/cane (kg) 0.80 0.50-1.05 76.03 33.72 21.53 18.77 Juice extraction (%) 62.37 44.41-74.48 75.47 28.52 18.35 15.94 Brix (%) 16.75 13.35-18.63 78.08 17.53 10.90 9.63 Pol (%) 14.87 11.33-17.22 79.85 21.71 13.20 11.79 Purity (%) 88.08 83.09-91.13 54.26 3.89 3.48 2.56 Table 2: Phenotypic (above diagonal) and genotypic (below diagonal) correlation coefficients among different traits in sugarcane Traits Cane length Cane length Cane diameter 0.138 Cane diameter 0.346* Single cane weight 0.300 1.000** Juice/cane -0.361* 0.592** Single cane weight Juice/cane Juice Extraction Brix Pol Purity 0.186 -0.164 -0.376* -0.552** -0.545** -0.383* 0.315 0.117 -0.195 -0.100 0.028 0.030 0.566** -0.307 -0.201 -0.148 -0.117 0.593** 0.405* 0.454** 0.403* 0.573** Juice extraction -0.650** -0.343* -0.228 0.656** Brix -0.749** -0.144 -0.245 0.607** 0.875** 0.644** Pol -0.751** 0.016 -0.142 0.651** 0.836** 0.992** Purity -0.902** -0.208 -0.122 0.665** 0.867** 0.984** 0.633** 0.551** 0.954** 0.754** 0.843** 1.000** (Residual values at 5 % =0.334, 1 % = 0.430); * and ** significant at 0.05 and 0.01 level of significance) references Anonymous (2013) Annual Progress Report on Crop Improvement. All India Coordinated Research Project (Sugarcane). SBI, Lucknow, India Balasundarum N and KV Bhagyalkshmi 1978. Variability, heritability and association among yield and yield components in sugarcane. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 48:291-295. Bull T 2000. The Sugarcane Plant. In “Manual of cane growing”. (Eds.): M Hogarth & P Allsopp. Bureau of Sugar Experimental Stations, Indooroopilly, Australia. pp 71-83 Chaudhary PK and RP Singh 1994. Genetic variability, correlation and path analysis of yield components of rice. Madras Agric. J., 81(9): 468-470 Contreras AM, Rosa E, Pérez M, van Langenhove H and J Dewulf 2009. Comparative life cycle assessment of four alternatives for using by-products of cane sugar production. Journal of Cleaner Production, 17: 772-779. Cox MC, TA McRae, JK Bull and DM Hogarth 1996. Family selection improves the efficiency and effectiveness of a sugarcane improvement program. In: Sugarcane: Research towards Efficient and sustainable production, (Eds.): D.M. Hogarth, J.A. Campbell and A.L. Garside. pp. 287-290. Johnson HW, HF Robinson and RE Comstock 1955. Estimates of genetic and environmental variability in soybean. Agron. J. 47: 314-318. Nair NV, KG Somarajan and N Balasundaram 1980. Genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance in Saccharum officinarum. Int. Sugarcane J. XXX I I: 275-276. Olaoye G 1995. Evaluation of local sugarcane accession II determinants of cane yield and sucrose content. Nigeria Journal Genet. 10: 23-30. 33 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Pandey RA 1989. Variability study in the hybrid progenies of sugarcane (Saccharum complex). Bhartiya Sugar (Oct.):4951. Petrasovits LA, MP Purnell, LK Nielsen and SM Brumbley 2007. Production of poly hydroxy butyrate in sugarcane. Plant Biotechnology Journal 5: 162-172. Punia MS 1982. Studies on variability, heritability and genetic advance of some quality attributes in sugarcane. Indian Sugar 31:911-914. Raman K, SR Bhat and BK Tripathi 1985. Ratooning ability of sugarcane genotypes under late harvest conditions. Indian Sugar 35: 445-448 Robinson HF, RE Comstock and PH Harvey 1949. Estimates of heritability and degree of dominance in corn. Agron. J. 41:353-359. Sahi BK, SS Shah and KA Patel 1977. Variability in early varieties of sugarcane in plant and ratoon crops. Indian J. Genet. Plant. Breed. 37:496-500. Singh R and RS Sangwan 1980. Studies on genetic variability for stalk characters in sugarcane. Indian Sugar 30:409-412 Steel RGD and JH Torrie 1980. Principles and Procedures of Statistics. McGraw-Hill Book, New York. Tyagi SD and DN Singh 1998. Studies on genetic variability for stalk characters in sugarcane. Indian Sugar XL VIII:259262. 34 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-XI sensory evALuAtion of CArrot vegetABLe PrePAred from orgAniCALLy And inorgAniCALLy groWn CArrot *Bajpai Preeti and **Punia darshan Department of Foods & Nutrition, I.C. College of Home Science, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar *Bajpai Preeti, Research Scholar, Dept. of Foods and Nutrition, College of Home Science, MPUAT, Udaipur, Rajasthan -313001. Email.Id: preeti.preetibajpai@gmail.com ** Punia Darshan , Senior scientist, Department of Foods and Nutrition, I. C. College of Home Science, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar Abstract The present investigation was carried out with the objectives to study sensory characteristics of carrot grown under organic and inorganic conditions. Recipe i.e. carrot vegetable, prepared by using organically grown , inorganically grown and conventionally grown (procured from market) carrot were subjected to sensory evaluation by a panel of ten judges using 9-point hedonic scale The results of the study revealed significant differences for the sensory characteristics of carrot vegetables prepared from organically and inorganically grown vegetables Sensory evaluation of vegetable revealed that carrot vegetable prepared using organically grown vegetables scored better scores for some of the characteristics as compared to their inorganically and conventionally grown counterparts Key word: Vegetables, Nutritional evaluation, Organic, Inorganic, Conventional. introduction Organic agriculture is a unique production management system which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity. Organic agriculture excludes the use of synthetic pesticides, conventional fertilizers, pharmaceuticals and by definition excludes genetically modified plants and animals (Roitner-Schobesberger, et. al., 2008). Public interest is increasingly focusing on the problem of the quality of foods because of people’s growing awareness of health and the environment. Organic food products with high nutritive value and without chemicals (with potential carcinogenic and mutagenic properties) are being increasingly preferred over conventional agro products, which are cultivated using insecticides, pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Survey indicates that consumers purchase organic produce because of the belief that they are more nutritious than conventionally grown foods (Winter and Davis, 2006). Fresh organic foods are even more nutritious because of higher percentage of vitamins and minerals. Most importantly, fresh organic foods are free from any kind of chemical residues .On an average, organic food contain higher level of Vitamin C and essential minerals such as calcium, magnesium, iron and chromium. Organic spinach, lettuce, cabbage and potatoes contain particularly high levels of minerals (Worthington 2001). Numerous studies confirm that many people believe that organic foods are healthier and safer than inorganically produced foods and are produced in a more environmentally compatible manner (Rembialkowska, 2007; Roitner-Schobesberger, et. al., 2008). Although the interest in the organically grown foods has been on increase, there have not been substantial studies to substantiate convincingly that organically grown foods are nutritionally superior to their inorganically grown counterparts. Owing to the nutritional importance of vegetables in our diet and increasing concern toward health and organic farming of people’s it becomes important to evaluate the nutrient composition of vegetables grown under organic and inorganic conditions. The present investigation tried to determine the sensory characteristics of carrot grown under organic and inorganic conditions. materials and methods procurement of samples The samples of carrot vegetable grown organically and inorganically were procured from Domestic Farm, College of Home Science, Chaudhry Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. The vegetable above mentioned was also procured from the local market for comparative study which served as conventionally grown sample. 35 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” product development and sensory evaluation The recipe i.e. carrot vegetable prepared by using organically grown , inorganically grown and conventionally grown carrot vegetable was subjected to sensory evaluation by a panel of ten judges using 9-point hedonic scale where: 1 = dislike extremely, 2 = Dislike very much, 3 = Dislike moderately, 4 = Dislike slightly, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 6 = Like slightly, 7 = Like moderately, 8 = Like very much and 9 = like extremely. Panelists were asked to comment on liking of color, texture, flavor and overall acceptability in morning time. results and discussions The data presented in Table 1 and Fig. 1 depicted that carrot vegetable prepared from organically grown carrot was liked very much in terms of all sensory parameters, including color, appearance, aroma, texture, taste and overall acceptability. However vegetable prepared from inorganically and conventionally grown carrot were ‘liked moderately’ in terms of all sensory attributes. Carrot vegetable prepared from organically grown carrot was found superior in terms of its color, appearance, aroma, texture, taste and overall acceptability as compared to carrot vegetable, prepared from inorganically and conventional grown carrot. table 1 sensory characteristics of Carrot vegetable Conditions Color Appearance Aroma Texture Taste Overall Acceptability Organic 8.40 ± 0.22 8.20 ± 0.25 8.30 ± 0.16 81.00 ± 0.28 8.20 ± 0.25 8.24 ± 0.09 Inorganic 7.60 ± 0.16 7.50 ± 0.17 7.40 ± 0.16 74.00 ± 0.16 7.50 ± 0.17 7.48 ± 0.04 Conventional 7.60 ± 0.16 7.60 ± 0.22 7.60 ± 0.16 74.00 ± 0.28 7.30 ± 0.15 7.50 ± 0.07 CD(P≤0.05) 0.53 0.62 0.58 0.7 0.56 0.2 Values are mean ± SE of ten independent determinations Rembialkowska, 2007 found better scores for the taste and other organoleptic attributes of the organically grown carrots. Better total flavor strength, sweet taste in organically grown carrot was reported by Hogstad, et al., 1997. Soups made from organic fertilized okra were judged more acceptable (Taiwo, et al., 2002). Organically grown tomatoes were perceived by the panelist to be superior for their taste, texture and flavor as compared to inorganically grown (McCollum et al., 2005 and Heeb, et.al., 2004). Shankaro and Sumathi, 2008 reported similar findings for tomato puree made from organically grown and inorganically grown tomatoes. Conclusion The mean scores of carrot vegetable made from organically grown were higher for color (8.4), appearance (8.2), aroma (8.3), texture (8.1) and overall acceptability (8.24) carrot as compared to their inorganic (7.60, 7.40, 7.40, 7.50 and 7.48, respectively) and conventional (7.60, 7.60, 7.40, 7.30 and 7.50, respectively) counterparts. People should be encouraged to consume organically grown vegetables as they have better consumer acceptability. 36 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” references Heeb, A., Lundegardh, B., Ericsson, T. and Savage, G. P. 2004. Nitrogen form affects yield and taste of tomatoes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 85(8): 1405-1414. Hogstad, S., Risvik, E., and Steinsholt, K. 1997. Sensory quality and chemical composition in carrots: a multivariate study. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, 47: 53-264. McCollum, T. G., Chellemi, D. O., Rosskopf, E. N., Church, G. T. and Plotto, A. 2005. Postharvest quality of tomatoes produced in organic and conventional production systems. Hort. Science, 40(4): 959-963. Rembialkowska, E. 2007. Quality of plant products from organic agriculture. J. Sci .Food Agri., 87: 2757-2762. Roitner-Schobesberger, B., Darnhofer, I., Somsook, S. and Vogl, C. 2008. Consumer perceptions of organic foods in Bangkok, Thailand. Food Policy., 33:112–121. Shankaro, K. and Sumathi, S. 2008. Effect of organic farming on nutritional profile of selected vegetable crops. Karnataka J. Agric. Sci., 20 (3):586-588. Taiwo, L. B., Adediran, J. A., Ashaye, O. A., Odofin, O. F., and Oyadoyin, A. J. 2002. Organic okro (Abelmoschus esculentus): its growth, yield and organoleptic properties. Nutrition & Food Science, 32(5): 180-183. Winter, C. K. and Devis, S. F. 2006. Organic foods. J. Sci. Food Agri. 71: 117-124 Worthington, V. 2001. Nutritional quality of organic versus conventional fruits, vegetables and grains. J. Alt. Compl. Med., 7(2):161–173. 37 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” AO-XII identifiCAtion of stem rust resistAnCe genes in eLite BreAd WheAt genotyPes manoj saini*, sK singh, P sharma, v tiwari and indu sharma Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal-132001, India saini.manoj2@gmail.com, introduction Stem rust, caused by Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici, is one among the major diseases of wheat that causes significant losses to wheat productivity worldwide. Some of the new races of P. graminis f. sp. tritici including Ug99 (TTKS) and their variants are pose potential threats to wheat production. Stem rust epidemics have resulted in as much as 50% yield losses whereas yield losses due to Ug99, alone estimated as high as 90% (Beard et al., 2006). To date, more than 50 stem rust resistance genes have been reported in wheat and its wild relatives. Pyramiding two or more rust resistance genes, irrespective of whether they are major or minor, with different modes of action can greatly delay or even prevent the breakdown of resistance. In India, Central, Peninsular and Southern hill zones are particular prone to stem rust, where environmental conditions are conducive. The availability of specific molecular markers tightly linked to respective resistance genes makes the detection of multiple genes in a genotype possible. Such molecular markers are being exploited for efficient marker-assisted selection (MAS) in breeding strategy to speed up the selection of desirable genotypes carrying two or more resistance genes. Key words: Stem rust resistance genes (Sr), Simple sequence repeats (SSR), Wheat objective To detect stem rust resistance genes in elite bread wheat genotypes using molecular markers for their further utilization. materials and methods Young leave of 119 bread wheat genotypes grown in the field of warmer area wheat breeding programme at Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal were undertaken in this study. Genomic DNA was isolated from seedlings using CTAB protocol (Doyle and Doyle, 1990) and PCR reaction followed by as per Liu et al (2010). All the wheat lines were screened with seven DNA markers (SSR/Stm/SCAR) to track the presence/absence of stem rust (Sr) resistance genes namely, Sr2, Sr22, Sr24, Sr25, Sr36, Sr38 and Sr39. results and discussion Seven diagnostic DNA markers were screened out to detect the presence of Sr genes in 119 bread wheat lines. Markers Xgwm533, CFA2019, Gb, and Stm773, gave reproducible results as that of Ejaz et al, 2012, whereas Sr24#12, Sr38# and Sr39#22 failed to amplify any fragments. SSR marker, Xgwm533 was used to detect presence of Sr2 gene and a diagnostic band ~ 120bp (Yu et al, 2010) was obtained in only 95 lines (79.83%), whereas 14 lines showed 140 bp non-diagnostics amplicon. Rest of the 10 lines did not yielded any fragment. SSR marker CFA2019 (Sr22) gave amplicon of 235bp in 13 lines (10.92%), whereas 84 genotypes resulted non diagnostic fragments of 200bp and 215bp. The presence of Sr25 was determined using marker Gb that produced a 130bp diagnostic fragment only in 6 elite lines (5.04%), while rest of the lines did not showed any amplicon. The DNA marker Stm773 for Sr36, produced ~185bp diagnostic fragment in 78 lines (63.86%), whereas 38 genotypes amplified 200bp of non diagnostic amplicon and 3 elite lines did not amplify any amplicon. Ten out of 119 lines of wheat showed presence of three Sr genes vit., Sr2, Sr22 and Sr36 whereas 62 lines showed presence of two Sr genes in combination. On the other hand, eight lines (RAJ3077, RAJ4248, K1010, 40thIBWSN1064, 27thESWYT116, 27thESWYT171, 27thESWYT115 and 25thSAWSN3131) did not show presence of any Sr genes that were amplified. After breakdown of Sr36, other genes namely Sr2, Sr22 and Sr25 remains effective for resistance against race Ug99 (Singh et al., 2011). Presence of these genes in isolation or in combination can be exploited in incorporating stem rust resistance in future wheat genotypes. In this regard, nine genotypes (GW366, PBW175, WH147, GW428, 21stSAWSN159, PHS719, 25thSAWSN3041, 25thSAWSN3117 and 40th IBWSN 1068) possessing Sr2+Sr22 and four genotypes (MP1250, 25thSAWSN3008, 25thSAWSN33178 and 15thHRWYT205) having Sr2+Sr25 were found promising. 38 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Conclusion The genotypes possessing effective Sr genes (Sr2/Sr22/Sr25) could be exploited for development of wheat genotypes for warmer areas of the country. As most of the promising genotypes identified for presence of these genes in the study were suitable for the targeted areas, they can be efficiently utilized in breeding programmes with integration of marker assisted selection for enhanced wheat productivity coupled with disease resistance. However, the molecular information of Sr genes need to be supplemental with morphological data. references Beard C, Jayasena K, Thomas G, and Loughman R (2006). Managing stem rust of wheat. Plant Pathology, Department of Agriculture, Western Australia. No.73/2004. Doyle JJ, Doyle JL (1990) Isolation of plant DNA from fresh tissue. Focus, 12: 13-15 Ejaz M, Iqbal M, Shahzad A, RehmanAU, Ahmed I and Ali GM (2012) Genetic Variation for Markers Linked to Stem Rust Resistance Genes in Pakistani Wheat Varieties. Crop Science; doi: 10.2135/cropsci2012.01.0040 Liu S, Yu L-X, Singh RP, Jin Y, Sorrells ME, Anderson A (2010) Diagnostic and co-dominant PCR markers for wheat stem rust resistance genes Sr25 and Sr26. Theor Appl Genet 120:691-697 Singh RP, Hodson DP, Huerta-Espino J, Yue Jin, Bhavani S, Njau P, Herrera-Foessel S, Singh PK, Singh S and Govindan V. (2011). The Emergence of Ug99 races of the stem rust fungus is a threat to world wheat production. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 2011. 49:465–481 Yu L-X, Liu S, Anderson JA, Singh RP, Jin Y, Dubcovsky J, Brown-Guidera G, Bhavani S, Morgounov A, He Z, HuertaEspino J and Sorrells ME (2010). Haplotype diversity of stem rust resistance loci in uncharacterized wheat lines. Mol Breeding, 26:667–680 39 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 40 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-I PLAnt diseAse mAnAgement: innovAtive And modern APProAChes Jagtar singh dhiman Additional Director Research (Natural Resource and Plant Health Management) Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004 introduction Plant diseases are known to inflict considerable economic losses. Minimizing avoidable losses is one way of enhancing crop production. Important pathogens causing crop losses in the farm, gardens and orchards include fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes. In addition to that post-harvest pathogens account for huge loss (20-40%), the magnitude being higher in tropical countries. Overall, the pre-harvest losses, post-harvest deterioration and quality impairment turn out to be critical impediment to production, especially in resource poor regions. Sometimes the outbreak of pests and diseases may lead to complete crop failures. Actually, the management of diseases(and pests) has paid great dividend in sustaining crop productivity. Use of chemical pesticides is the common option. The agro-pesticide market worth about Rs 400 crore is concentrated in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Punjab, accounting for more than 75% of sale for use in cotton, paddy, jowar and wheat crops. These four major crops consume nearly 80% of the pesticides sold in India while fruits and vegetables account for nearly 10%. However, indiscriminate use of pesticides has created lot of environmental problems. The use of pesticides has become a social, economic and environmental concern in agriculture and more so in horticulture and will continue to be a target of public debate worldwide. Efforts are required to provide eco-friendly protection of plants and crops from diseases, pests, and abiotic problems, for increased yield of quality produce thereby increasing profitability and its availability to growers and consumers. Rapid and accurate diagnosis of plant diseases, and prudent application of appropriate control treatments are needed to reduce pesticides load on crops and, through that, to our environment, soil and water, locally and worldwide. This paper highlights some innovative approaches in crop health protection. some innovative disease management frontiers The challenge of developing environmentally sound, socially acceptable and economically viable sustainable methods for disease management must be met by using an ecosystems approach to unravel the biotic as well as abiotic interactions taking place in agriculture. Use of certified disease-free planting material Use of certified disease-free seeds and planting material of desirable quality is one of the primary means for achieving disease control. If seed and soil are made pathogen-free and entry of inoculum in the field or orchard is prevented, we can get rid of plant disease. Many plant pathogens are transmitted through propagating material or as contaminants with the seed. Fusarial wilt or ‘Panama disease’ of banana caused by Fusarium oxysporum f sp. cubense is disseminated with new rhizomes and suckers formed on the old rhizome, which serves to propagate the crop. For an effective disease management, this source of primary inoculum must be destroyed. Presence of degenerative viral diseases in potato progressively reduces the yield, if farmers use the same seed stock every year. The climate of hilly regions along the Himalayas (above 2300 m above msl) in India provides the needed conditions like intermittent rain, wind, high humidity, low temperature and good exposure that suppresses the build-up of viral diseases due to low vector (aphid) population. Sero-indexing for freedom from viruses, periodic rouging, timely sprays of insecticides and fungicides combined with dehaulming permits production of high quality disease-free tubers. A sound programme of indexing using immunodiagnostic and bio-chemical techniques must be made mandatory for bud-wood certification and production of production of virus-free planting material in horticultural crops like citrus for distribution among growers and nurserymen. In addition to producing disease-free seed and propagating material, it can be made pathogen-free by chemical or physical treatments. The shifting of seed production programmes to areas with weather unfavorable to development of seed–borne diseases may be useful. For example, control of seed-borne diseases favored by wet climate can be achieved by raising the seed crops in dry areas. Restricting seed production programs of wheat free from Karnal bunt (Tilletia indica) in dry areas and practice of seed treatment with recommended fungicides for 4-5 years are advantageous. 41 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” The Seed Plot Technique (SPT) for producing virus-free potato seed tubers envisages raising a healthy seed crop of potato during the period of low aphid incidence. Experience has shown that the use of certified material help to delay the onset of diseases thus ensuring the establishment of the plantation in the initial crucial years. Without certification quality and quantity of the crop would eventually drop below gainful levels. In view of the globalization of agribusiness under the aegis of the WTO, the importance of certification of seeds and propagation material has further increased with a commitment to produce true- to- type planting material of assured quality. use of disease resistant genotypes Disease resistant varieties, if available, are by far the most economical and practical method of disease management. Plant breeders all over the world are making efforts to protect crops from yield losses due to biotic and abiotic stresses through the introduction and development of varieties using resistance genes from diverse sources. This strategy can fit well within the framework of integrated pest management (IPM). The components of this approach include use of naturally resistant varieties, transgenic varieties, release of sterile plants to prevent reproduction, etc. The biotechnological and molecular biological techniques are a useful support to developing disease resistant varieties through conventional breeding. There are practical cases where development and popularization of resistant varieties (e.g., wheat varieties resistant to leaf and yellow rusts in North-Western India) have led to minimizing the recurrence of diseases in a region. The molecular plant pathology has grown a great deal in recent times. The cloning of genes coding for avirulence, disease resistance, PR proteins, antifungal proteins, toxic secondary metabolites, rate limiting enzymes, controlling oxidative burst, cysteine-rich thionins have offered opportunities for designing strategies to confer resistance to a wide variety of fungal pathogens of crops. In rice, Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) has been used for developing varieties resistant to the prevalent pathotypes of bacterial leaf blight (e.g., Punjab Basmati 3 is developed using MAS). There are a host of novel genes that are being cloned and would be available for evaluation in near future. Expression of these genes singly or in association holds great promise for disease resistance in crop plants. Avoiding monoculture of susceptible genotypes The avoidance of rotation accounts for monoculture of crops. Crop continuity (monoculture), is the highly developed form of crop husbandry. On short-term basis, monoculture often results in the modification of the field environment, which may alter the spread and severity of attack by pathogens. On long-term basis, it modifies the genetic basis of the crop thereby changing the disease resistance of the crop. The latter impact is usually noticed in field crops, where monoculture had been in practice for a long time. Genetically uniform monoculture farming is always risky because of the selective pressure it puts on the parasite to adapt to the genetic makeup of the host. This practice of monoculture poses a grave danger of the outbreak of a particular disease that may lead to serious impact in terms of a possible wipeout of the crop. Continuous monoculture of genetically similar plants select efficiently for the pathogens that are well adapted to the host genotype. It provides the pathogen with a substrate that is continuous both spatially (area-wise) and temporally (time-wise). This may also tends to select soil-borne pathogens well adapted to an annual crop grown in monoculture. Holistic management of pests and diseases A number of insects such as hoppers, aphids and white flies transmit the viruses from diseased to healthy plants. Some viruses become persistent in the vectors. Vectors per se may not be serious pests but at low population are enough to spread the viral disease in the field. For the management of such diseases the control of insect vectors is an important requirement. Prior attack of insects like citrus psylla, leaf miner, stem-fly, white/black flies and nematodes like Meloidogyne incongnita play an important role in encouraging the diseases like citrus greening, citrus canker, wilt in early sown peas, sooty mould in citrus and mango, and wilt in tomato and crown gall of stone fruits, respectively. The disease management in such cases will require a holistic approach towards the control of both the pest involved and the disease in question. Biological control Biological control of plant diseases now has a creditable place among the available plant disease management options. It makes use of natural process to minimize damage to plants caused by the incident disease. The group of organisms and their biological products, which are used to achieve bio control, are referred to as Bio Control Agents (BCAs). The term biological control is sometimes used to convey alternative methods to the use of synthetic chemicals to protect plants. Biological control is defined broadly as the “use of natural or modified organisms, genes, or gene products” to reduce the effects of pests and diseases. It aims at protecting, enhancing and releasing pathogen’s natural enemies. Good control has been achieved against the soil-borne pathogens like Pythium species, Sclerotium rolfsii, Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum which are potential pathogens causing root-rots, damping-off, seedling rots etc. in a variety of crops, by using bio control fungi such as Trichoderma harzianum , T. viride and Gliocladium virens, etc. 42 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Application of these bio-control agents as seed dressers or to soil with or without organic substrate suppresses these soilborne diseases and increase yield. A number of fungi hold promise for the control of nematode pests as well. Formulation of T. harzianum has been recommended for controlling foot rot of rice, Phytophthora gummosis in citrus and many more diseases. A range of fungal pathogens and insects are specific to weeds occurring in the cultivated field. There is a great potential for exploiting these organisms to obtain non-chemical suppression of weeds. Some weeds harboring pathogens can be suppressed in this manner. A range of biocontrol products is now available for practical use in plant disease management. physical methods Physical measures of plant disease control are eco-friendly and effective in the case of a number of plant diseases such as fusarial corm rot and wilt of gladiolus. Some of these techniques reduce the amount of initial inoculum while others restrict the disease inciting potential of pathogens. Techniques like steam sterilization of soil are widely common in use while others, such as flooding and solar heating are location specific and thus find restricted adoption in locations where topography, climate and crop production programs suit them. Disease forecasting for need-based chemical sprays For giving timely warning to the farmers, regarding the possibility or otherwise of the occurrence and severity of an epidemic under a prevailing set of environmental conditions such interaction-based system can be useful. The establishment of an effective forecasting system requires coordinated efforts of crop epidemiologists, extension services, communication media (print as well as electronic) and both public and private organizations. In the present age of software technology, if the threshold level of economically important pathogens can be predicted using statistical and computer models, timely action can be taken to curtail losses. The identification of bio-climatic norms favorable for the outbreak of infections can help decision-making regarding the exercise of timely and appropriate control strategies. Crop modeling studies on crops like wheat, rice, and groundnut, etc. have helped to predict their behavior in the changing agro-climates. Weather based prediction models developed for apple scab, Karnal bunt of wheat, late blight of potato, leaf spot of groundnut, etc. have been useful for taking up control measures. Recently, decision support systems based on weather-pathogen-host relationship have been worked out for late blight of potato, apple scab and other air-borne weather sensitive diseases. Cultural adjustments Agricultural soils harbour wide ranging organisms including the pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and nematodes which establish and remain there for years. One of the best ways to discourage pathogens will be to plant disease-free seeds in healthy soil to obtain a healthy crop stand. The cultural approaches such as erection of barriers, crop rotation, cover cropping, improved crop residue management, better water management and changing the ecological landscaping in disfavor of the pathogen have been found to reduce the disease in a variety of host-pathogen systems. Cultural adjustments help in the avoidance of pests/diseases through modifying the microclimate. There are several instances to show that organic amendments reduce the severity of many soil-borne diseases. Cultural control can be integrated with other means of disease control. Early spring potatoes may readily multiply inoculum of Phytophthora infestans and Alternaria solani (causing late and early blight, respectively) to bring earlier and more severe attacks of subsequently sown potatoes. The familiar example is the elimination of potato culls from which late blight often begins spreading. Sanitation around factories that process farm produce, such as cotton gins, sugarcane and fruits and vegetables is equally important. The elimination of alternate/collateral hosts, which serve as reservoir of inoculum of the pathogens, also aids in suppression of disease development. The practice of clean cultivation is useful in keeping diseases under check e.g. red rot of sugarcane and fusarial wilt of banana. In the latter, the plants are propagated through sword suckers. If the parent rhizome contains pathogen it can disseminate through suckers. Thus it is important that suckers from diseased plants should not be used for propagation and the suckers if found to carry the pathogen, may be subjected to suitable treatments before planting. Botanicals and their formulations In recent years a number of pesticide formulations having plant products of neem, pongamia, datura, etc. have been developed. These products are ecologically safe and can be explored to control diseases. Trunk injection with some homeopathic formulations like extracts of Thuja, Cedron, Sorghum, etc. have shown efficacy against virus/virus like diseases e.g. citrus greening and cowpea mosaic. It is time to bring in quality and registration requirements for these products as well. 43 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” triggering pathogen tolerance in host plants On many occasions resistance sources and disease control chemicals are not doing well in managing diseases due to one or the other reason. This calls for search for innovative eco-friendly alternative options. Among the new alternatives, disease resistance inducers have been proven to be effective in the laboratory and in field. When applied to healthy plants, these disease resistance elicitors make them resistant to subsequent infection with pathogens. In many cases, induced resistance through the use of either abiotic or biotic elicitors has been demonstrated. These induce a localized (ILR) or systemic resistance (ISR) in susceptible plants, which become resistant to later infections. Depending upon their efficacy, these compounds can be used in fields either alone or in combination with fungicides. These compounds are used in low doses, have no direct action on pathogens and are able to induce resistance in plants. The efficacy of these disease resistance inducers has been demonstrated in the laboratory and in few cases under field conditions. When applied on non-diseased plants, these elicitors provoke resistance response and the treated plants become resistant to succeeding infections with pathogenic isolates. Reports revealing induction of resistance in plants by prior exposure to some nonpathogenic or avirulent fungal isolates to a subsequent infection with virulent isolates are accumulating. This type of resistance has been referred to as induced resistance. In fact this is analogous to the cross protection phenomenon reported in case of viral infection of plants. Inducing agents comprise pathogens, bio control agents, certain type of composts, and plant activating compounds. Activation of systemically acquired resistance (SAR) is a mechanism whereby plant cells can be stimulated to trigger their defense to fight invasion by plant pathogens. This process can be termed as ‘plant immunization’ that is comparable to immunization against pathogens in mammals. The basic philosophy of treating the plants with activating agents to stimulate plant defense response that forms chemical or physical barriers that are used by the plant to ward off diseases. markers of induced resistance in plants Many studies have revealed that pathogenesis related (PR) proteins serve as good markers of plants exhibiting IR. No matter, individual PR proteins are not universally involved in plant resistance to pathogens; some of these have been recognized to contribute to resistance in some host pathogen systems. Obviously, there is a signaling system that carries information to distant parts of the plant, but the nature of the signal is unknown. There are considerable academic and realistic implications. According to some workers DL- b- amino-n-butanoic acid (BABA) induced resistance in many plant species against oomycetes, fungal, bacterial, viral and nematodal diseases. In the case of BABA, some reports have shown that PR proteins were induced in tomato and tobacco. In tomato, the PR proteins were strongly induced by a foliar or root application of BABA . In tobacco the PR proteins were induced by a foliar spray but not by stem injection or root application. In cauliflower seedlings, BABA, however, did not induce accumulation of the pathogenesis-related proteins (PR-1, PR-2, PR-3, PR-5 and PR-9); only the treated and challenged seedlings accumulated PR-2 . In tobacco plants treated with BABA accumulation of PR-1 was noticed. Crop protection by resistance inducers like BTH has been described to be connected with activation of defense genes as indicated by PR proteins and phenolic compounds as well as b- glucoside residues. This has been observed in crucifers that have glucosinolates, which have a bearing on crop quality and are considered to be accountable for disease resistance. These glucosinolates break down to release isothiocyanates that may be the forerunners of phytoalexins. Phytoalexins are responsible for disease resistance in a number of cases. It would be important to explore the action of resistance inducers like BTH on the buildup of these products. These studies indicate that induced resistance can be activated in plants of susceptible plants by pre-inoculating them with avirulent isolates/strains of the pathogen. Disease reduction varies according to the isolates used as resistance inducers or for the challenge. Reduction(42-70%) in the incidence of downy mildew (Peronospora parasitica) in susceptible broccoli accession has been reported which persisted for 15 days, and its level did not depend upon spore load of the inoculum used. This innovative area of plant disease management seems to hold promise especially for short duration crops such as vegetables. Among the abiotic compounds, salicylic acid is the most widely known, and it was found to induce resistance in many plants to fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens. The identification and use of disease resistance elicitors of either biotic or abiotic origin, is an environmentally friendly alternative to the use of disease control chemicals. Among the abiotic elicitors salicylic acid, 2-6, isonicotonic acid (INA) and benzothiadiazole (BTH) are well known to induce systemic acquired resistance in many pathosystems. Phosphonates or potassium salts including KH2PO4, K2HPO4, K2SO4, KOH, NH4H2PO4, H3PO4 etc. are also reported to act as resistance inducers. In several cases these compounds have shown resistance induction 44 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” under small experiments. If confirmed in field tests, these may prove useful for growers in controlling diseases by either using the compound alone or integrating it in a new IPM strategy combining resistance genes, need-based use of disease control chemicals and fitting agronomic practices. Integration of treatments to maintain plant health The combination of resistance genes, need-based amount of fungicides and appropriate agronomic practices can fit into integrated pest management (IPM) program. The use of plant defense inducers can have useful role in this direction. The experience revealed that SAR activation in the majority crops is best used in amalgamation with other methods of disease control, including genetic disease resistance and good crop management that can provide added diminution of the disease pressure. Wherever less resistant cultivars are preferred for yield, quality, or agronomic reasons, resistance activators can encourage the plants to better defend themselves against some pathogens. Against other pathogens and where the level of genetic and activated resistance is not sufficient, fungicides or, where available, biological products can help assure healthy crops and high produce or food quality. In some cases, mixtures of activators with reduced rates of appropriate fungicides have given excellent disease control, with the fungicide providing curative and short-term protection and activated resistance providing long-term protection. In other cases, activators can lower the fungicide load during the crop season, thereby reducing the selection pressure for resistance against selective fungicides. Little information is available for the integration of biological disease control methods with induced resistance and with fungicides, except for copper and sulphur. enforcement of quarantine Pathogens know no geographic boundaries as they can freely enter from one country to the other by their air-borne inoculum or through their dispersal along with plant material or other means. To resist their entry from one region or country to the other exercise of quarantine measures is required. In earlier years, many countries did not have effective plant quarantine systems to stop the introduction of exotic pests, diseases and weeds. Therefore, a number of diseases and pests could enter different countries from abroad. Every government has an important mandate to take care of the health of its crop wealth and animals in addition to its people. Several countries have well-established public health organizations that are responsible to enforce animal and human quarantine. Many countries have enacted laws concerned with initiating steps to prevent the introduction of exotic insect pests, weeds and plant diseases. These laws are, however, quite old and need to be upgraded. Application of biotechnology During the last decade new bio technological methods have been developed that are revolutionizing the crop improvement efforts to achieve improvements in both quality and quantity. Plant biotechnology complements crop improvement efforts by increasing diversity of genes and germplasm available for incorporation into crops. With developments of molecular biology techniques plant breeders can take advantage of host plant resistance for efficiently and economically managing the major diseases in different crops. Advances in cellular and molecular biology techniques are useful to get a hold of the desirable gene sources and to incorporate them into desired background. Through biotechnological techniques plant can be genetically modified through manipulating its own genes and also by introducing genes from taxonomically unrelated plants and other organisms, such as fungi, viruses and even animals. traditional biotechnology covers well established and widely used technologies based on the commercial use of living organisms. modern biotechnology encompasses the use of more recently developed skills; particularly those based on the use of recombinant DNA technology, monoclonal antibodies, novel cell and tissue culture techniques including new bioprocess. recombinant DnA technology is a series of enabling techniques for genetic engineering that allows the manipulation of DNA, the vital genetic material in the cells. Monoclonal antibodies are specific diagnostic tools that allow rapid detection of individual proteins produced by the cells. Recent progress in cell and tissue culture allow rapid propagation of living cells. Basically, genetic engineering involves the shift of genetic material, the DNA, from a cell of one species (donor cell) to another unrelated one (recipient cell), wherein it can be made to express itself. The newly formed DNA in the recipient cells contains its own naturally occurring genes as well as the new gene. The new recombinant DNA is inserted into the chromosomes of a transgenic plant. The recipient cells are transformed with the new genetic information. The probable applications of new biotechnologies to crop production in the developing world are: New diagnostics, which could be made readily available and used in many countries, Plant disease resistance by genetic engineering of the host plant, New biocontrol agents for disease and pest control , to reduce pesticide use, etc. 45 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cellular approaches Breeding for disease resistance is a long time endeavor. Evolution of new virulence in the pathogen makes this approach tough. The application of cell and molecular techniques impart rapidity and precision in breeding varieties with enhanced disease resistance. Tissue culture technology has made it possible to culture and regenerate whole plants from cells, protoplasts and tissue in vitro in a medium containing carbon source, mineral growth factors and growth regulators. The tissue culture techniques are helpful in plant breeding in terms of :Transfer of resistance genes from distantly related species through widehybridization- embryo rescue and protoplast fusion; Generation of new genetic variation through somaclonal variation; Ability to handle myriads of cells, cellular selection of rare and valuable genotypes and capability to regenerate the desired ones; Production of haploid cells enabling easy detection of recessive genes/ mutations for resistance; Freedom from the effects of environment, that facilitates quantitifying differences in polygenically inherited resistance, etc. screening under micro propagation system It refers to propagation in laboratory rather than in greenhouse or a nursery. The successful examples include, high value ornamentals, chrysanthemum, rose, gladiolus, carnation, papaya, strawberry etc., and other crops like banana, cardamom and black pepper,etc. It is also used for germplasm maintenance of vegetatively propagated species and for the exchange of virus-free material. While carrying out micro propagation the tissue can be screened for resistance against the pathogens by co-culturing with the pathogen or by growing on media incorporated with its culture filtrate for identifying resistant tissue. tissue culture and virus elimination The factors such as the presence of portion free of infection even in infected plants, the phenomenon of uneven distribution of virus in host tissue and toti-potency of plant cells, have been advantageously used to obtain production of virus free plants through tissue culture. The observation that in infected plants, the virus concentration decreased towards the meristem (growing point) led to the regeneration of healthy plants from infected dahlias. Meristem tip culture(MTC) has been widely used for vegetative propagation, clonal multiplication and production of virus free plants in economically important species such as cassava, potato, citrus, sweet potato and yam. The success of freeing the food crops from systemic viral infection by meristem culture is, however, very limited. Efforts need to be made in this direction, especially for tropical food crops. The MTC is commonly used for elimination of viruses from plants. The fact that some viruses are more difficult to eliminate than others has led to the use of thermotherapy and chemotherapy , along with MTC, to improve the efficacy of disease elimination. The MTC has greatly facilitated the international distribution of vegetative materials because shipment in this form circumvents most quarantine restrictions. Through MTC, virus free clones have been regenerated from a wide range of economically important crops. Wide hybridization The foremost aim of wide hybridization in crop improvement is the introgression of new genetic variation of economic significance from wild species. Wild species are a potential source for disease resistance in a number of cases. A number of interspecific (wild) hybrids have been achieved e.g., barley x secale, Lycopersicum species x Solanum species, Cucurbit x cucurbit. Similarly, interspecific hybrids in legume species obtained through embryo and ovule culture between naturally compatible species have been obtained. There are many examples showing the incorporation of resistance in cultivated cultivars from the wild species. Although quite an old approach, embryo rescue technique has been used for transferring useful genes from distantly related species and genera to a wide variety of crop varieties. Thus efforts should be made in collecting and screening wild species and ecotypes of most important crops in view of the fact that where systematic analyses have been carried out many useful traits have been found. Desirable disease resistance traits have been identified in various crops including tomato and Phaseolus species. There are many cases of useful disease resistance traits transferred from wild species to cultivated ones. Generation of variability Search for resistance donors is an important activity of plant breeders. The success largely depends on the range of genetic variability either occurring in nature or induced artificially. During the process of tissue and cell culture frequent genetic changes take place, which are also manifested as heritable variations among the regenerants. The variation observed among the regenerated plants is either somaclonal variation or tissue culture induced instability. In vitro selection for disease resistance Many attempts have been made for breeding through in vitro screening for disease resistance. To isolate specific cells from among a population a suitable selection agent is desirable. The selection procedure requires that the agent either kills the cell or retards its growth so that the resistant cells can out grow. The pathogen itself can be a selection agent through this method. 46 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” The other innovative approach involves the addition of pathogen metabolites (toxins purified or culture filtrate) to the media as selection agents. It is possible to isolate resistant cells from which resistant plants can be regenerated later. A positive correlation between pathotoxin resistance expressed in cell cultures and level of resistance in the plants has been demonstrated. Using any of these strategies plants resistant to various pathogens have been regenerated in different crops. The plants where in vitro selection has been useful are tobacco (against Phytophthora, Pseudomonas, Alternaria spp.), potato (against Phytophthora, Fusarium spp.), rapeseed (against Phoma sp.), soybean (against Phytophthora sp.), maize (against Helminthosporium sp.), oats (against Helminthosporium sp.) and tomato (against Alternaira solani). molecular approaches for disease resistance Advances in the development of gene cloning-delivery system have made it possible to identify and introduce desired genes from a wide range of organisms into higher plants. Genetic engineering for disease resistance unlike other traits is quite intricate, as it involves genetically complex host-pathogen interactions. Unlike other traits, genes for resistance are defined by their phenotypic effect and in the absence of an easily identifiable gene product, molecular techniques cannot be applied for cloning the resistance genes. It is a battery of regulatory genes governing the expression of a complex chain of physiological and biochemical functions. Besides the complex plant genes, recent developments have shown the potential of non-conventional sources of resistance for controlling viral diseases. The following approaches, are being pursued vigorously to engineer resistance: Coat protein (CP) mediated protection Transgenic plants expressing the gene for coat protein of a virus are also protected from the attack of the same or related virus. This forms the basis of strategy for engineering virus resistance. Resistance against tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in tobacco was engineered by splicing coat protein (CP) gene of TMV. Since then, `coat protein mediated resistance’ has been demonstrated in the case of several virus and plant species. The CP gene not only protects the plant against the virus from where it has been taken, but also other closely related viruses. For instance, CP gene of TMV has been found to confer resistance to tomato mosaic virus, pepper mild mottle virus, tobacco mild green mosaic virus, rice grass mosaic virus etc. Unlike CP gene of TMV, resistance of which is restricted to a few of its group, CP gene of poty virus offers resistance against several poty viruses. When CP genes of two different viruses are present in a transgenic plant, it is capable of resisting both the viruses as has been demonstrated in the combination of TMV and tomato mosaic virus, etc. The plants with CP genes are less likely to become infected due to reduced number of sites of infection and are not prone to accumulation of virus even when infected, and not likely to favor plant to plant disease spread. Essentially, CP mediated resistance is similar to cross protection. This is borne out by the fact that whenever viral inoculum is in excess, it can mop up all the coat protein available in the system and make the transgenic plant less resistant or susceptible. However, in certain cases, like cucumber mosaic virus, PVX and PVY, transgenic plants remain resistant even at very high levels of inoculum unlike TMV. Another drawback of the CP mediated system is its constitutive nature of expression. This makes the plant to produce the protein all the time and thus affecting the nutritional food value of plants. satellite rnA mediated defense Satellite RNAs are species of RNA associated with some strains of plant viruses. As they are packed with the viral genomic RNA in the virus, they also replicate along with viral RNA. These are not, however, necessary for virus replication. Instead, they depend on the virus for their replication and transmission. It is, however, known that certain sat RNAs reduce the severity of the disease symptom. molecular biology techniques in plant disease management Molecular tools have been used as an aid in identifying the source of inoculum. There can be many reasons for the need to identify the source of a pathogen. Besides being useful in disease management it may also include a basic understanding of the population biology of a plant pathogen. Most techniques used in these cases involve molecular markers (allozymes, RFLPs, AFLPs, RAPDs, microsatellites, etc.). The detection of global migrations of Phytophthora infestans during the 1990s required the use of molecular markers. As an evidence these markers convinced the scientists, growers, administrators and bureaucrats about shifting population of the pathogen and that new approaches were necessary to address the changed scenario. However, prior to the migration, it was a combination of allozyme data and DNA fingerprinting data (via an RFLP) that supported the concept that most populations worldwide were dominated by a single clonal lineage of this pathogen. It became convenient to detect new migrations, and to identify the probable source from where the migrants came. 47 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Molecular markers can be used to determine if a particular source might or might not have been involved in initiating a local epidemic. In general, the markers typically used in population genetic studies can be helpful in determining differences among strains, and therefore, they can be used to eliminate certain sources of inoculum. The bottleneck in genetic engineering is the limited number of genes that are available for application. The application of RFLPs has been useful in mapping beneficial genes and in the selection of qualitative and quantitative traits. This technique has been used to study disease and pest resistance and qualitative traits. One of the quickest applications for the molecular tools was in diagnostics. Subsequently, antibodies to specific genera of organismal plant pathogens have been developed and tested. More recently primers designed to various regions of the genome have been identified and used in PCR-based tests to detect many different pathogens. For some pathogens diagnostic tools that are more highly resolved than species-specificity are desired. For example, in some situations it would be desirable to use a molecular marker to identify a particular pathogenicity trait. The most accurate approach would be to be able to detect the actual pathogen gene of interest. However, that is usually not yet technically possible. Standardization of convenient techniques in immunology, based on monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies has played a useful role in diagnostic assays to detect pathogens and pests in plants, mycotoxins in grains, and pesticide residues in agricultural products. Nucleic acid probes are also used as diagnostic tools for pathogens, but in a limited way because of the current need for radioactive labels. The development of non-radioactivity labeled probes of high sensitivity should be a major priority. Indigenous technical knowledge Modern concepts of agriculture can be interpreted in light of the traditional knowledge. In certain countries the importance of the concept of indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) has been emphasized and scientists are re-learning the traditional knowledge and exploring possibilities of using the old practices wherever possible. The traditional agricultural practices were mostly eco-friendly as these were in perfect harmony with nature. According to an eminent British Agricultural scientist Albert Howard, Indian farmers used organic manures, which ensured that they could continue farming on the same land for more than 2000 years without any loss of yield and that the crops were remarkably free from pests and diseases. The problem of diseases and pests in agriculture is intrinsically connected to the type of agriculture practiced; the type of seeds used and the manner in which crops are cultivated. Sustainable agriculture is a part of sustainable eco-system wherein even a pest has a functional place. Traditionally, our farmers used to care for the ecological balance among host, pests and predators. The modern agricultural system, however, upset this balance utterly. In the modern technological development, first a problem is created and then an even bigger hazard is introduced to confront the problem. Traditionally, farmers have used several practices to prevent the hazards of pests and diseases. Our traditional farmers possessed time-tested knowledge in dealing with pests/ diseases, a wisdom that is passed from generation to generation. A wealth of wisdom is facing extinction with the invasions of modernization. Unfortunately, many of the natural alternatives are getting wiped out with increasing modernization. There is an urgent need to strengthen all such wisdom. 48 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-II inheritAnCe of PoWdery miLdeW resistAnCe in Wh542 X synthetiC 43 riL PoPuLAtion meha sharma, Parveen Chhuneja, Kuldeep singh, satinder Kaur School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141004, Punjab. mehasharma1990@ gmail.com Keywords: powdery mildew, molecular mapping, synthetic wheat introduction Wheat is the most widely cultivated and important food crop in the world. It is the staple crop for about 35% of the human population. Wheat production in temperate area is significantly affected by powdery mildew, a foliar disease caused by Blumeria graminis f.sp.tritici. The most effective way to prevent infection and to avoid yield and grain quality losses is to develop the wheat cultivars with resistance genes. However, most of the known resistance genes are race specific genes and typically demonstrate a “boom-and-bust” cycle thus tend to lose the effectiveness of gene in short time period (Todo-rovska et al 2009). Therefore to control the pathogen adequately, wheat genetic resources with diverse resistances are needed. In this regard, characterization of wheat germplasm for identification of such diverse resistances is paramount. Wild progenitor and non progenitor species of wheat are important source for the resistance genes against the biotic and abiotic stress resistance. But the transfer of genes from the these relatives into hexaploid wheat genome is tedious. One new pathway for introducing new genetic diversity into the bread wheat gene pool is the reconstitution of hexaploid wheat by interspecific crosses of modern tetraploid durum wheats (Triticum turgidum L. with AB genome) with various Ae. tauschii accessions followed by chromosome doubling (Mujeeb-Kazi et al 2008). International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)’s current breeding program has emphasized the use of hexaploid derived synthetic wheats as parents (Lage and Trethowan 2008) to exploit new genetic variability. A synthetic wheat, Synthetic43, from CIMMYT is found to be resistant to rust and powdery mildew pathogens, besides having several agronomically important characters. objectives In the present study a RIL population was generated by crossing Synthetic43 with cultivated wheat variety WH542.The objective of this study was to identify the segregation pattern of powdery mildew resistance from synthetic wheat in the present RIL population and mapping of powdery mildew resistance gene. materials and methods For phenotypic evaluation,Synthetic43 [developed from cross T. durum (Yuk) X Ae. tauschii (864)] was crossed with known wheat variety WH542 and Recombinant Inbred Lines (RILs) population developed through single seed descent method. The RIL population alongwith parents were tested against the mixture of powdery mildew isolates at seedling stage (SS) and at adult plant stage (APS) in the experimental field of School of Agricultural Biotechnology,PAU. For seedling screening ten day old seedlings were raised in plastic trays in glass house inoculated with fungal mixture and incubated in a dark chamber maintained at 20°±1°C at 100% RH for 16h. After incubation, the trays were shifted to a screen house maintained at 20°C±2°C. Infection types were recorded 8-10 days after the inoculation. At adult plant stage powdery mildew severity was recorded on parents and all the RILs in open experimental field. Powdery mildew was recorded at seedling and adult plant stage on a 0-9 scale according to the Leath and Hunn (1990).For molecular analysis total of 141 SSRs spanning all the 21 wheat were utilized for mapping of powdery mildew resistance gene. A linkage map was generated using MAPDISTO(1.7.6.5) software at LOD >2.5 and recombination fraction 30 cM. Using this linkage map powdery mildew resistance gene was mapped. results and discussion A total of 174 RILs were available for testing against the powdery mildew (PM) isolates. At seedling stage, synthetic 43 was resistant with PM score of 0-1 and WH542 was susceptible with PM score of 7-8. Data of 148 RILs was recorded at seedling stage, of which 72 were homozygous resistant (HR) (score 0-5) and 76 were homozygous susceptible (HS) (scored 6-9). This distribution of seedling data segregated RILs into 1HR: 1HS ratio with χ2 value of 0.1 indicating one gene from Synthetic43 control powdery mildew resistance at seedling stage. This confers the presence of monogenic inheritance. 168 RILs along with parents were tested at adult plant stage (APS) in the open experimental fields of wheat offseason nursery 49 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” at Dalang maidain, Lahul and Spiti, Himachal Pardesh. Synthetic 43 was resistant with no traces of disease, while WH542 was susceptible with PM score of 8-9. Population of 168 RILs, at APS segregated into 85 homozygous resistant and 83 homozygous susceptible RILs with χ2 value of 0.02 (1HR : 1HS) indicating the segregation of single gene for powdery mildew resistance in this population. Molecular mapping of powdery mildew resistance gene was done by constructing linkage map. Using present linkage map, PM resistance gene was mapped at a distance of 11.6cM distal to SSR Xwmc150 on homeologous group 7 and has been temporarily designated as PmT. Xwmc150 was scored as co-dominant marker with segregation ratio of 38(allele B):32(allele A)(Figure 1) (χ2= 0.71, P-value= 0.39).According to the consensus map of Somers et al (2004),Xwmc150 has been mapped on the long arm of chromosome 7D thus PmT gene is present on long arm of chromosome 7D.A comparison has been made between the map generated in this study with the previous map of powdery mildew (Figure 2) figure1 : Banding Pattern of Xwmc150 ssr marker on Parental lines synthetic43,Wh542 and riL population (P1: synthetic43, P2: Wh542, C: control) figure 2: Comparison of pmt mapped on homeologous group 7 of Wh542 X synthetic43 linkage map with powdery mildew resisatnce gene pm37 and Pmtb7A.1 50 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Conclusion In the present study monogenic inheritance was found for powdery mildew resistant gene. This resistance has been identified from the synthetic43 wheat, which is found to be effective against the prevalent races of powdery mildew. Since not many powdery mildew gene effective in Indian subcontinent have been identified, PM gene identified in present study is important. Marker Xwmc150 near to PmT have not been found in the vicinity of Pm genes mapped in earlier studies. It implies that PmT derived from Synthetic43 might be a new gene or the allele of already mapped gene in this region. references Chhuneja P, Kumar K, Stirnweis D, Hurni S, Keller B, Dhaliwal HS, Singh K(2012) Identification and mapping of two powdery mildew resistance genes in Triticum boeoticum L. Theor. Appl. Genet. 124(6):1051-8. Leath S and Heun M (1990) Identification of powdery mildew resistance genes in cultivars of soft red winter wheat. Plant Dis. 74:747-752 Todorovska E, Christov N, Slavov S, Christova P, Vassilev D (2009): Biotic stress resistance in wheat – breeding and genomic selection implications. Biotechnol. and Biotechnological Equip. 23:1417–1426. Mujeeb-Kazi A, Gul A, Farooq M, Rizwan S and Ahmad I (2008) Rebirth of synthetic hexaploids with global implications for wheat improvement . Aust. J. Agric. Res.59:391-398. Lage J, Trethowan RM (2008) Identification of site similarities in western and central Asia using CIMMYT international wheat yield data. Plant Breeding 127: 350-354. Perugini LD, Murphy JP, Marshall D, and Brown G (2008) Pm37, a new broadly effective powdery mildew resistance gene from Triticum timopheevii. Theor. Appl. Genet. 116:417-25. 51 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-III sCreening of reComBinAnt inBred Lines (riLs) of WheAt trItICum AestIVum L. for KArnAL Bunt resistAnCe ravika1, A.K.Chhabra3, v.Chawla1, rajender Baniwal2 and Ashwin B. dahake1 Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding 2Department of Plant Pathology 3Regional Research Station, Bawal (Rewari) CCS HAU, Hisar (Haryana), India ravika.sheoran4@gmail.com 1 introduction Among the fungal diseases, karnal bunt caused by the fungus Neovossia indica (=Tilletia indica) belonging to order Ustilaginales is a wide spread disease of wheat. The infected parts of kernels are replaced by masses of dark and powdery, fungal teliospores resulting in losses, both in yield and quality. The spores remain viable for a number of years in the soil lying 15 to 25 cm deep (Krishna & Singh, 1983). Though the use of resistant varieties is the most viable and economical approach but truly resistant varieties are not available (Sharma et al., 2008). Intensive breeding for karnal bunt resistance has been carried out to breed resistant cultivars of bread wheat, but it is greatly hampered by the lack of easy, quick and environment independent methods of screening of host genotypes against the pathogen. Moreover, the development of KB resistant wheat cultivars take a long time and the field screening for KB is prohibited in some countries. Key words: Recombinant inbred lines, Karnal bunt, SSR markers materials and methods Plant material: Eighty five advance recombinant inbred lines of wheat cross, Aldan (Resistant) X WH 542 (Susceptible) will be used in the present study. Seeds of each of the parent and recombinant inbred lines (RILs) were sown in field area of Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (India) in the crop season of 201011. Pedigree of wheat genotypes used in the present study is given in Table 1. table 1: Pedigree of wheat genotypes used in the present study Genotype Pedigree Remarks Aldan Selection from Mexican Wheat, CIMMYT Resistant to Karnal bunt WH 542 Jupateco/Blueja/Ures Susceptible to Karnal bunt Pathogen: The culture of Neovossia indica was established from the bunted/infected grains and subcultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) slants. methods: screening of riLs for Karnal bunt resistance For screening of plant material against Karnal bunt pathogen, parental genotypes and their RILs were grown in the experimental area of department of Genetics and Plant Breeding in winter season 2009-10 and 2010-2011. The screening was done under artificial epiphytotic conditions. Inoculum was prepared from 10-12 days old, active culture of N. indica. The sporidial mass was harvested with the help of inoculating loop in sterilized water and homogenized in vortex mixer for 2-3 minutes. This homogenized mixture was filtered through a muslin cloth. It was diluted to the extent that each milliliter of inoculum carried approximately 10,000 secondary sporidia. Inoculations were done at boot leaf stage during the evening hours. Five to eight spikes of each entry were inoculated with 2 ml of inoculum via hypodermic syringe (Aujla et al., 1989). Inoculated spikes were tagged and the relative humidity was maintained (80-100%) via intermittent overhead spraying of water, 3-5 times/day for few minutes depending upon weather conditions. At maturity, the inoculated spikes were harvested individually and threshed manually. Infected grains were separated in to different grades according to the degree of infection as given below in Table 2 also depicted in Fig 2.1. table 2: different grades given to Karnal bunt infected grains Grade Extent of infection 0 Healthy grains, no infection 1 Infection only at the embryonal end and less than 25 per cent of endosperm affected 52 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 2 Between 26 to 50 per cent of the endosperm affected 3 Between 51 to 75 per cent of the endosperm affected 4 More than 75 per cent or practically whole of the endosperm affected figure 2.1: Gradings of Karnal bunt infected grains Table 3. Mean performance for percentage of infection (PI) and coefficient of infection (CI) on riLs derived from cross Aldan x Wh542 during the year 2011 Entry No. PI CI Entry No. PI CI Entry No. PI CI 1 0.92 0.39 29 11.74 8.33 57 1.88 0.73 2 0.00 0.00 30 1.94 1.92 58 3.16 1.55 3 3.51 2.19 31 4.58 2.75 59 1.79 0.89 4 0.00 0.00 32 4.61 1.51 60 28.46 11.59 5 2.94 1.03 33 0.00 0.00 61 24.14 9.48 6 22.70 10.53 34 21.41 8.38 62 2.05 0.80 7 2.09 1.07 35 3.13 1.33 63 3.49 1.56 8 1.69 0.69 36 0.00 0.00 64 2.49 1.00 9 4.73 1.16 37 21.33 9.61 65 4.28 1.90 10 3.70 1.71 38 2.43 1.03 66 4.70 1.46 11 4.49 1.67 39 2.76 0.97 67 23.88 11.04 12 13.87 7.60 40 20.70 9.08 68 1.30 0.47 13 0.00 0.00 41 27.27 11.27 69 0.00 0.00 14 3.50 1.16 42 0.00 0.00 70 2.50 0.85 15 0.94 0.74 43 3.69 1.56 71 29.03 11.32 16 2.17 1.24 44 0.00 0.00 72 2.48 0.79 17 13.24 6.06 45 20.00 7.54 73 19.73 6.38 18 37.22 15.57 46 52.46 21.30 74 30.08 12.32 19 13.73 7.01 47 15.50 7.20 75 2.98 0.94 20 1.68 0.49 48 0.90 0.51 76 4.78 1.96 21 30.30 17.97 49 0.00 0.00 77 23.08 9.98 22 1.17 1.05 50 18.47 8.77 78 3.78 1.47 23 0.00 0.00 51 12.76 6.77 79 3.38 1.43 24 15.24 7.40 52 8.52 3.78 80 4.17 2.00 25 2.14 0.95 53 2.92 1.32 81 21.61 7.47 26 22.55 10.33 54 14.50 5.21 82 1.52 0.59 27 2.79 0.72 55 20.57 8.09 83(R) 2.21 0.79 28 15.18 7.67 56 24.78 15.89 84(S) 35.56 17.63 CD (P = 0.01): PI = 2.36, CI = 1.33 53 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” results A wide variation was observed among the 84 RILs evaluated for Karnal bunt resistance (Table-3). RILs with percentage of infection up to 5 were taken as resistant and those with more than 5 per cent infection were taken as susceptible. The range of percentage of infection in the susceptible RILs was 8.5 to 52.46. The range of coefficient of infection in the RILs was 0.0 to 21.30 per cent. discussion Out of 84 RILs (excluding parents), 65 per cent RILs were showed resistance and remaining showed susceptibility towards Karnal bunt. Although, the exact ratio of 3:1 was not observed may be due to lesser number of RILs. However, the ratio observed was towards 3:1 for Resistant and susceptible lines. The ratio indicated that resistance was under the control of single dominant gene. references Aujla, S.S.; Sharma, I. and Singh, B.B. 1989. Rating scale for identifying wheat varieties resistant to Neovossia indica (Mitra) Mundkur. Indian Phytopathology 42: 161-162. Krishna, A. and Singh, R.A. (1983) Multiple alleles controlling the incompatibility in Neovossia indica. Indian Phytopathol. 36(4): 746-748. Sharma, A.K., Kumar, J., Singh, D., Sharma, B.K. and Kumar, K. (2008) Biological control of Karnal bunt of wheat and its evaluation at hot spot location in North West India. J. Wheat Res. 2: 48-51. 54 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-IV defending WheAt from striPe rust in PunJAB madhumeeta Jindal1, Achla sharma1,vijay Kumar2, Jugraj singh marok3, indu Bhagat4, Puja srivastava1 and n. s Bains1 1 Deptt of PB&G, PAU Ludhiana, 2 RRS, Ballowal Saunkari, 3KVK, Nawanshehar, 4RRS, Gurdaspur Email : madhumeeta@pau.edu Absract Under North Western plains of India, stripe rust is a serious bottleneck in the cultivation of wheat. The disease may become severe from seedling stage onwards under favourable weather conditions. Gene pyramided lines for stripe(Yr10 &Yr15, Yr40) and leaf rust(Lr24&Lr28, Lr57) and lines carrying durable type resistance were tested for resistance to stripe rust as well as yield under three environments in Punjab.These lines can provide a good alternative to farmers in the regions which are more prone to stripe rust infection. introduction Stripe rust or yellow rust (Puccina striiformis Westend f.sp.tritici Eriks.) is the most damaging diseases of wheat worldwide and cause significant losses in yield (Saari and Prescott 1985,Knott 1989, Sache and de Vallavieille-Pope 1993, McIntosh et al. 1995, Nayar and Bhardwaj 1998; Jindal et al 2013). It predominantly occurs in temperate regions of Asia, Europe, North America, Middle East and Africa, where cool and moist conditions prevail. Under North Western plains of India, stripe rust is a serious bottleneck in the cultivation of wheat. The disease may become severe from seedling stage onwards under favourable weather conditions amounting to 4.2-68.8 per cent losses yield in different wheat cultivars depending upon the level of resistance (Jindal et al 2013). Although, the disease can be managed with use of fungicides where the total expenditure may comes to be Rs 1 Crore/ Lakh hactares. Cultivars resistant to wheat rust primary need of the farmer and also eco-friendly. Worldwide, only a few genes confer effective all-stage resistance against the current populations of the pathogen. However, within a few years of deploying resistant cultivars, new virulent races /pathotypes of the rust pathogen often emerge (Line and Qayoum 1992, Singh et al 2004). As a result, new races can infect previously resistant cultivars, rendering them susceptible ( Chen 2005). Severe stripe rust epidemics are often due to the emergence of new races that cause failure of resistance genes (Chen 2007). For example, more than 80% of cultivars released in the late 1980s had Yr9 and, as a result, a new race virulent on Yr9 was reported in 1985. Similarly, Yr27 has been widely used in wheat cultivars (PBW 343) grown in India and Pakistan and the emergence of new races virulent to Yr27 has been reported in South Asia between 2002 and 2004 (Singh et al 2004). Serious stripe rust outbreaks in sub-mountainous area of Punjab state of India during 2008-09 have been attributed to races virulent to Yr27 (BGRI 2010). PBW 343, still continues to be grown on 5-8% of the total wheat area in Punjab, and it seems hard to break the loyalty of the farmers to the cultivar which otherwise has been rendered susceptible. This necessitated introgression of new gene for stripe rust resistance in the background of PBW343. A large set of lines was generated having Yr10 & Yr15 and Lr24 & Lr28 alongwith a separate set of lines introgressed with Yr40/Lr57 genes. Another set of lines having durable resistance were also developed. The present study was under taken with the objective of assessing these two sets under three environments for yield performance and resistance to rust. materials and methods The experiment was conducted during rabi 2013 under three environments, artificial screening at Regional Research Station, Gurudaspur, Punjab for rust and natural screening for stripe rust at Balowal Sounkri and natural screening for rust under popular at Ratewal (balowal Saunkri).The two set of lines carrying known gene (KG) and durable resistance (DR) alongwith five checks (HD2967, PBW343,PBW550, PBW621 &WH1105) were planted in small plots (6 rows of 6 meter length) with row to row distance of 23 cm in the month of November, 2012. The stripe rust inoculum collected from farmer field of Punjab (Aggressive 78S84) as well as procured from Flowerdale Shimla ( Mixture of races) was multiplied on susceptible wheat variety PBW 343 at two leaf stage in pots in the month of November 2012. The plants grown in the pots, having good growth of urediospores of stripe rust, were used for creating artificial epiphytotic conditions at RRS Gurdaspur around the experimental field to provide sufficient inoculum of stripe rust to evaluate the wheat germplasm throughout the crop growing season. At Balowal and Ratewal these lines were evaluated under natural epiphytotic conditions. The crop was grown following the recommended agronomic practices. 55 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Responses of wheat accessions to rust severity was recorded following the modified Cobb scale (Peterson et al. 1948) after the plant population of that particular accession had completed the crop growth stage 87 (Zadoks et al. 1974). Disease scores were determined by taking into account the severity of disease on plant parts denoted by percent area covered (5%, 10%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100%) as well as kind of host response (R i.e. resistant when no uredia were present and some necrotic areas; MR i.e moderately resistant when small uredia with slight sporulation, chlorosis and/or necrosis; MR– MS i.e. moderately resistant to moderately susceptible, small to moderate sized uredia with moderate to heavy sporulation, some chlorosis may be visible; and S i.e. susceptible when large uredia with abundant sporulation, uredia often coalesced to form lesions without evidence of stripes on visible chlorosis or necrosis). Disease severity/ field reaction of R, MR, MS or S up to 20S is resistant and more than 20S is categorized as susceptible. S.No Lines with durable resistance 1 BWL 0134 PFAU/MILAN/S/CHEN/AC89//BCN/3/VEE 7/BUW/4/PASTER 2 BWL 056 INQ 9/*3/TUKURU//DBW18 3 BWL 1639 SIRKKU/PRINIA/4/CLC89//ESDA/KAUZ/3/BJY/COC//PRL/BOW 4 BWL 1643 INQ 91*3/TUKLRU/DBW18 5 BWL 0778 INQ 91*3/TUKLRU/DBW18 6 BWL 1848 BW9148/NW4079 7 BWL 1926 HD2967/7/CAL/NH//H567.71/3/SERI/4/CAL/NH//H567.71/5/2*KAUZ/6/PASTOR 8 BWL 1945 HD2967/7/CAL/NH//H567.71/3/SERI/4/CAL/NH//H567.71/5/2*KAUZ/6/PASTOR 9 PBW 706 MINO/898.97 Lines with Known gene resistance 1 BWL 0773 WH890-AE.UMLO3732AMPO/CS(S)//WL711NN/3/3 PBW343 2 BWL 0831 PBW533//YR15/6*AVOCET/3/PBW533-YR15+PBW533 3 BWL 1973 BW9250*3//YR10/6*AVOCET/3/BW9250*3//YR15/6*AVOCET 4 BWL 1974 BW9250*3//YR10/6*AVOCET/3/BW9250*3//YR15/6*AVOCET 5 BWL 1975 BW9250*3//YR10/6*AVOCET/3/BW9250*3//YR15/6*AVOCET 6 BWL 1977 BW9250*3//YR10/6*AVOCET/3/BW9250*3//YR15/6*AVOCET 7 BWL 1979 BW9250*3//YR10/6*AVOCET/3/BW9250*3//YR15/6*AVOCET 8 BWL 1980 BW9250*3//YR10/6*AVOCET/3/BW9250*3//YR15/6*AVOCET 9 BWL 1778 PBW568/3/WL711-AE.OVATA/CS(S)//WL711 NN/4/PBW568 10 BWL 1785 PBW568/3/WH890-AEUMB.3732AMPH./CS(S)//WL711NN/4/PBW568 11 BWL 1635 BW9250*3//YR10/6*AVOCET/3/BW9250*3//YR15/6*AVOCET 12 BWL 1637 BW9250*3//YR10/6*AVOCET/3/BW9250*3//YR15/6*AVOCET BWL 9250 is PBW 343+Lr24+Lr28 Checks 1 HD 2967 ALD/COC//URES/3/HD2160M/HD2278 2 PBW 343 ND/VG9144//KAL/BB/3/YACO~S~/4/VEE#5 3 PBW 550 WH594/RAJ3856//W485 4 PBW 621 KAUZ//ALTAR 84/AOS/3/MILAN/KAUZ/4/HU\TES 5 WH 1105 MILAN/S87230//BABAX results and discussion The advance breeding lines and checks gave varied response in terms of yield and reaction to rust. The perusal of ANOVA (Table1) underlines genotypes as largest source of variation . genotypic difference were also significant across all environments. 56 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1. Analysis of variance for yield Source of Variation DF Natural (Balowal) Under Popular (ratewal) Artificial (Gurdaspur) Replication 2 3,224.48 843.988 105.956 Genotypes 25 2,573.20* 4,312.81* 20,981.81* Error 50 2,746.01 2,854.78 3,241.49 Total 77 8,543.69 8,011.57 24,329.25 The reaction to rust was recorded and it was found that most of the lines PBW 343 having known genes were completely resistant to stripe rust whereas PBW 343 itself was found to be highly susceptible. The lines having durable resistance were not clean and shoed some level of disease (upto 20s) and can be grouped as resistant. Among checks response of HD2967 varied under all the environments while WH1105 was invariably resistant in all three conditions. The yield data shows that the fixed versions of PBW 343 are at par with the present day cultivars and were among the best performer per se yield under all the environments. 80 70 70 60 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 PBW 621 PBW 706 WH 1105 BWL 1973 BWL 0778 BWL 0134 BWL 1785 BWL 1974 BWL 1639 BWL 0773 BWL 1643 BWL 1635 BWL 1975 BWL 056 BWL 1637 BWL 1926 BWL 1977 BWL 1945 HD 2967 BWL 0831 BWL 1979 PBW 550 BWL 1980 PBW 343 BWL 1848 BWL 1778 BWL 1973 BWL 1945 BWL 1977 BWL 1979 BWL 1974 BWL 1639 BWL 1926 PBW 706 HD 2967 BWL 0134 WH 1105 BWL 1975 PBW 621 BWL 0831 BWL 1635 BWL 1848 BWL 056 BWL 1643 BWL 1637 BWL 1980 BWL 1785 PBW 550 BWL 0773 BWL 1778 BWL 0778 PBW 343 0 80 70.0 70 60.0 60 50.0 Yield(q/ha) 50 40 30 20 40.0 Natural 30.0 Under Popular 20.0 Artificial 10 10.0 PBW 343 BWL 0134 PBW 621 BWL 1926 BWL 1637 HD 2967 BWL 1848 BWL 1778 BWL 1639 BWL 1979 BWL 056 PBW 550 BWL 1973 BWL 1975 BWL 1643 PBW 706 BWL 0778 BWL 1977 BWL 1974 BWL 1980 WH 1105 BWL 1785 BWL 1635 BWL 0773 BWL 0831 BWL 1945 0 0.0 KG 57 DR HD PBW PBW PBW WH 2967 343 550 621 1105 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” The lines with known gene in the background are equally competitive in terms of yield when compared to checks and can be deployed in the areas where farmers still continue to grow PBW 343 and are unwilling to shift to other cultivars. As well as the complete resistance provided by these line carrying major gene can act as the first line of defense against stripe rust in the sub mountainous regions of Punjab. Though, the breakdown of these genes in near future in inevitable but if grown exclusively in this region they can help the cultivation of present mega cultivar HD2967 in rest of the north western plain zone. Cultivation of resistant cultivars is the most economically effective and eco-friendly method for stripe rust management and minimizes environmental impacts by reducing the use of fungicides. However, within a few years of deploying resistant cultivars, new virulent races (pathotypes) of the rust pathogen often emerge. As a result, new races can infect previously resistant cultivars, rendering them susceptible. Severe stripe rust epidemics are often due to the emergence of new races that cause failure of resistance genes references BGRI. 2010. Serious Outbreaks of Wheat Stripe or Yellow Rust in Central and West Asia and North Africa—March/April 2010. http://globalrust.org/ traction?type=single&proj=Pathogen&rec=206 Chen, X. M. 2005. Epidemiology and control of stripe rust (Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici) on wheat. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 27:314-337. Chen, X. M. 2007. Challenges and solutions for stripe rust control in the United States. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 58:648-655. Line, R. F. 2002. Stripe rust of wheat and barley in North America: a retrospective historical review. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 2002. 40:75-118. Line, R. F., and Qayoum, A. 1992. Virulence, aggressiveness, evolution, and distribution of races of Puccinia striiformis the cause of stripe rust of wheat) in North America, 1968-87. U.S. Dep. Agric. Agric. Res. Serv. Tech. Bull. No. 1788. McIntosh, R. A., Wellings, C. R., and Park, R. F. 1995. Page 157 in: Wheat Rusts: An Atlas of Resistance Genes. CSIRO, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Saari, E. E., and Prescott, J. M. 1985. World distribution in relation to economic losses. Pages 259-298 in: The Cereal Rusts II: Diseases, Distribution, Epidemiology and Control. A. P. Roelfs and W. R. Bushnell, eds. Academic Press, Orlando, FL. Singh, R. P., William, H. M., Huerta-Espino, J., and Rosewarne, G. 2004. Wheat rust in Asia: meeting the challenges with old and new technologies. In:New Directions for a Diverse Planet: Proc. 4th Int. Crop Sci. Congr. Brisbane, Australia. http://www.pngg.org/pp590_790/Singh-4thInt CSCong 2004.pdf 58 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-V BACteriAL LeAf BLight diseAse of riCe: its oCCurrenCe And BioLogiCAL ControL Anil K. singh1, Prakash singh1, P. K. singh1 ravi P. singh1, h. B. singh2 and Jitendra Kumar3 Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 2Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India 3 Crop Improvement Division, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, India *E-mail: prakash201288@gmail.com> 1 Key words: Biological control, rice and Xanthomonas oryzae 90 percent of the world’s rice is grown in the Asian continent and constitutes a staple food for 2.7 billion people Worldwide unfortunately, whose production is constrained by considerable number diseases of fungal, bacterial and viral origin (Singh et al. 2013a). Bacterial blight (BLB) is one of the major biotic destructive diseases throughout the world. This disease is said to have been observed first by farmers in Japan during 1884 (Mizukami and Wakimoto 1969). Subsequently, its occurrence has been reported from Australia, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, India, and many other countries (Nino-Liu et al. 2006). Bacterial blight can cause yield loss by 20-50% (Singh et al. 2013c) and even 100% under very severe conditions (Agarwal et al. 2005). In Korea, the southern coastal plain areas are hotspots for BLB pathogen evolution and new variants of the pathogen spread into the mid-northern plains causing BLB disease in japonica rice cultivars. In 2003, a serious BLB epidemic occurred in the south-western coastal plains accounting for a significant yield loss due to the emergence of a new race, K3a (Noh et al. 2003). Bacterial blight is not a new disease of rice, it is important to rice production in tropical Asia, however, was recognised only after the introduction of modern cultivars, which are highly responsive to nitrogen fertilizers (Mew et al. 1993). BLB is favoured by warm temperatures (25 to 30 0C), high humidity, rain and deep water, and more prevalent in wetland areas where these conditions often occur. Severe winds enough to cause wounds and disease become serious because many improved, high yielding varieties, when managed with high nitrogen levels and close spacing, have inadequate resistance to the pathogen (IRRI 2010). The severity of the disease is dependent on the virulence of the bacterial isolates present and is manifested by two primary symptoms either blight (the seedling blight) or kresek (wilt phase) phase. During the blight phase, causal organism enters the plant through wounds or through water pores located on the margins of upper part of the leaves, producing lesions, which are water soaked, yellow with irregular, wavy margins and progresses down the leaves, and the lesion usually starts from the leaf margin near its tip (Muneer et al. 2007; Singh et al. 2013a). The kresek symptoms appeared due to blockage of translocation, is generally associated with seedling infection that occurs through wounds made during transplanting operations, and those isolate causing kresek phase plant were assumed to be more aggressive than those causing blight (Devadath et al. 1970). The severity of kresek phase is dependent on the time of infection; the earlier seedlings are infected, the more severe is the syndrome. Symptom usually appears one or two weeks after transplanting with leaves turn greyish green, wither suddenly and roll upwards. Causal agent of Bacterial blight in rice: Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae is a non-spore forming rod-shaped (0.55 to 0.75 x 1.35 to 2.17 μm), motile, with a single polar flagellum, occurs singularly or in pairs or sometimes in chains and gram negative (Mew 1987; Swings et al. 1990). Colonies are light yellow, circular, convex and smooth. The bacterium produces a yellow water-soluble pigment. More than 30 races of X. oryzae pv. oryzae are reported to occur (Nino-Liu et al. 2006). A race is a subgroup or biotype within a species, distinguished from other races by virulence, not by morphology. Bacterial blight is a vascular disease and the infection is, therefore, systemic. Bacterial cells on the leaf surface may become suspended in guttation fluid as it exudes at night and then enter the plant by swimming, or passively as the fluid is withdrawn into the leaf in the morning and multiply in the intercellular spaces of the underlying epithelial cells, and then enter and spread into the plant through the xylem (Tabei 1997). X. oryzae pv. oryzae may also gain access to the xylem through wounds or openings caused by emerging roots at the base of the leaf sheath. Within the xylem, it presumably interacts with the xylem parenchyma cells. The pathogen moves vertically through the leaf via the primary veins and it may progress laterally through commissural veins. Within a few days, bacterial cells and extracellular polysaccharide fill the xylem vessels forming beads or strands of exudates on the leaf surface, a characteristic sign of the disease and a source of secondary inoculums (Nino-Liu et al. 2006). With the passage of time, the lesion may cover on the entire blade, which turns white and later greyish owing to saprophytic growth (Ou, 1985). 59 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” hosts of Bacterial Leaf Blight A pathovar is a bacterial strain with similar characteristics that are usually distinguished by a different host range; Xanthomonas oryzae has two pathovars, Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae and Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola that affect the same host but have strong differences in symptomatology which allows for different pathovar designations. X. oryzae pv. oryzae survives over winter either primarily in rice stubble and on weed hosts. In Australia, the bacterium is known to survive in wild rice namely O. rufipogon and O. australiensis. It can also survive for short periods on infected seed and in soil, but these have not been demonstrated to be important sources of inoculums. In tropical areas, the pathogen may also survive in irrigation water, which is considered to contribute to the spread of this disease over large areas of cultivated land, as it carries the bacterial ooze that drop into rice field water (Mew, 1992). Biological control of bacterial blight disease Rice disease management strategies mainly aim at prevention of outbreak or epidemics through the use of host plant resistance and chemical pesticides. Most of these chemicals are too expensive for the resource poor farmers of Asia, where 90% of the world’s rice is. Large-scale and long-term use of resistant cultivars is likely to result in significant shifts in the virulence characteristics of pathogens, culminating in resistance breakdown. However, research during the previous two decades indicates another potential option for rice disease management that is biological control of rice diseases. Biocontrol assumes special significance being an eco-friendly and cost effective strategy which can be used in integration with other strategies for a greater level of protection with sustained rice yields (Gangwar and Sinha, 2012). It is important to establish the mechanism of control, so that biological agents may be deployed and used efficiently. The use of bioinoculants for controlling of seed and soil born diseases of rice, and to reduce the use of fungicides for the management of crop disease is often associated with problems of pollution hazards and residual toxicity, and has proved to be effective against bacterial blight of rice (Singh et al. 2012). Therefore, the deployment of bio-control agents at the seedling stage may prevent early infection, resulting in increased levels of disease suppression. Plant-Associated Bacteria as Bio-control Agents Bacillus is gram-positive, rod-shaped, obligate aerobes or facultative anaerobes pathogenic bacteria. It is most feasible bio-control microorganisms suppress several plant pathogens. The efficiency of antagonistic treated plant by several strains was evaluated using an in vitro assay. Most of the morphologically distinct rice-associated Bacillus strains were antagonistic to X. oryzae pv. oryzae in the dual-plate assays. The zone of inhibition varied from 1.2 to 4 cm in diameter. The Bacillus strains were also used as seed treatment to reduce the BLB severity. The bacterial cells were applied as two foliar spray, resulted in significant reductions in the mean length of BLB lesions in bacteria-treated plants compared to the untreated control. Disease suppression ranged from 21 to 59%. Five superior strains, namely, ALP 18 (B. lentus), NGC 115 (B. cereus), VY 118 (B. circutans), CAL 9 (Bacillus sp.) and MON 2-17 (Bacillus sp.) were identified as bio-inoculants at species level. In addition to BLB suppression, increases in average plant height numbers of tillers per hill and grain yields were observed in Bacillus-treated rice plants (Gnanamanickam et al. 2004). Plant-Associated Bacteria as Bio-control Agents as pseudomanas Fluorescens Bacterial antagonists, particularly fluorescent Pseudomonads are generally stable and aggressive colonizers of the rhizosphere. In preliminary reports strains of P. fluorescens were shown to inhibit the growth of X. oryzae pv. oryzae, and has well been documented in different plant bacterial pathogen interaction (Mondal 2004). Some of the antagonists produced 2,4- diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) and were found to inhibit the growth of the devastating rice bacterial blight pathogen and suppressed the disease up to 59%–64% (Velusamy and Gnanamanickam 2003 and Velusamy et al. 2006). When DAPG-producing P. fluorescens strains were evaluated for disease suppression, the mean lesion length varied from 7.8 to 21.9 cm in treated compared to 22 cm in the untreated plants. DAPG production has been implicated as an antibacterial compound involved in the suppression of disease which is one of the most important and devastating in tropics. The five Phl– mutants of P. fluorescens PTB9 were generated through transpositional mutagenesis, and shown substantial loss of their ability to protect the rice plants against X. oryzae pv. oryzae, while the wild type strain suppressed disease by 59.9%. DAPG is a polyketide antibiotic which was known for its key role in BLB suppression in rice (Velusamy et al. 2006). The P. fluorescens strain MBPF-01 could also be antagonistic to rice bacterial blight pathogen. The combined effect of nanocopper and strain MBPF-01 was best in reducing the disease intensity and suggests that integration of nanocopper and antagonist fluorescent Pseudomonas strain MBPF-01 is compatible and more effective in suppressing the bacterial blight disease (Mondal et al. 2010). 60 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PgPr) PGPR is an important group of the rhizosphere microbial bacteria that exerts beneficial effects on plant growth upon root colonization and these microorganisms were first defined, and termed as plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (Kloepper and Schroth, 1978). The potential environmental benefits of the PGPR are reduction in the usage of agricultural chemicals and deployment in sustainable and organic agricultural management practices. PGPR are well known inducers of disease resistance and some strains are effective against a broad spectrum of plant pathogens in a number of crop species and promote plant growth directly or indirectly (Ramamoorthy et al. 2001). Plant-Associated Bacteria as Bio-control Agents as trichoderma Trichoderma spp. is free living fungi that are highly interactive in root, soil and foliar environment. It has long been recognised as biological agent to control plant diseases and widely studied as potential biological agent for controlling many plant pathogens. Presently, use of a Trichoderma based products are considered as relatively novel biological control agents which can help farmers to reduced plant diseases and increase plant growth. The use of Trichoderma based products is not only safe for the farmers and consumers but it is also good for the environment. Trichoderma spp. has been used for many years as antagonists in the biological control of fungal diseases (Elad and Kapat 1999). Antagonistic potential of Trichoderma with X. oryzae pv. oryzae were studied earlier by several workers (Singh et al. 2013b and 2013c). The in vitro and in vivo experiments on T. harzianum against X. oryzae pv. oryzae by dual culture method revealed that the T. harzianum were inhibitory to X. oryzae pv. Oryzae and field evaluation of these antagonists showed that T. harzianum significantly reduced the intensity of disease severity as compared to chemical treatment (Nzojiyobiri 2003; Babu and Thind 2005). Gangwar and Sinha, (2012) reported that the Trichoderma spp. were found significantly effective in reducing BLB severity over check. A systematic search for bio-control agents that would bring about significant BLB suppression in field conditions is necessary for establishment of biological control as a suitable strategy for resource-poor rice farmers. This integration of two major approaches should be thoroughly tested for BLB management. The suggestion is to integrate the use of different biological control agents with distinct modes of action. Another is to formulate commercial bio-control agents with compounds that would enhance growth or activity of the bio-control agents when applied to plant surfaces, and to integrate biological controls with chemical bactericides, improve spray application technologies or develop new delivery technologies specific for microorganisms. In addition, future studies should evaluate the integration of two major approaches by combining host resistance and bio-control for management of BLB, an understanding their mechanisms for BLB management. references Agarwal, PK, Sidu, GS and Gosal, SS. 2005. Induction of Bacterial Blight Resistance in Elite Indian Rice (Oryza Sativa L.) Cultivars using Gamma Irradiation and Ethyl Methane Sulfonate. Mutation Breeding Newsletter and Reviews, 1: 17-18. Babu, AGC and Thind, BS. 2005. Potential use of combinations of Pantoea agglomerans, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis for the control of bacterial blight of rice. Annals of Agriculture, Sri Lanka, 7: 23-37. Devadath, S and Premalatha Dath, A. 1970. Mechanism of wilt (kresek phase) in bacterial blight of rice. Oryza, 7: 5-12. Elad, Y and Kapat, A. 1999. The role of Trichoderma harzianum protease in the control of Botrytis cinerea. European Journal of Plant pathology, 105: 177-189. Gangwar, GP and Sinha, AP. 2012. Evaluation of Trichoderma spp. and fluorescent pseudomonads for the management of bacterial blight of rice. Indian Phytopath., 65(1): 89-91. Gnanamanickam, SS, Brindha Priyadarisini, V, Narayanan, NN, Vasudevan, P and Kavitha, S. 1999. An overview of bacterial blight disease of rice and strategies for its management. Current Science, 77(11): 1435-1443. IRRI. 2010. International Rice Research Institute, Rice Fact Sheet and Bacterial Blight diseases. Kloepper, JW and Schroth, MN. 1978. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria on radishes. Proceedings of the fourth International Conference on Plant Pathogenic Bacteria, (2:879–892). Station de Pathologie Vegetale et Phytobacteriogyie, INRA, Angers, France. Mew, TW. 1987. Current status of future prospects of research on bacterial blight of rice. Annual Review of phytopathol., 25: 359-382. Mew, TW. 1992. Bacterial blight. Compendium of rice disease. Robert K. Webster and Pamela Gunnel (Eds.). St. Paul: American Phytopathological Society, pp. 10-11. Mew, TW, Alvamz, AM, Leach, JE and Swings, J. 1993. Focus on bacterial blight of rice. Plant Disease, 77: 5-12. Mizukami, T and Wakimoto, S. 1969. Epidemiology and control of bacterial blight of rice. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol., 7: 51-72. 61 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Mondal, KK. 2004. Integrated management strategies for fuscous blight and floury leaf spot of rajmash. Indian Phytopath., 57: 135-139. Mondal, KK, Bhar, LM and Mani, C. 2010. Combined efficacy of Pseudomonas fluorescens strain MBPF-01and nanocopper against bacterial blight in rice. Indian Phytopath., 63: 266-268. Muneer, N, Rafi, A and Akhtar, MA. 2007. Isolation and characterization of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae isolates from north west frontier province (NWFP) Pakistan. Sarhad J. Agric., 23(3): 743-751. Niño-Liu, DO, Darnielle, L and Bogdanove, AJ. 2006. Xanthomonas oryzae pathovars: model pathogens of a model crop. Molecular Plant Pathology, 7(5): 303-324. Noh, TH, Lee, DK, Kang, MH, Shin, MS and Na, SY. 2003. Identification of a new race of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) in Korea. (Abstr.) Phytopathology 93: S-66. Nzojiyobiri, JB, Xu, T, Song, FM and Shen, Y. 2003. Resistance induced by Trichoderma harzianum NF9 against Magnaporthe grisea and Xathomonas oryzae pv. oryzae in rice. Chinese J. Biol. Control, 19: 111-114. Ou, SH. 1985. Rice disease. 2nd Edn., Commonwealth Mycological Institute (CMI), Kew, Surrey, England, pp. 38. Ramamoorthy, V, Viswanathan, R, Raghuchander, T, Prakashan, V and Samiyappan, R. 2001. Induction of systemic resistance by plant growth promoting rhizobacteria in crop plants against pests and diseases. Crop Protection, 20: 1–11. Singh, AK, Sarma, BK, Singh, PK and Nandan, R. 2013b. Screening of rice (Oryza sativa L.) germplasms against Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae. J. Eco-friendly Agriculture 8 (1): 86-88. Singh, AK, Singh, PK, Sarma, BK and Mahesh, R. 2013c. Comparision of methods of inoculation of Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Oryzae in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Bioifolet, 10(2): (In press). Singh, MK, Singh, P, Singh, RP and Mohapatra, C. 2013. Association analysis for yield and quality attributes in Indica rice and screening of hybrids against blast disease (Magnaporthe grise Barr.). Journal of Plant Science. DOI:10.3923/ jps.2013. Singh, PK, Singh, AK, Singh, HB and Dhakad, BK. 2012. Biological control of rice blast disease with Trichoderma harzianum in direct seeded rice under medium low land rainfed conditions. Environment and Ecology, 30(2): 834837. Swings, J, Van Den Mooter, M, Vauterin, L, Hoste, B, Gillis, M and Mew, TW. 1990. Reclassification of the causal agents of bacterial blight (Xanthomonas campestris pv. oryzae) and bacterial leaf streak (Xanthomonas campestris pv. oryzicola) of rice as pathovars of Xanthomonas oryzae ex Ishiyama 1922) sp. nov., nom. rev. International J. Systematic Bacteriology, 40: 301-311. Tabei, L. 1997. Anatomical studies of rice plant affected with bacterial leaf blight, Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae. Bulletin of the Kyushu National Agricultural Experiment Station, 19(2): 193-257. Velusamy, P and Gnanamanickam, SS. 2003. Identification of 2, 4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) production by plantassociated bacteria and its role in suppression of rice bacterial blight in India. Current science, 85: 1270–1273. Velusamy, P, Immanuel, EJ, Gnanamanickam, SS and Thomashow, LS. 2006. Biological control of rice bacterial blight by plant-associated bacteria producing 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 52: 56–65. 62 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-VI mAnAgement of ChiCKPeA (K 850) WiLt AgAinst FusArIum OXyspOrum CICerI vipul Kumar, mohammad shahid , Anita Puyam and mukesh srivastava Biocontrol Laboratory, Department of Plant Pathology, CSA University of Agriculture & Technology, Kanpur- 208002, Uttar Pradesh, India. E-mail : alleeyang6243@gmail.com Abstract Chickpea is an important pulse crop of India. Wilt of chickpea , caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri, has been considered as devastating one to cause up to 10 per cent loss in yield every year. Two bio-agents Trichoderma harzianum Th azad and Trichoderma viride 01PP were evaluated for their efficacy on colony growth by dual culture method. The results showed that the two bio-agents suppressed the colony growth of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri, which ranged between 53.38-57.99 per cent the suppression of the growth of the pathogen was significantly higher with Trichoderma harzianum Th azad. Seed treatment in vivo showed that out of sixteen treatments including control, T5 ( T. viride+ Vitavax) followed by T2 (Vitavax) were found superior seed treatments in enhancing quality seed parameters, which can be finally converted in superior yield even in adverse conditions. T5 treatment (T.v + Vitavax) was found to be significantly superior and effective in increasing 16.6 per cent more germination from control followed by T2 and T1. Key words: Chickpea; Fungicide; Inhibition; Fusarium introduction Among the pulses, the major contribution to the total pulse production comes from chickpea. More than 30 pathogens have been reported on this crop from different parts of the world (nene and reddy, 1987). In India, according to estimates 10 per cent losses in yield due to wilt is considered as a regular feature (singh et al., 1989). In view of the seriousness of disease and the importance of crop, the main aim of this work was to conduct a study for the management of wilt disease of the chickpea through seed treatment with pesticides in combination with bioagents. The present study was done to find out the efficient management of the disease. materials and methods laboratory screening of antagonists against the test pathogen Two bioagents viz. Trichoderma viride and Trichoderma harzianum were assessed for comparative efficacy against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri by using dual culture technique (morton and strouvle, 1955). Control without bioagent was prepared for each treatment. The inhibition zone, thus formed, was expressed as percent inhibition. In vivo effect of seed treatment with pesticides in combination with bioagents The field experiment was conducted during 2012-2013 in a design consisting of seed treatment with pesticides in combination with bioagent (Trichoderma viride). Seeds sown without any treatment were considered as check (control). Inoculated seeds of susceptible variety (K 850) were sown in three rows for each treatment in a block . Wilt incidence, per cent wilt control and per cent increase in yield over check were recorded at 10 days interval from 30 days after sowing for calculating the effectiveness of bioagent in checking the attack of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri on chickpea. Following treatment combinations were used: treatment combinations T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 : Trichoderma viride : Vitavax : Chlorpyriphos : Rhizobium : Trichoderma viride + Vitavax : Trichoderma viride + Chlorpyriphos : Trichoderma viride + Rhizobium 63 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T16 : Vitavax + Chlorpyriphos : Vitavax + Rhizobium : Chlorpyriphos + Rhizobium : Trichoderma viride + Vitavax + Chlorpyriphos : Trichoderma viride + Vitavax + Rhizobium : Trichoderma viride + Chlorpyriphos + Rhizobium : Vitavax + Chlorpyriphos + Rhizobium : T. viride + Chlorpyriphos + Vitavax + Rhizobium : Control laboratory screening of the fungicides Nine fungicides viz. Companion, Bavistin 50 WP, Thiram, Copper oxychloride, Indofil M 45, Sulfex, Redonil, Benlate, Indofil Z 78 and one combination of fungicides-combination (Carbendazim 12% + Mancozeb 63%) were assessed for their efficacy against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri through laboratory bioassay using poison food technique (Schmitz, 1930). results and discussion laboratory screening of the antagonist against the test pathogens by dual culture method: Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride were evaluated in vitro against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri by adopting dual culture technique. The results are interpreted in terms of per cent inhibition over the fungal growth of control and presented in Table 1. table1: Percent inhibition of F.o.c. over control in presence of bioagents in vitro treatment radial growth (mm)(F.o.c.) Percent inhibition Foc + Th 26.5 57.99 Foc + Tv 28.3 53.38 Control 60.7 C.D. at 5 per cent 5.55 Where, F.o.c. – Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri, th – trichoderma harzianum, tv – trichoderma viride Effect of seed treatment with biocontrol agents in the field The observations on the germination, number of plant dead on different dates, percent plant survival and average yield per plants were recorded in table at 10 days intervals starting after the 30 days of the sowing. The observations recorded are summarized in Table 2. table 2: effect of seed treatment in chickpea during 2012-13 treatment Percent no of plants dead on different dates % plant Average germin- 11.12.2012 22.12.12 01.01.2013 11.01.2013 21.01.2013 survival yield per plant ation* (in g) T1 - Trichoderma viride 75.0 1.67 0.67 1.0 0.0 0.0 71.67 3.73 T2 – Vitavax 76.33 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.33 0.33 73.67 3.67 T3 – Chlorpyriphos 68.67 1.33 2.0 1.33 0.67 0.67 62.67 2.74 T4 – Rhizobium 71.0 1.33 1.67 0.67 0.33 0.33 66.67 3.24 T5 - Trichoderma viride + Vitavax 79.33 1.33 1.67 1.33 0.67 0.67 73.67 4.16 T6 - Trichoderma viride +Chlorpyriphos 67.33 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 67.33 3.06 64 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” * T7 - Trichoderma viride + Rhizobium 69.0 2.0 0.67 1.0 0.0 0.0 65.33 3.24 T8 - Vitavax + Chlorpyriphos 72.67 1.33 1.0 0.67 1.0 1.0 68.00 3.05 T9 - Vitavax + Rhizobium 72.67 1.0 0.67 0.33 0.0 0.0 70.67 3.07 T10 - Chlorpyriphos + Rhizobium 69.33 1.0 1.33 1.33 1.0 1.0 63.67 3.01 T11 - Trichoderma viride+ Vitavax + Chlorpyriphos 74.0 1.67 1.33 1.0 1.33 1.33 67.33 3.32 T12 - Trichoderma viride+ Vitavax + Rhizobium 75.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 71.0 3.70 T13 - Trichoderma viride 71.0 + Chlorpyriphos + Rhizobium 1.0 1.33 0.67 0.33 0.33 67.33 3.50 T14 - Vitavax + Chlorpyriphos + Rhizobium 73.00 2.00 2.00 0.00 0.33 0.33 68.33 3.54 T15 - T. viride + Chlorpyriphos + Vitavax + Rhizobium 71.00 0.67 2.33 2.00 0.00 0.00 67.67 3.67 T16 - Control 68.00 3.67 2.00 2.67 2.00 2.00 48.67 2.30 CD at 5% 5.281 7.420 0.599 SD 2.585 3.637 0.284 Average of 3 replications From the data presented in Table 2, it is inferred that T5 Treatment (T. v. + Vitavax) achieved the highest germination as well as yield per plant. It is concluded from the above observations, that out of sixteen treatments including control, T5 (T.v. +Vitavax) followed by T2 (Vitavax) were found superior seed treatments in enhancing quality seed parameters, which can be finally converted in superior yield even in adverse conditions. The results obtained are in close agreement with the finding of de et al (1996) and singh et al (2013). Laboratory screening of the fungicides Fig.1 clearly indicates that all the nine fungicides were effective significantly in respect of inhibiting the growth of target pathogen (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. ciceri). Six fungi toxicants viz. Companion, Copper oxychloride, Thiram, Indofil M 45, Bavistin and Benlate appeared to be quite effective as they checked the growth of the fungus completely. Fig. 1: Percent inhibition of the pathogen in fungi toxicants mixed with PDA medium. 65 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” references Morton, D.J. and Strouvie, W.H. (1955). Antagonistic stimulatory effect of soil microorganisms upon Sclerotinia rolfsii. Phytopathology, 45: 417-420. Mukhopadhyaya, A.N. (1994). Bio-control of soil borne fungal plant pathogens: Current status, future prospects and potential limitations. Indian Phytopath., 47: 199-126. Nene Y.L. and Reddy, M.V. (1987). Chickpea diseases and their control in: chickpea (Eds. Saxena, M.C. and Singh, K.B.), Wallingford, U.K. CAB International, pp.233-270. Singh, K.B., Weigand, S., Haware, M.P., Di Vito, Maihotra, M., Tehan, R.S., Saxena, O. and Holly, L. (1989). Evaluation of wilt species to biotic and abiotic stress in chickpea (Abst.) XII Eucarpia Congress, 27 Feb. to 4 March, 1989. Singh, A., Shahid, M., Sachan, C.P., Srivastava, M. and Biswas, S.K. (2013) Effect of seed treatment on germination and vigour Lentil. J.Pl. Dis. Sci. 8:124-125. Schmitz, H. (1930). A suggested toximetric method for preservation. Indust. & Engin. Chem. Anal., 4: 361-365. . 66 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-VII Bio-effiCACy of pseuDOmOnAs FluOresCens And BACIllus suBtIlIs AgAinst BACteriAL WiLt of tomAto CAused By rAlstOnIA sOlAnACeArum e.f. smith (yABuuChi et. Al.) C. gopalakrishnan, rashmi B. Artal and B. thippeswamy1 Division of Plant Pathology Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Hessaraghatta, Bangalore-560 089 E-mail: gopkran@iihr.ernet.in 1Department of Microbiology, Kuvempu University, Shimoga -577 451 Abstract Field experiment was carried out for the management of bacterial wilt in tomato using the bioagents, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis. Eight treatments were imposed by way of seed treatment, seedling rood dip, seed treatment along with root drenching and untreated control check. The bacterial wilt incidence was significantly low (9.0%) with highest yield of 28.8 t/ha in treatment where seed treatment followed by soil drenching with P. fluorescens was imposed as compared to highest wilt incidence of 62.0% with lowest yield of 8.25 t/ha in untreated control. The next best treatment was seed treatment plus soil drenching with B. subtilis, which recorded wilt incidence of 12.5% and yield of 25.4 t/ha, respectively. Hence, it is evident that P. fluorescens has high potential to be used as a biopesticide for the management of bacterial wilt in tomato. Key words: tomato, bacterial wilt, Ralstonia solanacearum, bioagents, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Bacillus subtilis, management introduction Bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum E.F. Smith (Yabbuchi et. al., 1995) is a devastating disease and major constraint in the production of many economically important crops such as tomato, brinjal, chilli, tobacco, potato and banana (Kelman et. al., 1994). This soil borne vascular disease attacks over 450 plant species, which is distributed world wide in tropical, subtropical and warm temperate regions (Hayward, 1991). The yield loss due to this disease ranged from 15 to 95 per cent (Javier, 1994; Rao, 1976; Ramkishun, 1987). Control of bacterial wilt in infested soils is very difficult. It is generally considered that crop rotation with a non host crop is of minimal value because of the wide range of crop and weed hosts of the pathogen (Kelman,1954; Hayward ,1991). At present, no conventional bactericides are known to provide effective control of this soil borne pathogen. Soil treatments with traditional general-purpose fumigants such as methyl bromide did not provide satisfactory control of the disease (Chellemi et. al., 1997; Enfinger et. al., 1979). Some resistant tomato cultivars are available, but they have not been generally accepted by growers and the commercial tomato industry due to poor horticultural quality and varying levels of disease resistance that resulted from pathogen variation in different locations (Scott et. al., 1995; Kucharek, 1998). The antagonistic organisms isolated from the rhizosphere of crop plants have the capacity to control diseases caused by fungal and bacterial pathogens. Research focused on bioagents and their possible applications in agriculture to control plant bacterial diseases has intensified as this approach has enormous potential to inspire and influence modern agrochemical research. Many research findings revealed that, biological control using antagonists are being widely used in the management of plant diseases and bioagent based biopesticides appear to be one of the better alternatives as they are known to have minimal environmental impact and danger to consumers in contrast to synthetic pesticides (Waffaa and Mostafa Abo, 2012). Hence, an attempt has been made to test the field efficacy of the potential bioagents, viz. Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis isolated from the rhizospheric soil of tomato. materials and methods The bioagents, viz., P. fluorescens and B. subtilis were isolated from tomato, brinjal and chilli rhizosphere soil samples collected from different parts of Karnataka, by serial dilution and spread plate techniques. Isolation of P. fluorescens was made by using King’s B medium (King et. al., 1954) and that of B. subtilis on Nutrient agar (NA) medium. Pure culture isolation of the bioagents was made by single colony isolation technique using nutrient agar medium and the culture were stored at 40C for further use. The identity of the bioagents was confirmed by morphological and biochemical 67 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” characterization (Shaad, 2001) and PCR characterization using16SrRNA primers (Chen and Kuo, 1993; Wellinghausen et. al. 2005). P. fluorescens and B. subtilis isolates were screened for their antagonistic properties against R. solanacearum on NA medium using both paper disc as well as well diffusion methods (Kamal et. al., 2008). Only the potential strains of P. fluorescens (IIHRPf-24) and B. subtilis (IIHRBS-39), were selected for evaluation under field conditions. Both the bioagents were cultured on 523 enriched media and incubated at 280 ± 20C temperature for 48 h. The bacterial suspension of P. fluorescens and B. subtilis was prepared by washing the growth with sterile water and the concentration adjusted to 1.0 x 108 cfu/ml (0.3 OD at 600nm) using spectrophotometer. The bacterial suspension thus prepared was further used in the field trials against bacterial wilt disease in tomato. The field experiment was carried out to determine the efficacy of the bioagents, viz. P. fluorescens (Pf) and B. subtilis (Bs) against bacterial wilt in tomato variety Shivam (bacterial wilt susceptible) in bacterial wilt sick plot at the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta farm, Bangalore. Recommended package of practices were followed for raising the crop in the field. Eight treatments, with four replications each, were imposed in a randomized block design. The treatments include, i) Pf – seed treatment, ii) Pf – seedling root dip, iii) Pf – seed treatment + soil drenching twice at 15 days interval , iv) Bs – seed treatment, v) Bs – seedling root dip, vi) Bs – seed treatment + soil drenching twice at 15 days interval, vii) Streptocycline (200 ppm) – seed treatment + 2 sprays at 15 days interval and viii) untreated control (Table 1). For seed treatment with bioagents, the tomato seeds were treated with bacterial suspension at 1.0 x 108 cfu/ml concentration for 15 min. in a Petri plate, air dried and sown in pro trays containing coco-peat. For seed ling root dip, the roots of 25 days old tomato seedlings grown in portrays without any treatment, were dipped in bacterial suspension for 20 min. before transplanting to the main field. Soil drenching was carried out with 100 – 200 ml suspension around the root zone starting from one month after transplanting. Periodical observations were recorded on bacterial wilt incidence and harvest yield. All the experimental data were subjected to statistical analysis. Data on percentage values were transformed in to arcsine and analysis of ANOVA was carried out with transformed values. The means were compared to statistical significance using DMRT (Snedecor and Cochran, 1957). results and discussion Results showed that all the treatments were effective in reducing the bacterial wilt incidence and increasing the yield of tomato as compared to untreated control check. The bacterial wilt incidence was significantly low (9.0%) with highest yield of 28.8 t/ha in treatment where seed treatment followed by soil drenching with P. fluorescens was imposed (T3), as compared to highest wilt incidence of 62.0% with lowest yield of 8.25 t/ha in untreated control. The next best treatment was T6 - seed treatment plus soil drenching with B. subtilis, which recorded wilt incidence of 12.5% and yield of 25.4 t/ ha, respectively, followed by treatment T1 – seed treatment with P. fluorescens alone (10.0% wilt and 21.5 t/ha yield). The treatment T7 – Streptocycline @ 200 ppm (seed treatment and 2 sprays) recorded 25.0 per cent wilt incidence and 14.2 t/ ha yield, which is, however, lower than the other three treatments (Table 1). Since the mode of action of bioagents are either through root colonizing, and thereby not allowing pathogen entry into the root system or by way of inducing systemic resistance in plants by increasing the activities of defense related enzymes like Phenylalanine ammonia lyase, Peroxidise and Poly phenol oxidase, the method of application of bioagents is either by treating the seeds before sowing or treating roots before transplanting. The action of bioagents is more pronounced as the bacterial wilt pathogen is soil borne. Fluorescent pseudomonads are among the most effective rhizospheric bacteria used to suppress diseases caused by soilborne plant pathogens. P. fluorescens has been reported to be effective against Fusarium oxysporum infecting tomato (Benhamou et. al., 1996). Production of the antibiotic 2,4-DAPG contributes to biological control activity of many beneficial strains of the bacterium P. fluorescens (Weller, 2007). Hence, it is evident from the above study that P. fluorescens has high potential to be used as an effective biocontrol agent against bacterial wilt in tomato and it can easily be incorporated in the IDM strategy of fungal and bacterial diseases of horticultural crops. Acknowledgement The authors are grateful to the Director, Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Hessaraghatta Lake Post, Bangalore – 560 089 for providing necessary facilities to carry out the above study. 68 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Table 1. Field bio-efficacy of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis against bacterial wilt in tomato Treatment Mean % wilt Mean yield (t/ha) 1. Pseudomonas fluorescens - seed treatment 10.0 (18.40) 21.5 2. Pseudomonas fluorescens - Seedling root dip 14.4 (22.28) 19.8 3. Pseudomonas fluorescens - seed treatment + soil drenching 9.0 (17.41) 28.8 4. Bacillus subtilis - seed treatment 12.0 (20.22) 20.0 5. Bacillus subtilis - Seedling root dip 16.5 (23.93) 16.8 6. Bacillus subtilis - seed treatment + soil drenching 12.5 (20.65) 25.4 7. Streptocycline @ 200 ppm 25.0 (30.00) 14.2 8. Untreated control 62.0 (51.93) 8.25 1.89 3.82 CD (P=0.05) *Mean of four replications Figures in parenthesis are arc sine transformed values references Benhamou, N., Belanger, R. R. and Paulitz, T. C. 1996b. Induction of differential host responses by Pseudomonas fluoresens and Ri T-DNA transformed pea roots upon challenge with Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi and Pythium ultimum Phytopathology, 86: 1174-1185. Chellemi, D. O., Olson, S. M., Mitchell, D. J., Secker, I. and R. McSorley. 1997. Adaptation of soil solarization to the integrated management of soil borne pests of tomato under humid conditions. Phytopathology, 87: 250-258. Chen, W. P., and T.T. Kuo, 1993. A simple and rapid method for the preparation of gram negative bacterial genomic DNA. Nucleic Acids Research 1: 2260. Enfinger, J. M., McCarter, S. M. and C. A. Jaworski. 1979. Evaluation of chemicals and application methods for control of bacterial wilt of tomato transplants. Phytopathology, 69: 637-640. Hayward, A.C., 1991, Biology and Epidemiology of bacterial wilt caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum. Annual Review of phytopathology, 29: 65-87. Javier Imil, Q, 1994. Bacterial wilt: Hartman, G.L. and A. C. Hayward (Eds), ACIAR Proceedings, Canberra, pp 1-159. Kamal, A.M., Abo-Elyousra., Hoda and H. El-Hendawy, 2008. Integration of Pseudomonas fluorescens and acibenzolarS-methyl to control bacterial spot disease of tomato. Crop Protection, 27: 1118–1124. Kelman, A. 1954. The relationship of pathogenicity in Pseudomonas solanacearum to colony appearance on a tetrazolium medium, Phytopathology, 44: 693-695. Kucharek, T. 1998. Bacterial wilt of row crops in Florida. Circular-1207. University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Cooperative Extension Service. Pp. 9. Ram kishun., 1987, Loss in yield of tomato due to bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum. ACIAR Bacterial wilt Newsl., 2: 7 Rao, M. V. 1976. Bacterial wilt of tomato and eggplant in India. In: Planning Conference and Workshop on the Ecology and Control of Bacterial wilt caused by Pseudomonas solanacearum. North Carolina State University. Raleigh. Pp. 92-94. Schaad, N.W., J.B. Jones and W. Chun. 2001. Laboratory guide for identification of plant pathogenic bacteria. Bacteriology Committee of the American Phytopathological Soceity. Pp,. 373. Scott, J. W., Jones, J. B. and G. C. Somodi. 1995. ‘Neptune’, a heat-tolerant, bacterial-wilt tolerant tomato. Horticulture Science, 30: 641-642. 69 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Snedecor, G. W. and Cochran, W. G 1957. Statitical methods. Iowa State University Press, Ames. 593 pp. Waffaa, M.H. and E.S. Mostafa Abo, 2012. Production and Optimization of Pseudomonas fluorescens biomass and metabolites for biocontrol of Strawberry grey mould. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 2012, 3: 836-845 Weller, D.M. 2007. Pseudomonas bio-control agents of soil borne pathogens: Looking back over 30 years. Phytopathology, 97: 250-256. Wellinghausen, N., Köthe, J., Wirths, B., Sigge, A. .and S. Pop-pert, 2005. Superiority of molecular techniques for identification of gram-negative, oxidase-positive rods, including morphologically non typical Pseudomonas aeruginosa, from patients with cystic fibrosis. J. Clinical Microbiol., 43: 4070–4075. Yabuuchi, E., Kosako, Y., Yano, I., Hotta, H. and Y. Nishiuchi, 1995. Transfer of two Burkholderia and Alkanigens species to Ralstonia genus. Nov., Proposal of Ralstonia picketti (Ralston, Palleroni and Dougoroff, 1973). Comb. Nov. and Ralstonia eutropha (Da vis, 1969) comb. Microbiology and Immunology, 39: 897-904. 70 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-VIII BioeffiCACy of inseCtiCides, BioPestiCides And their ComBinAtions AgAinst PeACh LeAf CurL APhid, BrACHyCAuDus HelICHrysI (KALtenBACh) infesting PeACh gagandeep singh and divender gupta Department of Entomology, Dr.Y.S.Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni (Solan)-173 230 (HP) E mail: gaganento@gmail.com The peach (Prunus persica Batsch) is one of the important stone fruits with wide range of climatic adaptations and in India it is cultivated mostly in Himalayan region starting from the Jammu and Kashmir and extending up to North-Eastern hills and also in the Northern plains. In Himachal Pradesh, peach is commercially cultivated over an area of 5159 hectares with a production of 11276 MT (Anonymous, 2013), mainly in the mid hills. Rajgarh (District Sirmour), also known as peach bowl of Asia, is well known for the quality peaches throughout the country. Peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kaltenbach), a pest of regular occurrence is one of the most destructive pests which starts its activity with the onset of spring causing a loss of upto 50 per cent in the ultimate yield and hence is a major limiting factor in the successful cultivation of peach crop. Most of the management measures used against this pest are insecticide oriented and the insecticides belonging to OP group namely oxy-demeton methyl, dimethoate and monocrotophos are generally recommended, which are being used extensively by the orchardists. The frequent use of same group of insecticides poses resistance problem and therefore in order to prevent the possibility of development of resistance among the pest population, repeat application of same insecticide should be avoided. Neonicotinoids–a new group of insecticides with potent chemicals like thiamethoxam, imidacloprid, acetamiprid have different type of mode of action than OP insecticides and are being used against sucking pests worldwide, so there is a need to test these novel insecticides against this major pest of peach alongwith other alternative methods of pest management like biopesticides and some cultural operations etc. as not much work has been done on these aspects against this pest. So keeping above factors in view, in the present studies the bioefficacy of some neonicotinoids, biopesticides/plant products, and various combinations was evaluated against peach leaf curl aphid infesting peach. Bioefficacy studies A trial was laid out in the peach block of the Fruit Science Department of Dr.Y.S.Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni (Solan) situated at an elevation of about 1200 m amsl to test the bioefficacy of biopesticides, novel insecticides and pruning treatment in a Randomized Block Design (RBD). There were 23 treatments having three replications with a tree considered as replicate, including control wherein only water application was done. The first foliar application was given at the pink bud stage which was followed by the second one at fruit set stage with the help of a high volume sprayer up to run off stage. In pruning treatment, the terminal shoots of the tree with recent vegetative growth were pruned in December and no application of pesticide was given. The data on per cent infestation was taken by observing 20 whorls per tree whereas the data on population count was taken on 5 whorls/tree from all sides of the tree, after 7, 14 and 21 days of the second foliar application. The data so obtained is presented in Summary Tables 1 &2. infestation After 7 days of the second spray (Table-1), the infestation of peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi recorded was maximum (45.00%) in control, whereas the minimum infestation (6.67%) was recorded in the treatment T1 (thiamethoxam followed by oxydemeton methyl) and T2 (imidacloprid followed by oxydemeton methyl). In the standard recommended treatment i.e. oxy-demeton methyl (0.025%), the infestation recorded was 15 per cent. In treatments T3 and T4 where combination of oxydemeton methyl with neonicotinoids was followed also proved efficacious with an infestation of 11.67 per cent. The treatments where only single concentration of the biopesticides was used did not prove effective over the recommended insecticide though these were superior over control. In treatments T7-T10 where double concentration of neoncotinoids in combination with the recommended oxydemeton methyl was used, almost similar infestation to T1 and T2 was recorded. After 14 and 21 days, an increase in curling was recorded, but the trend remained same as was in the observations taken after 7 days. In control, upto 63.33 per cent infestation was recorded. When the overall mean was compared, the treatment T1 and T2 proved highly effective with an infestation of 8.89 and 9.44 per cent, respectively, in comparison to 18.33 per cent in the recommended treatment, oxy- demeton methyl (T6) and 53.33 per cent in control. 71 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Pruning treatment alone resulted in around 25 per cent infestation which was superior over control and at par with biopesticides sprays. Population count The population count per whorl was maximum (Table-2) in control being 180.67, 256.00 and 293.67, respectively, after 7, 14 and 21 days of the second foliar application. The minimum count i.e. 9.33, 17.33 and 23.33 aphids/whorl was recorded in the T2 (imidacloprid followed by oxydemeton methyl) followed by T1 (thiamethoxam followed by oxydemeton methyl) with respective values of 10.33, 18.33 and 25.33, which is due to the lowest infestation in these treatments. The count was in proportion to the level of infestation in different treatments. In the later stages the curling was there but the count was less. The overall mean count when taken into consideration also revealed T1 and T2 as the effective treatments being superior over the recommended insecticide oxydemeton methyl (T6) treatment. In pruning treatment (T11), a count of 78.33, 118.33 and 151.33 aphids/whorl was recorded which was superior over control and number of other treatments. Even though, no study has so far been conducted on the combination sprays involving different groups of insecticides however, the neonicotinoids have been reported to be effective against peach leaf curl aphid, B. helichrysi (Singh et al., 2003 and Sharma, 2010), peach green aphid, Myzus persicae Sulzer (Kourdoumbalos et al., 2006) and other aphids viz. lettuce aphids (Palumbo et al.,2001), Eriosoma lanigerum Hausmann (Singh and Gupta, 2006), okra aphid (Khan et al., 2011; Kalleshwaraswami et al., 2012; Amoakwah et al.,2013) and mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi Kalt. (Mandal et al., 2012) which corroborate the present findings to a considerable extent. Table- 1 Bioefficacy of different treatments against peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi infesting Peach trees Treatment Average infestation (%) DAS Mean 7 14 21 Thiamethoxam (0.008%) followed by oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) t1 6.67(14.75) 8.33(16.59) 11.67(19.88) 8.89(17.07) Imidacloprid (0.008%) followed by oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) t2 6.67(14.75) 8.33(16.59) 13.33(21.33) 9.44 (17.56) Oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) followed by thiamethoxam 11.67(19.88) (0.008%) t3 15.00(22.59) 18.33(25.30) 15.00(22.59) Oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) followed by imidacloprid 0.008% t4 11.67(19.88) 13.33(21.33) 20.00(26.55) 15.00 (22.59) Econeem 0.02% a.i. followed by Econeem 0.02% a.i. t5 16.67(24.04) 23.33(28.84) 36.67(37.24) 25.56 (30.04) Oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) followed by oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) t6 15.00 (22.78) 16.67 (24.04) 23.33 (28.84) 18.33 (25.22) Oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) followed by thiamethoxam 8.33(16.59) 0.016% t7 13.33(21.33) 16.67(24.04) 12.78(20.65) Oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) followed by imidacloprid 0.016% t8 8.33(16.59) 11.67(19.88) 15.00(22.59) 11.67(19.69) Thiamethoxam 0.016% followed by oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) t9 5.00(12.92) 6.67(14.75) 11.67(19.88) 7.78(15.85) Imidacloprid 0.016% followed by oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) t10 5.00(12.92) 6.67(14.75) 10.00(18.43) 7.22(15.37) Pruning t11 15.00(22.78) 25.00(29.99) 33.33(35.24) 24.44(29.33) Control (water) t12 45.00 (42.10) 51.67(45.94) 63.33(52.72) 53.33(46.92) Mean 12.92 (19.99) 15.56 (23.05) 19.72(27.67) - CD (p=0.05) Treatment (T): (2.07); Days (D): (0.75) Figures in parentheses are angular transformation values TXD= (3.58) DAS: Days after second spray 72 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Table- 2 Bioefficacy of different treatments against peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi infesting Peach trees as revealed by the aphid count Treatment Average aphid count (DAS) Mean 7 14 21 Thiamethoxam (0.008%) followed by oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) t1 10.33 18.33 25.33 18.00 Imidacloprid (0.008%) followed by oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) t2 9.33 17.33 23.33 16.67 Oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) followed by thiamethoxam (0.008%) t3 37.67 61.00 89.67 62.78 Oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) followed by imidacloprid (0.008%) t4 35.67 65.00 86.00 62.22 Econeem 0.02% a.i. followed by Econeem 0.02% a.i. t5 87.67 125.67 164.33 125.89 Oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) followed by oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) t6 55.33 79.67 126.00 87.00 Oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) followed by thiamethoxam (0.016%) t7 24.33 39.67 61.33 41.78 Oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) followed by imidacloprid (0.016%) t8 21.33 36.67 54.00 37.33 Thiamethoxam (0.016%) followed by oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) t9 8.67 15.00 18.33 14.00 Imidacloprid (0.016%) followed by oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) t10 8.67 14.00 18.00 13.56 Pruning t11 78.33 118.33 151.33 116.00 Control (water) t12 180.67 256.00 293.67 243.44 Mean 46.50 70.56 92.61 - CD (p=0.05): Treatment (T): 7.21 Days (D): 2.60 TxD: 12.49 DAS: Days after second spray Neonicotinoid based treatments i.e. thiamethoxam (0.008%) followed by oxy-demeton methyl (0.025%), and imidacloprid (0.008%) followed by oxy-demeton methyl (0.025%) were found effective in managing the pest in comparison to the standard recommended insecticide (oxydemeton methyl, 0.025%), sprayed at pink bud and fruit set stage. Though the treatments where higher concentrations of neonicotinoids was used were also effective but were on par with the treatments where lower concentration of the neonicotinoids was applied. The biopesticides did not perform well in comparison to the synthetic insecticides. The infestation in the pruning treatment alone was comparable to the recommended insecticide, oxydemeton methyl (0.025%) and was less in comparison to the biopesticides treatments indicating thereby its superiority over the latter. None of the treatments exhibited any phytotoxicity symptoms both on the trees as well as on the fruits. references Amoakwah E, Judith F M and Essumang D K. 2013. Assessing the efficacy of imidacloprid 20% SL as an insecticide against aphids in cultivated okra plants in a tropical ecosystem: a case study of mamponteng Kumasi, Ghana for the 2011 and 2012 cropping period. ARPN Journal of Science and Technology 3(4): 390-395. Kalleshwaraswamy C M, Krishnakumar N K, Chandrashekara K N and Akella Vani. 2012. Efficacy of insecticides and oils on feeding behaviour of Aphis gossypii Glover and transmission of papaya ringspot virus (PRSV). Karnataka Journal Agriculture Sciences 25(1): 63-67. Khan M A, Saljoqi A U R, Hussain N and Sattar S. 2011. Response of Myzus persicae (Sulzer) to imidacloprid and thiamethoxam on susceptible and resistant potato varieties. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture 27(2): 263 Kourdoumbalos A K, Margaritopoloulos J T, Nanos G D and Tsitsipis J A. 2006. Alternative aphid control methods for peach production. Journal of Fruit and Ornamental Plant Research 14(3): 181-188. Mandal D, Bhowmik P and Chatterjee M L. 2012. Evaluation of new and conventional insecticides for the management of mustard aphid, Lipaphis erysimi Kalt. (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rapeseed (Brassica juncea L.). Journal of Plant Protection Sciences 4(2): 37-42. Palumbo J C, Reyes F J, Mullis J, Amaya C H, Ledesma A, and Carey L. 2001. Neonicotinoids and azadirachtin in lettuce: comparison of application methods for control of lettuce aphids. Vegetable Report Series, Arizona, pp. 35-42. Sharma D R 2010. Bioefficacy of insecticides against peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kaltenbach) in Punjab. Indian Journal of Entomology 72(3): 217-222. Singh S S, Tiwari H C and Singh V P. 2003. Management of leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.) in peach orchard using insecticides. Annals of Plant Protection Sciences 11(1): 35-37. Singh B and Gupta D. 2006. Efficacy of some new insecticides against the woolly apple aphid, Eriosoma lanigerum (Hausmann). Pest Management and Economic Zoology 14 (1/2): 63-66. 73 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-IX distriBution of AnthoCorid Bugs on different fLorA in suB-temPerAte And temPerAte zone of himAChAL PrAdesh (indiA) nisha devi, P r gupta and KC sharma Department of Entomology and Apiculture, Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (H.P.)173 230, India E-mail: nisha82.rajput@gmail.com Abstract Periodical field surveys carried out to record the distribution of anthocorid bugs on different flora infested with softbodied insects (aphids, psyllids, thrips, etc.) and mites revealed that both the prey and predators were associated with different plants hosts; their activity was noticed on various plants including vegetable crops, fruit crops, ornamentals and forest-wild flora. During field survey, anthocorid bugs belonging to three genera and five species were identified from Solan area, which were Anthocoris confusus Reuter and A. dividens Bu and Zheng, belonging to Anthocorini tribe, Orius bifilarus Ghauri and O. niger Wolff (tribe Oriini) and Lippomanus brevicornis Yamada and Hirowatari (tribe Almeidini), the last one got attracted to white paper sheet spread over debris in the cucumber field. Others were collected from 16 plant species (herbs, shrubs and trees). The maximum population of Orius was noticed on annual crops, whereas Anthocoris was observed on trees. Orius bifilarus was the predominant species in Solan area (also recorded at Mashobra in Shimla and Jogindernagar in Mandi districts) on annual crops and was associated with all 16 host plants from which anthocorids were collected during the period of study, whereas O. niger was associated with 7 host plants. Both the species of Anthocoris, i.e. Anthocoris confusus and A. dividens were found to be associated primarily with one host plants, viz. peach (Prunus persica) and bauhinia (Bauhinia vahlii), respectively. Key words: Anthocoris confusus, Anthocoris dividens, Orius bifilarus, Orius niger, Lippomanus brevicornis introduction Anthocorids possess many of the characteristics of an ideal biocontrol agent, such as high searching efficiency and feeding rate, short duration of development, density dependent response to the pest population and synchronization of predator and prey population. The aim of this study was to find the hosts of anthocorid bugs on different flora infested with softbodied insects (aphids, psyllids, thrips, etc.) and mites. They are associated largely with annual and perennial crops, forests, greenhouse crops, ornamental plants, and stored products. Anthocoris and Orius are the commonly occurring genera. Species of Anthocoris more commonly occur on shrubs (e.g. A. bakeri Poppius and A. whitei Reuter) but most are found on a variety of trees (e.g. Salix, Populus, Malus, Pyrus, Fraxinus, etc.) (Kelton, 1978). Several species of Anthocoris are known as important biological control agents in temperate fruit orchards, where they feed extensively on pest psyllids and aphids (Anderson, 1962; Kelton, 1978). Several species of Orius have been found in orchards including O. insidiosus (Say), O. vicinus (Ribaut), O. majasculas (Reuter), O. niger Wolff and O. minutus (L.) (Kabicek and Hejzlar, 1996; Welty, 1995), where they feed on small insects. Orius spp. occur in greenhouses and in variety of row crops, where they feed on thrips, mites, aphids, and eggs of pest Lepidoptera. These predators may be particularly important natural enemies of flower thrips (Van de Veire and Degheel, 1995). material and methods Periodic observations at weekly interval were carried out for recording the population of anthocorid bugs in the University Campus, Nauni, Solan during the period from March to December for two years (2009-2010) and from March to August in 2011. Collection of anthocorids was also made during III week of April in 2010 and II week of June in 2011 from Mashobra in Shimla and during III week of July from Joginder Nagar in Mandi. For collection of these bugs different vegetable crops [Cucumis sativus (L.), Phaseolus vulgaris (L.) and Solanum tuberosum (L.)], field crop (Zea mays L.), fruit crops [Malus domestica Borkh. and Prunus persica (L.) Batsch], ornamentals (Callistemon lanceolatus (Sm.), Cosmos sulphureus Cav., Dahlia X hybrida Cav., Clarkia amoena (Lehm.) A.Nels. & J.F.Macbr, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L., Polianthes tubrosa L., Rosa spp.) and wild flora [Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth, Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arnott and Eucalyptus hybrid] infested with soft bodied insects (aphids, psyllids, thrips, etc.) and mites were surveyed. In order to follow a standard methodology for each crop, mainly the flowers and apical growing buds were monitored and anthocorids (adults and nymphs) were collected by shaking the flowers and apical buds onto a plastic bag. Sampling continued for 30 minutes, but when no specimen could 74 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” be obtained it was prolonged to 1 hour. The collected specimens were brought to the laboratory and counted as males and females. Adults were identified by using keys in literature. results and discussion Field studies carried out during 2009-2011 revealed that anthocorid bugs belonging to three genera and five species were identified from Solan area viz. Anthocoris confusus Reuter, A. dividens Bu and Zheng, Orius bifilarus Ghauri, O. niger Wolff and Lippomanus brevicornis Yamada and Hirowatari collected from 16 plant species (herbs, shrubs and trees, the last one collected from debris in the cucumber field) (Table 1). Among them the maximum population of Orius was noticed on annual crops, where as Anthocoris was observed on trees. Overall, 59% of adults totally collected belong to O. bifilarus, 5% to O. niger, 28% to A. confusus, 2% to A. dividens, 2% to L. brevicornis and 4% to other unidentified sp. (Figure1). Péricart (1972) reported 11 genera and Kelton (1978) 12 genera from broad leaved trees including Acer, Alnus, Betula, Carya, Corylus, Fagus, Fraxinus, Juglans, Populas, Prunus, Quercus, Salix, and Tilia, but no specimen was collected from Fagus, Populas and Salix from that region. Anderson (1962a) also recorded six Anthocoris species from England found on tree species. table 1: Number specimens of anthocorids collected on cultivated and wild flora (January 2009-August, 2011) Plants Orius bifilarus Orius niger Anthocoris confusus Anthocoris dividens Lippomanus brevicorni others ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ ♀ ♂ Cucumis sativus 89 38 9 7 - - - - 1 14 4 3 Phaseolus vulgaris 18 17 1 1 - - - - - - - - Solanum tuberosum - 2 - - - 1 - - - - - - Field crop Zea mays 22 14 4 3 - - - - - - 2 - Fruit crops Malus domestica 6 3 - - - - - - - - 1 - Prunus persica 38 33 4 5 122 106 1 - - - 12 8 Callistemon lanceolatus 3 3 - - - - - - - - - - Cosmos sulphureus 19 12 - - - - - - - - - - Dahlia X hybrida 35 31 - 9 - - - - - - - - Clarkia amoena 22 18 4 3 - - - - - - - - Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 7 3 1 2 - - - - - - - - Polianthes tubrosa 5 2 - - - - -- - - - - - Rosa spp. 1 - - - - - - - - - - - Albizia lebbeck 14 7 - - - - - - - - - - Bauhinia vahlii 9 2 - - - - 8 6 - - 1 - Eucalyptus hybrid 7 3 - - - - - - - - - - Total 295 188 23 40 122 107 9 6 1 14 20 11 Sex Ratio (within species) 61.08% 38.92% 36.51% 63.49% 53.28% 46.72% 60.00% 40.00% 6.67% 93.33% 64.52% 35.48% Vegetable crops Ornamentals Wild flora 75 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” In Himachal Pradesh, Anthocoris minki Dohrn has been reported feeding on the peach leaf-curl aphid infesting peach and other stone fruits from Shimla (Verma and Singh, 1989) and Solan (Gupta et al., 1988), while Bhardwaj (1991) reported A. confusus on almond trees infested with the peach leaf-curl aphid from Kinnaur district. Bhardwaj (1991) observed the predator activity on aphid-infested almond trees. However, in Solan, its activity persisted on peach trees only. Present observation is contradictory to earlier reports of occurrence of A. minki in Solan and Shimla districts of Himachal Pradesh. During the study period not even a single specimen of A. minki was collected and all specimens matched with those of A. confusus. Among collected specimens 53.28% were females, whereas, 46.72% were males. Horton and Lewis (2009) stated that A. confusus was a common European species which is more of a tree dwelling type. They collected adults and nymphs of A. confusus from deciduous trees in Western Washington State from European beech (Fagus sylvatica) and linden (Tilia sp.) trees infested with the aphid, Eucallipterus tiliae. In the present study, Anthocoris dividens from Bauhinia vahli is being reported for the first time from India. Earlier this species was reported from China, which was misidentified as a unique colour form of A. miyamotoi Hiur, where it is distributed in Yunnan and Sichuan Province at altitude of 2700m (Bu and Zheng 2001). Its per cent occurrence on wild flora and fruit crop was 93% and 7%, respectively. Sex ratio of collected specimens was 60:40 (female: male). Orius nymphs and adults were collected by beating flowers or terminal buds by Bosco and Tevella (2008). Same technique was used to capture the Orius species and these bugs were mostly collected from annual crops. Study of Tommasini et al. (2004) revealed the association of Orius species mainly with annual crops. They collected Orius from 19 vegetable crops, 10 ornamental crops and from 5 wild plants in Italy. In the present study, Orius spp. were collected from 16 plant species (herbs, shrubs and trees). Amongst two species, Orius bifilarus was the predominant in Solan area and was noticed on all the 16 host plants with maximum per cent occurrence on vegetable crops and ornamentals near about 34% and 33%, respectively, whereas O. niger was found associated with 7 host plants with maximum abundance 41% on vegetable crops . Among collected specimens in O. bifilarus 61.08% were females and 38.92% were males. Whereas, in O. niger 63.49% were males and 36.51% females were collected. Adults of Lippomanus brevicornis were collected only once from the debris in the cucurbit field. They were attracted towards a white paper sheet spread over the soil in field. Yamada and Hirowatari (2004), who described this species from Japan, collected its specimens from light trap. They also collected some individuals from leaf litter layers or clusters of withered leaves on the ground. Among collected specimens only single female and fourteen males were collected. Fig 1. Relative per cent abundance of anthocorids on different flora 76 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” references Anderson N H. 1962. Anthocoridae of the Pacific Northwest with notes on distribution, life histories and habitats (Heteroptera). Canadian Entomologist 94: 1325-1334. Anderson N H. 1962a. Bionomics of six species of Anthcoris (Heteroptera: Anthcoridae) in England. Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London 114: 67-95. Bhardwaj S P. 1991. Biological management of Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.) infesting almond in dry temperate region of Himachal Pradesh. Journal of Aphidology 1&2: 26-31. Bosco L and Tavella L. 2008. Collection of Orius species in horticultural areas of northwestern Italy. Bulletin of Insectology 61 (1): 209-210. Bu W J and Zheng L Y. 2001. Fauna Sinica. Insecta vol. 24. Hemiptera. Lasiochilidae Lyctocoridae Anthocoridae. Chinese Academy of Sciences, Science Press, Beijing, China. 267 pp. [In Chinese with English summary] Gupta P R, Thakur J R and Dogra G S. 1988. Management of peach leaf curl aphid, Brachycaudus helichrysi (Kalt.) infesting stone fruits in Himachal Pradesh. Journal of Tree Sciences 7 (1): 26-30. Hernandez L M and Stonedahl G M. 1999. A review of the economically important species of the genus Orius (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) in East Africa. Journal of Natural History 33: 543-568. Horton D R and Lewis T M. 2009. Anthocoris confusus collected from Western Washington state, with a summary of North American records (Hemiptera: Heteroptera: Anthocoridae). Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington 111 (3): 609-616. Kabicek J, Hejzlar P. 1996. Predation by Orius majasculus (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) on the apple aphid Aphis pomi (Sternorrhyncha: Aphididae) on apple tree. OrChr Rostro 32: 57-63. Kelton L A. 1978. The insects and arachnids of Canada and Alaska (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae). Canada Department of Agriculture Publication number 1639, pp 101. Pericart J. 1972. Faune de l’Europe et du Bassin Mediterreen. No. 7. Hemipteres Anthocoridae, Cimicidae et Microphysidae de l’Quest-Palearctique. 402pp. Paris: Masson et Cie. Tommasini M G. 2004. Collection of Orius species in Italy. Bulletin of Insectology 52 (2): 65-72. Van de Veire M and Degheel D. 1995. Comparative laboratory experiment with Orius insidiosus and Orius albidipennis (Het: Anthocoridae), two candidate for biological control in glasshouses. Entomophaga 40: 341-344. Verma K L and Singh M. 1989. Evaluation of different predators and parasites as biological control agent on peach leaf curl aphid. Pesticides 23: 29-32. Welty C. 1995. Survey of predators associated with European red mite (Panonychus ulmis, Acari: Tetranychidae) in Ohio apple orchards. Great Lakes Entomologist 28: 171-184. Yamada K and Hirowatari T. 2004. A new species of the genus Lippomanus Distant (Heteroptera, Anthocoridae) from the Ryukyu Islands, Japan. The Japanese Journal of Systematic Entomology 10 (1): 57-61 77 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-X BioLogy of Citrus PsyLLA, DIApHOrInA CItrI KuWAyAmA on three host PLAnts during summer seAson hiJAm s. devi And d. r. shArmA* Department of Entomology, and *Fruit Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141004 e-mail : shilahijam@gmail.com and drajsharma@pau.edu Abstract The comparative biology of citrus psylla, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama was studied on Citrus reticulate (Kinnow), Citrus jambhiri (Rough lemon) and Murraya koenigii (Curry leaf) during spring season 2012. Fourth and fifth instar nymph of citrus psylla were collected from citrus grooves and reared on one year old Rough lemon plant under screen house conditions. The adults emerged were aspirated into cylinder cages and released in two pairs per plant for 8 hours with a set of 5 plants each of Kinnow, Rough lemon and curry leaf separately. The result showed that the number of eggs laid per female on Kinnow (391.8 ± 76.57) and rough lemon (367.7 ± 83.33) were significantly more than that on curry leaf (330.1 ± 75.33). The average incubation periods on three hosts varied from 3 to 4 days and there was no significant difference of nymphal developmental periods on all host plants. The average female longevity on curry leaf (32.8 ± 8.43 days) was significantly higher than that on Kinnow (28.8 ± 6.56 days) and rough lemon (30.1 ± 3.78 days). It was concluded that Kinnow and rough lemon was more preferred than curry leaf. Key Words: Diaphorina citri, biology, host plant, huanglongbing introduction Citrus is commercially grown throughout India and its share in total fruit production in country is 12.6 per cent with an average productivity of 9.32 tonnes /ha (Kumar et al., 2010) comprising mostly mandarin, sweet oranges, limes and lemons. Punjab contributes about 8.5 per cent citrus to nation’s citrus pool. But its production is limited by the attack of various insect pests. Among the various insect and mite pests of citrus, the psyllid, Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) is currently one of the most important pests of world citriculture as it is distributed across the several countries (Halbert & Manjunath, 2004). Nava et al. (2007) studied the biology of D. citri on different host plants namely C. limonia (Rangpur lime), Murraya paniculata (orange jassamine) and C. sunki (Sunki mandarin) in Brazil but such information is not available in detail in India. Thus, an attempt to study the biology of this pest on Citrus reticulata (Kinnow), Citrus jambhiri (Rough lemon) and Murraya koenigii (curry leaf) was made during summer season to know its development on different host plants in Punjab. material and methods Fourth/fifth instar nymph of citrus psylla were collected from citrus plants located at New Orchard, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana and reared on one year old Rough lemon plant under screen house conditions during 2012. The adults emerged were aspirated into cylinder cages and released in two pairs/potted plant properly covered with glass chimneys with a set of 5 plants each of Kinnow, Rough lemon and curry leaf separately. After oviposition, the adults were removed from the cage and eggs were counted by using the magnifying lens. Eggs laid on the potted plants were allowed to hatch and then freshly hatched nymphs were transferred individually to the seedling plants of each test species using a camel’s hair brush and the plants were again covered with glass chimneys, with one end covered with muslin. For the adult longevity, 50 freshly emerged adults (25 males and 25 females) were released in caged plants of each plant species and daily observations were made by serial transformation of test plant. The duration of eggs, different nymphal instars and adults were recorded. result and discussion During summer season, the pre-mating, pre-oviposition and oviposition periods lasted for 3.9 ± 0.88 to 4.2 ± 0.92, 1.5 ± 0.53 to 1.8 ± 0.79 and 15.4 ± 3.66 to 17.5 ± 3.41 days on the three host plants (Table 1). The average pre-oviposition in the present study was shorter as reported by Nehru et al. (2006). The variation could be due to host plants as well as the environmental conditions. The average number of eggs laid by gravid females on Kinnow, rough lemon and curry leaf was found to be 391.8 ± 76.57, 367.7 ± 83.33 and 3301 ± 75.33 respectively. There were five nymphal stages (5 instars) and they increase in size after each moult. The average total nymphal stage of D. citri for both the years was 16.0 ± 1.24, 16.7 78 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” ± 1.04 and 17.35 ± 1.09 days, respectively on Kinnow, rough lemon and curry leaf during summer season. The female lived longer than male and the duration varied from 27.4 ± 5.36 days on Kinnow to 31.65 ± 6.38 days on curry leaf which was similar to Atwal (1976) but the adult longevity reported in the present study was at variation to Chhetry et al. (2002). The total adult longevity was found to be more on curry leaf than on the other host plants. table 1. Biological parameters of Diaphorina citri on different hosts during summer season (June to August ) 2012 Parameters Biological parameters on different host plants (mean ± sd) Kinnow Rough Lemon Curry leaf Number of eggs/female 391.8 ± 76.57 367.7 ± 83.33 330.1 ± 75.33 Pre-mating (days) 4.2 ± 0.92 4.1 ± 1.45 3.9 ± 0.88 Mating (minutes) 13.8 ± 3.99 16.9 ± 4.10 18.2 ± 2.94 Pre-oviposition (days) 1.8 ± 0.79 1.5 ± 0.53 1.6 ± 0.70 Oviposition (days) 17.5 ± 3.41 15.4 ± 3.66 15.7 ± 4.62 Incubation (days) 3.3 ± 0.48 3.2 ± 0.42 3.4 ± 0.52 1st instar 2.6 ± 0.70 2.8 ± 0.79 2.6 ± 0.70 2nd instar 2.9 ± 0.74 2.9 ± 0.57 2.9 ± 0.74 Nymphal duration (days) 3 instar 3.2 ± 0.79 3.3 ± 0.82 3.4 ± 0.97 4th instar 3.4 ± 0.52 3.8 ± 0.79 4.2 ± 0.79 5th instar 4 ± 0.82 4.1 ± 0.74 4.1 ± 0.61 rd Fig 1. Adult longevity of D. citri on different host plants during summer season (2012) 79 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” references Atwal A S (1976) Agricultural pests of India and South East Asia. Kalyani Publishers, Ludhaina, pp. 195-213. Chhetry M, Gupta R and Tara J S (2012) Bionomics of Diaphorina citri Kuwayama (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) on Citrus sinensis in Jammu region of J & K state. Munis Entomology and Zoology 7: 305-08. Nehru R K, Bhagat K C and Koul V K (2006) Biology of Diaphorina citri Kuwayama on Citrus sinensis Osbeck. Envn. Ecol. 24 : 443-448. Nava D E, Torres M L G, Rodrigues M D L, Bento J M S, and Parra J R P (2007) Biology of Diaphorina citri (Hem., Psyllidae) on different hosts and at different temperatures. J Appl Entomol 131: 709-715. Kumar B, Mistry N C, Singh B and Gandhi C P (2010) Indian Horticulture Data Base-2009. pp 275. National Horticulture Board, Gurgaon, India. Halbert S E and Manjunath K L (2004) Asian citrus psyllids (Sternorryncha: Psyllidae) and greening disease of citrus: a literature review and assessment of risk in Florida. Fla Entomol 87: 330-353. 80 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-XI ProsPeCtive of BLACK grAm Pis As Pest ControL Agents By tArgeting deveLoPment of meLon fruit fLy Amrit Pal Kaur, satwinder K. sohal Department of Zoology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005 (India) E-mail : amritsidhu22@hotmail.com Abstract The antimetabolic properties of partially purified protease inhibitors from black gram, (Vigna mungo L.) were evaluated against third instar larvae of melon fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tephritidae). The partially purified inhibitor had a detrimental effect on growth and development of B. cucurbitae larvae tested in laboratory feeding bioassays. Larval period of the treated larvae showed a non-significant increase when compared to the control larvae. The pupal period and total development period was found to be significantly (p<0.01) influenced by the partially purified protease inhibitor isolated from black gram. Further, a non-significant decrease in percentage pupation and percentage emergence was observed as the ultimate effect on growth of melon fruit fly. Keywords: artificial diet, diptera, Vigna mungo, insect bioassay, melon fruit fly. introduction Fruit flies are among the top tephritid pests of fruits and crops. The conventional control measures used to manage tephritid pests have had only a limited success (Roessler 1989), and has led to increased environmental concerns necessitating that alternative strategies be sought for their control (Haq et al. 2010). The melon fruit fly, Bactrocera cucurbitae (Coquillett) is an economically important pest of fruits and vegetables, particularly considered as a destructive pest of cucurbits and can cause severe losses (up to 100%), (White and Elson-Harris 1992). Therefore the present study was envisaged to partially purify Protease inhibitors from black gram and evaluate their biopesticidal potential against B. cucurbitae by studying their effect on growth and survival of the melon fruit fly. materials and methods Procurement of plant material and chemicals: Seed samples of black gram (V. mungo L.) were procured from the local market and were identified from the Department of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar for the extraction and partial purification (Prasad et al., 2010) of protease inhibitors. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was obtained from Loba (India). Bovine trypsin, N-a-benzoyl-DL-arginine-p-nitroanilide (BApNA) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich. Pritein estimation and trypsin inhibition Assay: Protein estimation was done in crude as well as partially purified preparations by the method of Lowry et al. (1951) using bovine serum albumin. Trypsin residual activity was estimated by hydrolysis of N-a-benzoyl-DL-arginine-p-nitroanilide (BAPNA) in the presence of inhibitor (Paulino da Silva et al. 2001). insect rearing: The cultures of melon fruit fly were maintained on natural food in the insect culture room/B.O.D incubator with controlled temperature (25±2ºC), relative humidity (70-80%) and photo phase (10L: 14D) (Gupta et al. 1978). Adult flies were provided 20% sugar solution and protinex (Pfizer India) in petri dishes as food and pieces of pumpkin fruit, Cucurbitae moschata (Dusch.) for oviposition. insect Bioassays: About 100 gravid females were released in wire mesh cages provided with fresh pumpkin pieces for 8h. The pumpkin pieces were removed at an appropriate time interval from the cages and dissected in saline water for harvesting the third instar (64-72h old) larvae. The harvested larvae were transferred to culture tubes (25mm diameter x 100mm length) containing artificial diet incorporated with various concentrations (viz. 12.5, 25, 50, 100, 200 and 400µg/ mL) of partially purified protease inhibitor. The artificial diet (control as well as treated) was prepared according to the standardized methodology given by Srivastava (1975). Observations were made daily for larval period, pupal period, total development period, percentage in pupation, percentage in emergence and pupal weight. There were six replications with 15 larvae in each replication for each concentration. statistical analysis: SPSS 10.0 computer program was used for the statistical analysis. The results were expressed as mean ± S.E. The means were compared using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Statistical differences were determined by Tukey post-hoc test. 81 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” effect on growth and development: The larval period was insignificantly prolonged by 0.16 days at the highest concentration of 400µg/ml as compared to the control (Table 1). The pupal period showed an increase of 2.01 days which was found to be statistically significant (F value = 5.98, p<0.01). Further, the total development period was also delayed by 2.16 days (p<0.01) at 400µg/ml concentration as compared to control. A non- Significant decrease were observed on the pupation and adult emergence when third larval instar of B. Cucurbitae was treated with partially purified protease inhibitor isolated from black gram. Maximum inhibitory effect of 6.67% on pupation was observed at 400µg/ml (Fig. 1). The adult emergence was also found inhibited invariably with increase in concentration and the highest inhibition of 5.55% was found at 12.5 and 50 µg/ml concentration as compared to control (Fig. 1). Partially purified PI also affected the pupal weight, which was reduced significantly (P > 0.01) but invariably from control to a range of concentrations tested (Fig. 2). Lower pupation and emergence has also been observed in the noctuid, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) fed on diets impregnated with soybean trypsin inhibitor (Shukla et al. 2005). The survival of sunn pest, Eurygaster integriceps Puton was also affected significantly by the presence of soybean trypsin inhibitor in the diet (Saadati and Bandani 2011). Conclusion: It can be concluded that although partially purified PIs from black gram ingested via artificial diet, were not acutely toxic to the third instar of B. cucurbitae, the sublethal effects on life history parameters measured in this study and the detrimental effects on first, second instar of melon fruit fly (monitored in previous studies) must be considered in a broader context to determine their possible ecological significance. references Gupta JN, Verma AN, Kashyap RK (1978) An improved method for mass rearing for melon fruit fly Dacus cucurbitae Coquillett. Indian Journal of Entomology 40: 470-471. Haq I, Mayr L, Teal PEA, Hendrichs J, Robinson AS, Stauffer C, Hood-Nowotny R (2010) Total body nitrogen and total body carbon as indicators of body protein and body lipids in the melon fly Bactrocera cucurbitae: effects of methoprene, a juvenile hormone analogue, and of diet supplementation with hydrolysed yeast. Journal of Insect Physiology 56: 1807–1815. Lowry OH, Rosebrough A, Lewis FA, Randall RJ (1951) Protein measurement with the Folin Phenol reagent. Journal of Biological Chemistry 193: 263-275. Paulino da Silva L, Leite JRSA, Bloch Jr C, Maria de Freitas S (2001) Stability of a black eyed pea tripsin/chymotrypsin inhibitor (BTCI). Protein Peptide Letters 8: 33-38. Prasad ER, Dutta-Gupta A, Padmasree K (2010) Purification and characterization of a Bowman-Birk proteinase inhibitor from the seeds of black gram (Vigna mungo). Phytochemistry 71: 363-372. Roessler Y (1989) Control; insecticides; insecticidal bait and cover sprays, pp. 329-336. In World crop pests 3(B). Fruit flies; their biology, natural enemies and control (Edited by A. S. Robinson and G. Hooper). Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Saadati F, Bandani AR (2011) Effect of serine protease inhibitors on growth and development and digestive serine proteinases of the sunn pest, Eurygaster integriceps. Journal of Insect Science 11:72 available online: insectscience. org/11.72 Shukla S, Arora R, Sharma HC (2005) Biological activity of soybean trypsin inhibitor and plant lectins against cotton bollworm/legume pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera. Plant Biotechnology 22(1): 1–6. Srivastava BG (1975) A chemically defined diet for Dacus cucurbitae (Coq.) larvae under aseptic conditions. Entomology News Letters 5: 24. White IM, Elson-Harris MM (1992) Fruit flies of Economic Significance: Their Identification and Bionomics. C.A.B. International, Wallingford, U.K. 82 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-XII inseCt Pests AssoCiAtion And evALuAtion for effiCACy of orgAniC inPuts in orgAniCALLy groWn CABBAge surender Kumar sharma* and neha thakur** and K.s. verma** *Department of Organic Agriculture CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur **Department of Entomology, CSK HPKV, Palampur email- surender.brs@gmail.com Abstract In recent times due to hazards of synthetic pesticides there is a significant sensitization of global community towards environmental preservation, assurance of food quality and inclination towards the organic products. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata) is a main vegetable cash crop of Himachal Pradesh grown under organic and conventional systems of agriculture. Crop has been cultivated more intensively and succumbs to varied infestation by over 42 insect species. Under organic agriculture there is a need to have alternative to pesticides to manage insects associated with the crop. Field experiments were undertaken in RBD with an aim to know comparative association of insects, their population build up and evaluation of organic inputs for their efficacy against key pests of cabbage variety Golden Acre grown organically under two farm locations having organic and conventional systems at CSK HPKV, Palampur during 2012-13. Insects’ succession was recorded in an order of cutworms, field cricket, aphid, cabbage maggot, diamondback moth, cabbage butterfly and white grubs during the cropping season. Under field conditions six organic modules were tested for their comparative efficacy against major pests; Module1 containing sprays of (Neem oil, Bt, Melia extract, panchgavya, neem oil and Melia extract) at 10 day interval was found significantly superior against aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae). Module 5 (Bt + panchgavya, Bt, panchgavya + neem seed kernel extract, Lantana + neem oil) was found the most effective against diamondback moth and cabbage butterfly. Comparatively more incidence of insect pests in the organic farm was observed. Key words: Cabbage, organic agriculture, insect- pests’ succession, population build up, spray module introduction Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata) is a main vegetable cash crop of Himachal Pradesh grown under organic and conventional systems of agriculture. Its intensive cultivation and frequent applications of recommended insecticides has led to incremental infestation by more than 42 insect species (Hasan and Ansari, 2010). The insecticides are undoubtedly effective for averting pest attack but also resulted in development of pest resistance, resurgence of pests, residue in soil & agriculture produce, reduction of biodiversity of natural enemies and outbreak of secondary insect-pests (Raj, 2003). Recently, a significant sensitization of the global community towards environmental preservation and assurance of food quality hence an inclination of farmers to go organic has resulted in over 200% growth in certified organic area (Ramesh et al., 2010). Organic agriculture is a gateway of safer alternatives to bio-agents, farmers and consumers where despite using synthetic insecticides, use of bio-rationals especially botanicals, bio-pesticides and botanicals blended with cow urine have gained worldwide attention. (Patel et al., 2003; Gnanasambandhan et al., 2000; Grainge et al., 1984). Cabbage insectpests; diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella Linn.), cabbage white butterfly (Pieris brassicae Linn.), cabbage semilooper (Tricholusia orichalcea Fab.), Aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae Linn.), and cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon Hufn.) are of major significance. B. brassicae causes up to 80 per cent loss while the larvae of P. brassicae, T. orichalcea and P. xylostella eat the leaves and contaminate the marketable heads of crop. P. brassicae causes up to 24 per cent infestation while P. xylostella an economic damage up to 90 per cent. materials and methods The field experiments with cabbage variety ‘Golden Acre’ were laid in university experimental farms of Departments of Entomology and Organic Agriculture, CSK HPKV, Palampur during the year 2012-13. Nursery was Part of M.Sc. Thesis of Ms. Neha Thakur submitted in 2013 to CSK HPKVishvavidyalaya, Palampur raised organically and a month old seedlings were transplanted in field with three replications in RBD at spacing of 45 cm x45 cm in plots of 3 m×4 m. The crop was raised by using exclusively organic inputs with recommended agronomic practices (Anonymous, 2010). The insect-pests succession and their infestation were recorded by regular monitoring at 10 day interval during cropping season. Fifty randomly selected plants per plot were used for recording the date of appearance, per cent plant infestation and the duration of insect interaction with crop. The succession of the insect pests with their time of appearance and period of infestation 83 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” was observed from 50 randomly selected plants from an area of 110 m2 to assess the incidence of associated insect pests. Six modules of organic inputs (Table1) were tested for their comparative efficacy under organic and conventional systems in experiments at two farms. Application of respective organic inputs in modules was started with first appearance of any insect in the field. Such inputs were applied at ten day interval till 4th spray and then order was reversed till crop harvest. The pre count was recorded a day prior to application while later observations after 5 days on the number of insects. The per cent reduction in pest numbers was calculated using modified Abbott’s formula and data was subjected to square root transformation. table1. details of modules of organic inputs against insect-pest complex of cabbage st nd rd th Module 1 application 2 application 3 application 4 application M1 Neem oil (0.3%) Bt (16000 IU/mg) Melia extract (10%) Panchgavya (10%) M2 Panchgavya (10%) Bt (16000 IU/mg) Bt (16000 IU/mg) Lantana extract (10%) M3 Verticillium lecanii 8 (10 conidia/ml) Neem oil (0.30%)+ Beauveria bassiana Dashparni (5%) NSKE (10%) Eupatorium extract (10%) Bt (16000 IU/mg) Melia (10%)+ Dashparni extract (5%) Eupatorium extract (10%) + 8 Verticillium (10 conidia/ml) Bt ((16000 IU/mg)+ Panchgavya Untreated control Bt (16000 IU/mg) Panchgavya (10%) + NSKE (10%) Lantana (10%)+ Neem oil (0.30%) M4 M5 M6 results and discussion The results of the experiments have been presented and discussed under following heads as; Infestation and succession of insect pests: The perusal of data on interaction of insects for period of infestation (Table2) and per cent plant infestation (Table3) revealed that larvae of cutworm (A. ipsilon) were the first to damage the crop during the 1st week of November under both the growing systems and remained active for 10 days. The incidence of 10.4% and 5% was recorded under organic and conventional farms, respectively. The leaf defoliation by field crickets was 10 day earlier in organic and infestation ranged between 6.2-10.3 and 8.0-12.7 per cent in organic and conventional farms, respectively. Aphid (B. brassicae) infestation was during the 3rd week of January and continued till harvest of the crop with maximum infestation up to 70% and 52.5% in organic and conventional farms. Diamondback moth (P. xylostella) appeared in 3rd week of March, cabbage butterfly (P. brassicae) also appeared almost at the same time but it continued to damage crop till the harvest. The infestation of P. brassicae was in the range of 8-50 and 10-61% in organic and conventional farms, respectively. It is apparent from the data that the key pests appear more or less at the same time under both the farm condition but comparatively more infestation in organic farm. field evaluation of organic inputs: The perusal of the data in present studies revealed that for the management of B. brassicae Module 3 (M3) containing V. lecanii, Dashparni, NSKE, extract of Eupatorium, V. lecanii and Dashparni at 10 day interval was found to be most effective which resulted in 80.1 and 100% population reduction under organic and conventional farm conditions, respectively and was followed by Module1 (M1), however both the modules were statistically at par (Table4 and Table5). However reports on field testing of such modules is scanty but the individual ingredients as used in experimental have been reported effective (Bhardwaj, 2002; Jasrotia and Suri, 2002; Bijaya et al., 2005). In case of diamond back moth (P. xylostella) the Module 5 (M5) containing sprays of Bt + panchgavya, Bt, panchgavya + NSKE, Lantana + neem oil resulted in population reduction in the range of 65 to 100 per cent under organic and conventional farms, respectively and was the most effective followed by M4 (Table6 and Table7). The present findings agree with Rajavel and Veeraraghavathathan, 1989; Chandramohan and Nanjan, 1990. For the management of cabbage butterfly (P. brassicae) spray Module 5 (M5) containing Bt + panchgavya, Bt, panchgavya + NSKE, Lantana + neem oil resulted in the population reduction in the range of 59.5 and 92.7 per cent under organic and conventional farm conditions, respectively and was found to be most effective (Table8 and Table9). M1 was second better management module which was statistically at par with M5.The results are in agreement with the findings of Jin, 1989; Mehta et al., 1996; Hafeez et al., 2007; Sood and Rana 2005. 84 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table2. incidence and infestation by insect-pests on cabbage in organic and conventional farms at Palampur Sr. Insect-pests No Conventional farm Organic farm Infestation Infestation Period Plant (%) Period Plant (%) 1 Cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon) Nov 7, 2012 to Apr 8, 2013 1.0 -5.0 Nov 5,2012 to Apr 8,2013 1.5 -10.4 2 Field cricket (Gryllus sp.) Dec 20, 2012 to Jan 24,2013 6.2-10.3 Dec 10,2012 to Jan 24,2013 8.0-12.7 3 Cabbage Aphid Brevicoryne brassicae Jan 20,2013 to May 10,2013 8.2-52.5 Jan 20,2013 to May * 10,2013 15.6-70.0 4 Cabbage maggot (Delia sp.) Jan 20,2013 to Jan 30,2013 3.0-6.0 Jan 20,2013 to Feb 9,2013 5.0-8.3 5 Diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) Mar 21, 2013 to Apr 30, 5.3-20.2 2013 Mar 21,2013 to Apr 30,2013 8.0-28.5 6 Cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae) Mar 26, 2013 to May 10, 2013 8.0-50.4 Mar 24,2013 to May * 10,2013 10.2-60.6 7 White grubs (Holotrichia longipennis) - - Apr 3,2013 to May 10,2013 0.0-5.2 table3. Per cent plant infestation of cabbage by insect-pests at different intervals in conventional and organic farms at Palampur Date of observation Average per cent plant infestation* Conventional Farm Organic Farm B. brassicae P. brassicae P. xylostella 0.0 0.0 0.0 B. brassicae 0.0 P. brassicae 0.0 P. xylostella 0.0 30 4.2 10.1 0.0 0.0 February 9 18.5 0.0 19 1 12.6 22.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 15.6 17.3 20.5 27.2 18.4 26.1 52.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 January 10 20 March April May 11 32.2 21 25.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 31 10 40.1 43.3 52.0 8.0 10.0 52.4 5.3 20.2 12.2 48.2 62.4 65.6 10.2 18.4 60.6 8.0 28.5 18.3 20 48.3 25.2 10.3 70.0 45.6 16.4 30 43.2 35.3 2.2 60.1 36.1 3.2 10 0.0 12.2 0.0 42.3 20.2 0.0 1 *Observations on the basis of 50 selected plants 85 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Table4. Field efficacy of organic spray modules against aphid in conventional farm at Palampur Module Components Pre count 1/2/13 Average number of aphid/ plant at an interval of 5 day of each Spray * I II III IV V VI Per cent reduction after last spray M1 Neem oil, B.t, Melia extract, Panchgavya, Neem 1.3 (1.5) oil and Melia extract 1.0 (1.4) 0.7 (1.3) 0.5 (1.2) 0.4 (1.1) 0.3 (1.1) 0.1 (1.0) 84.2 M2 Panchgavya, Bt, Bt, Lantana extract, Panchgavya and Bt 2.0 (1.7) 2.0 (1.7) 1.7 (1.6) 1.3 (1.5) 1.5 (1.6) 3.9 (2.2) 4.5 (2.4) 45.4 M3 Verticilium, Dashparni, NSKE, Eupatorium extract, Verticilium and Dasparni 2.2 (1.8) 0.9 (1.4) 0.4 (1.1) 0.3 (1.1) 0.1 (1.0) 0.1 (1.0) 0.0 (1.0) 100 M4 Neem oil + Beauveria, Bt, Melia + Dasparni extract, Eupatorium + Verticilium, Neem oil + Beauveria and Bt 1.9 (1.6) 2.9 (1.9) 1.8 (1.7) 1.3 (1.5) 2.2 (1.8) 6.7 (2.8) 16.1 (4.1) 13.7 M5 Bt + Panchgavya, Bt, Panchgavya + NSKE, Lantana extract+ Neem oil, Bt + Panchgavya and Bt 2.6 (1.9) 2.1 (1.8) 1.8 (1.7) 1.3 (1.5) 1.8 (1.7) 4.2 (2.3) 6.3 (2.7) 29.1 M6 Untreated check 3.6 (2.1) 4.1 (2.3) 4.9 5.5 8.5 (2.4) (2.5) (3.1) 9.7 20.5 (3.1) (4.6) - CD (5%): (module x spray)=0.47, (module)=0.19, (spray)=0.19 * Mean population on 5 plants per replication, each spray after pre count in 10 day interval Figure in the parenthesis are the square root transformed values Table5. Field efficacy of organic spray modules against aphid in organic farm at Palampur Module Component Pre count 1/2/13 Average number of aphid/ plant at an interval of 5 day of each Spray* I II III IV V VI Per cent reduction after last spray M1 Neem oil, Bt, Melia extract, Panchgavya, Neem oil and Melia extract 3.5 (2.1) 2.4 (1.8) 2.0 (1.7) 1.2 (1.4) 0.8 (1.3) 0.5 (1.2) 0.3 (1.1) 64.1 M2 Panchgavya, Bt, Bt, Lantana extract, Panchgavya and Bt 5.9 (2.6) 7.0 (2.8) 5.7 (2.6) 4.3 (2.3) 3.9 (2.2) 6.9 (2.7) 10.7 (3.4) 7.1 M3 Verticilium, Dashparni, NSKE, Eupatorium extract, Verticilium and Dasparni 3.5 (2.1) 3.8 (2.1) 2.8 (1.9) 2.0 (1.7) 1.5 (1.5) 0.3 (1.1) 0.1 1.0) 80.1 M4 Neem oil + Beauveria, Bt, Melia + Dasparni extract, Eupatorium + Verticilium, Neem oil + Beauveria and Bt 5.5 (2.5) 5.3 (2.5) 4.9 (2.4) 4.5 (2.3) 4.9 (2.3) 6.0 (2.6) 10.8 (3.4) 7.8 M5 Bt + Panchgavya, Bt, Panchgavya + NSKE, Lantana + Neem oil, Bt + Panchgavya and Bt 4.0 (2.1) 4.9 (2.4) 3.9 (2.2) 4.2 (2.2) 4.9 (2.4) 6.9 (2.7) 10.2 (3.3) 11.4 M6 Untreated Control 8.2 (2.9) 8.0 (2.9) 10.1 10.5 14.1 (3.3) (3.4) (3.8) 16.9 (4.2) 28.2 (5.4) CD (5%) = (Module x Spray)=0.45, (module)=0.18, (spray)=0.18 * Mean population on 5 plants per replication, each spray after pre count in 10 day interval Figure in the parenthesis are the square root transformed values Table 6. Field efficacy of organic spray modules against P. xylostella in conventional farm at Palampur 86 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Modules Component Pre count 23/3/13 Average number of DBM/ plant at an interval of 5 day of each spray* I II III IV Per cent reduction after last spray M1 Neem oil, Bt, Melia extract, Panchgavya 0.7 (1.3) 0.5 (1.2) 0.6 (1.2) 0.5 (1.2) 0.4 (1.1) 9.3 M2 Panchgavya, Bt, Bt, Lantana extract 0.6 (1.2) 1.2 (1.5) 1.0 (1.4) 0.9 (1.4) 0.7 (1.3) 11.9 M3 Verticilium, Dasparni, NSKE, Eupatorium extract 1.6 (1.6) 0.9 (1.4) 0.7 (1.3) 0.5 (1.2) 0.3 (1.1) 32.0 M4 Neem oil + Beauveria, Bt, Melia + Dasparni extract, Eupatorium + Verticilium 1.7 (1.6) 0.9 (1.4) 0.4 (1.1) 0.2 (1.0) 0.1 (1.0) 43.3 M5 Bt + Panchgavya, Bt, Panchgavya + NSKE, Lantana + Neem oil 0.4 (1.1) 0.5 (1.2) 0.3 (1.1) 0.0 (1.0) 0.0 (1.0) 100 M6 control 1.9 (1.7) 2.3 (1.8) 2.6 (1.9) 1.7 (1.6) 1.5 (1.6) - CD (5%): (module x spray)=NS, (module)=0.1, (spray)=0.10 * Mean population on 5 plants per replication, pre count followed by spray at 10 day interval Figure in the parenthesis are the square root transformed values Table 7. Field efficacy of organic spray modules against P. xylostella in organic farm at Palampur Per cent reduction after last spray Modules Component Pre count 23/3/13 Average number of DBM/ plant at an interval of 5 day of each spray* I II II IV M1 Neem oil, Bt, Melia extract, Panchgavya 1.7 (1.6) 0.9 (1.3) 1.5 (1.5) 1.0 (1.4) 0.9 (1.3) 26.0 M2 Panchgavya, Bt, Bt, Lantana extract 1.9 (1.7) 1.9 (1.7) 1.8 (1.6) 1.1 (1.4) 0.9 (1.3) 14.0 M3 Verticilium, Dasparni, NSKE, Eupatorium extract 2.5 (1.9) 2.4 (1.8) 1.9 (1.7) 1.6 (1.6) 0.8 (1.3) 30.0 M4 Neem oil + Beauveria, Bt, Melia + Dasparni extract, Eupatorium + Verticilium 3.0 (1.9) 1.2 (1.4) 0.9 (1.3) 0.4 (1.1) 0.2 (1.0) 37.5 M5 Bt + Panchgavya,Bt, Panchgavya + NSKE, Lantana + Neem oil 1.5 (1.5) 1.3 (1.4) 0.9 (1.3) 0.4 (1.1) 0.1 (1.0) 65.0 M6 Control 3.0 (1.9) 3.0 (1.9) 3.5 (2.1) 2.8 (1.9) 2.0 - CD (5%) = (Module X Spray) NS, (module)=0.11, (spray)=0.10 * Mean population on 5 plants per replication, each spray after pre count in 10 day interval Figure in the parenthesis are the square root transformed values. 87 (1.7) International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Table 8. Field efficacy of organic is pray modules against P. brassicae in conventional farm at Palampur Modules Component Pre count 2/4/13 P. brassicae larva/ plant at an interval of 5 day of each spray* I II III IV Per cent reduction after last spray M1 Neem oil, Bt, Melia extract, Panchgavya 0.0 (1.0) 0.9 (1.3) 0.7 (1.2) 0.3 (1.1) 0.2 (1.0) 56.4 M2 Panchgavya, Bt, Bt, Lantana extract 0.0 (1.0) 14.6 (3.9) 16.4 (4.1) 22.3 (4.8) 18.8 (4.4) 44.9 M3 Verticilium, Dasparni, NSKE, Eupatorium extract 0.0 (1.0) 10.1 (3.3) 12.4 (3.6) 22.9 (4.8) 27.7 (5.3) 21.1 M4 Neem oil + Beauveria, Bt, Melia + Dasparni extract, Eupatorium + Verticilium 2.7 (1.9) 4.1 (2.2) 10.3 (3.3) 18.7 (4.4) 20.7 (4.6) 27.7 M5 Bt + Panchgavya, Bt, Panchgavya + NSKE, Lantana extract + Neem oil 0.0 (1.0) 1.3 (1.5) 1.2 (1.4) 0.9 (1.3) 0.1 (1.0) 92.7 M6 Control 3.0 (1.9) 14.2 20.7 25.3 (3.8) (4.6) (5.1) 38.7 (6.3) CD (5%): (Module x Spray)= 0.41, (module)=0.21, (spray)=0.17 * Mean population on 5 plants per replication, each spray after pre count in 10 day interval Figure in the parenthesis are the square root transformed values Table 9. Field efficacy of organic spray modules against P. brassicae under organic farm at Palampur Modules Component Pre count 2/4/13 Number of aphid/ plant after 5 days of each spray* I II III IV Per cent reduction after last spray M1 Neem oil, Bt, Melia extract, Panchgavya 2.5 (1.9) 1.5 (1.6) 0.7 (1.3) 0.3 (1.2) 0.1 (1.0) 64.9 M2 Panchgavya, Bt, Bt, Lantana extract 0.0 (1.0) 8.2 (3.0) 15.5 (4.0) 12.5 (3.7) 10.2 (3.3) 13.9 M3 Verticilium, Dasparni, NSKE, Eupatorium extract 6.7 (2.8) 15.7 (4.1) 14.7 (3.9) 20.0 (4.6) 16.3 (4.2) 14.0 M4 Neem oil + Beauveria, Bt, Melia + Dasparni extract, Eupatorium + Verticilium 8.7 (3.1) 11.9 (3.6) 10.3 (3.4) 22.7 (4.9) 30.3 (5.6) 10.8 M5 Bt + Panchgavya, Bt, Panchgavya + NSKE, Lantana + Neem oil 4.0 (2.1) 2.9 (1.9) 2.2 (1.8) 1.3 (1.5) 0.5 (1.2) 59.5 M6 Control 5.3 (2.5) 16.9 30.9 38.0 (4.2) (5.6) (6.2) 36.0 (6.1) - CD (5%): (Module X Spray) =0.51, (module) =0.26, (spray)=0.21 * Mean population on 5 plants per replication, each spray after pre count in 10 day interval Figure in the parenthesis are the square root transformed value. references Anonymous 2010. Javik krishi prabhandan. Department of Organic Agriculture, CSKHPKV, Palampur, India. p 33-34. Bhardwaj V 2002. Effect of insecticides on diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) and its natural enemies on cauliflower. M.Sc. Thesis, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, India. p 64. Bijaya P, Subharanis and Singh Tk 2005. Bioefficacy of certain botanical insecticides against green peach aphid, Mysus persicae on cabbage. Pestology 29(3): 28-31 88 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Chandramohan N and Nanjan K 1990. Effect of neem oil against diamondback moth in cabbage. Neem Newsletter 7: 35-36 Gnanasambandhan S, Balakrishnamurthy P and Pillai KS 2009. Integrated pest management in 21st century. Pestology 24: 9-11 Grainge M, Ahmed S, Mitchell WC and Hylin JW 1984. Plant species possessing pest-control properties. In: Database of Resource Systems Institute, East-West Centre, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. p 240. Hafeez A, Shankar U, Singh S and Abrol DP 2007. Seasonal incidence and management of cabbage butterfly Pieris brassicae (L.) in Jammu. Environment and Ecology 25(2): 429-434. Hasan F and Ansari MS. 2010. Effect of different cole crops on the biological parameters of Pieris brassicae (L.) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) under laboratory conditions. Journal of Crop Science and Biotechnology 13(3): 195-202. Jasrotia P and Suri SM 2003. Preliminary screening of certain biopesticides against cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae (L.) attacking offseason cabbage in Himachal Pradesh. Insect-Environment 9(1): 10-11. Jin Z 1989. Effects of leaf extract of Melia azedarach (L.) on cabbage. Communication of German Society of General and Applied Entomology 298-300. Mehta PK, Vaidya DN and Kashyap NP 1996. Effect of plant extract on Pieris brassicae. Insect Environment 2(3): 95-96. Patel PS, Shukla NP and Patel GM 2003. Enhancing insecticidal properties of cow urine against sucking pests of cotton. In: Proceedings of the National Symposium on Fronterier Areas of Entomological Research. p 385-386. Raj H 2003. Smart insects stay a step ahead of insecticides. The Tribune, “Section-Agriculture”, March 31.p 24. Rajavel DS and Veeraraghavathathan D 1989. Efficacy of certain plant extract on the major pests of cabbage. South Indian Horticulture 37(3): 186-188. Ramesh P, Panwar NR, Singh AB, Ramana S, Yadav SK, Srivastava R and Subha RA 2010. Status of organic farming in India. Current Science 98: 1190-1194. Sood P and Rana SS 2005. Evaluation of some new insecticides for management of cabbage butterfly, Pieris brassicae larvae under dry temperate conditions of Pradesh. Himachal Journal of Agriculture Research 31: 65-68. 89 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-XIII Ant Biodiversity And its reLAtionshiP to eCosystem rakesh Kumar*1, himender Bharti2 & gurjant singh gatoria1 1 Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid College, Deon, Bathinda 2 Department of Zoology & Environmental Sciences, Punjabi University, Patiala *E-mail: rakeshsharmassm@gmail.com Abstract Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) can be found almost anywhere on Earth and they always occur in vast numbers. Despite this fact, ants often go unnoticed or are considered a nuisance in and around the house. Perhaps most of us don’t know about the role these tiny creatures play in maintaining our ecological balance. By aerating and mixing the soil and enhancing water infiltration they keep our environment healthy. Ants and various plants exhibit great mutual relationships. Ants not only fertilize plants with essential nutrients but sometimes function as pollinators too. While moving organic matter from place to place, ants move seeds from near the parent plant to new grounds. Ants are diverse and are able to navigate across various trophic level in ecosystem along with their sensitivity to any changes in the environment. Due to this ants have been used successfully as perfect indicator taxa. Considering the use of ants as bioindicators and fragility of Shivalik, present study has been designed to focus on the subfamilies Dolichoderinae, Myrmicinae and Pseudomyrmecinae along with analysis of species composition in terms of functional group scheme of ants from North-west Shivalik. Keywords: Ants, Shivalik, ecosystem, species composition, biodiversity introduction Ants are classified in a single family, the Formicidae, within the order Hymenoptera and are social insects which have been evolving successfully since the Cretaceous. Formicidae contains 308 extant genera in 21 subfamilies with 15, 014 valid species, across the globe (Bolton, 2014). India represents 12 subfamilies with 96 genera and 748 species (Bharti, 2014). Among insects, ants have emerged as one of the useful and effective bio-indicators, as they are diverse; many species have narrow tolerance range, and more importantly function at various trophic levels in any ecosystem. Due to this, ants are increasingly used as bio-indicators in studies of mine-site rehabilitation, fire management, pesticide contamination, habitat disturbance and in theoretical considerations of reserve design (Andersen, 1987, 1990; Majer, 1983). The direct and indirect contribution of ants to soil health integrity, and the resilience of their response to human disturbance make ants good candidate to use as soil bioindicators of human impact or restoration success (Folgarait, 1998). In India, Ant species composition and diversity in the Sharavathi River Basin from Central Western Ghats (Narendra and Ali, 2012) and Diversity and abundance of ants along an elevational gradient in Jammu-Kashmir Himalaya (Bharti and Sharma,2009) has already studied. So, ants represent a unique focal group, to be monitored, due to their ability to navigate across all trophic levels, along with their sensitivity to any changes in the environment and have been used successfully as perfect indicator taxa in various developed nations in carrying out restoration processes. The study area, Shivalik range of North-west Himalaya, subjected to various human activities leading to destabilization of this ecosystem has never been looked upon in such a manner. Considering the use of ants as bioindicators and fragility of Shivalik, present study has been designed to focus on subfamilies Dolichoderinae, Myrmicinae and Pseudomyrmecinae along with analysis of species composition in terms of functional group scheme of ants from North-west Shivalik. materials and methods The study was carried out in North-west Shivalik to determine the Biodiversity, species composition . The large numbers of methods were employed to catch ants since August 2008 to June, 2011. These were collected by pitfall traps, hand picking, soil core sampling, beating vegetation and from leaf litter with winkler’s extractor. 90 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” results and discussion The ant fauna does vary geographically, across latitudes. To understand the diversity and the stability of an ecosystem, it becomes important to study the species composition changes that occur due to variations in microclimate and habitat. This would help in biodiversity conservation endeavor as it aids in inventorising and mapping of biodiversity and also in demarcating the most seriously threatened ecosystems. The study carried out in North-west Shivalik, aims to determine the species composition and assemblages of ant fauna across the varying areas along with Functional group, Tramp and Invasive species. During the present study North-west Shivalik area has been divided into Primary forest, Secondary forest and Non-forest regions depending upon the environmental conditions, vegetation and anthropogenic activities (Table 1). table 1: Primary forest, secondary forest and non-forest areas with altitudes Primary forest Secondary forest Non-forest Forest Research -Institute (640m) Rajaji forest (660m) Selaqui (650m) Sansar Pur Terrace -(420m) Andretta (940m) Bajaura (1100m) Bakhra (650m) Bilawar (650m) Chohal (450m) Dakpathar (750m) Dattal (940m) Dharampur (450m) Ghati (450m) Guraldhar (660m) Jasrota (400m) Jogial (500m) Kandwal (460m) Kotla (560m) Lwasa (1200m) Mandi (800m) Mansar (660m) Nagabari (420m) Nahan (880m) Palampur (1140m) Ramnagar Wildlife Sanctuary Manda-(400m) Rehan (500m ) Renuka (700m ) Rewalsar (1300m ) Samba (360m ) Shukrala (1040m ) Suriensar (700m) Assan Barrage (440m) Baijnath (1000m) Bari (520m) Bilaspur (540m) Chanaur (600m) Dehra (450m) Dhaliara (600m) Dhunera (700m) Gagret (450m) Ghamrur (460m) Guga (600m) Jogi Panga (600m) Jol (480m) Kathua (350m) Khajjiyan (640m) Khatiar (560m) Khushinagar (620m) Maharaja Ranjeet- Sagar Dam (600m) Paonta Sahib (460m) Ropar (280m) Pong Dam (420m) Ranger college (740m) Saketi (300m) Siholi (550m) Udhampur (780m) Una (400m) Ant functional groups McGlynn (1999) used the morphological and life history characteristics of ants to classify introduced ants into functional groups. Community ecologist have classified entire communities based on the level of stress (factors limiting productivity) and disturbance (factors causing the removal of biomass), by studying the relative proportions of functional group composition of ant communities. It has been proposed that transferred ants are more likely to become established in disturbed areas (Ward, 1987; Major, 1985; Moller, 1996). Because disturbance is tied to both the distributions of transferred ants and the functional group composition of communities, considering the functional group membership of transferred ants may reveal new insights into their ecology and biogeography. Andersen (1995, 1997) proposed functional group scheme based on designations for Australian and North American ant communities which are Dominant Dolichoderinae, Subordinate Camponotini, Climate Specialists, Opportunists, Generalized Myrmicinae, Specialist Predators, Cryptic ants. The whole of North-west Shivalik is dominated by Generalized Myrmicinae (50%), followed by Climate Specialists (33%), Opportunists (13%) and Cryptic species (4%). The dominancy exhibited by the Generalized Myrmicinae within the ant communities is due to their ability to adapt to different niches with a variety of feeding habitats. These ants are generalized in food and nesting requirements. Climate specialist reside only within certain climate regimes. Many ants are arboreal and 91 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” furthermore many prefer tree canopy, others are subterranean and prefer soil. So, according to their particular nich, climate specialists are distributed. Cryptic species prefer leaf litter and porous soil. Due to the anthropogenic activities in region, leaf litter areas are very few, so numbers of cryptic ants recorded during the study are less. Primary forests dominated by Climate Specialists (55.52%) and followed by Generalized Myrmicinae (33.69%), Opportunists (8.25%) and Cryptic (2.54%). Secondary forests are dominated by Generalized Myrmicinae (57.68%) and followed by Climate Specialists (20.01%), Opportunists (15.44%) and Cryptic (6.86%). Non-forest areas are also dominated by Generalised Myrmicinae (62.45%), followed by Climate Specialists (19.34%), Opportunists (16.66%) and Cryptic (1.55%). Opportunists are dominating in Non-forest areas and are indicators of stress and human disturbance. Cryptic species are lesser in Non-forest areas which indicate the non availability of leaf litter. Cryptic species which prefer leaf litter and humid soil are dominated in secondary forests. In overall view Climate Specialists, and Cryptic species are least abundant in Nonforest areas. Generalized Myrmicinae are least abundant in primary forests. As the anthropogenic activities are increasing day by day in Shivalik, so these dominated species will be erased with time. Hence, analysis of species composition with respect to functional group provides valuable information about the health of the ecosystem. A total of 80 species representing three subfamilies Dolichoderinae, Myrmicinae and Pseudomyrmecinae have been collected during the present study . These species are grouped into four functional groups which include Climate Specialist (CS), Opportunist (O), Cryptic (C) and Generalized Myrmicinae (GM) (Table 2). table 2: the species composition in north-west shivalik as per functional group scheme along with tramp and invasive species status functional group abbreviations are: Cs, Climate specialist; o, opportunist; C, Cryptic; gm, generalized myrmicinae; i, invasive species Subfamily species Primary Secondary forest forest Nonforest Functional group tramp or type invasive locality & date Native locality Dolichoderinae Chronoxenus wroughtonii (Forel, 1895) + + + CS T India 1895 Tropical Asia & Australia Dolichoderus taprobanae (Smith, F., 1858) + + + CS Sri Lanka 1858 Oriental Ochetellus glaber (Mayr, 1862) - + - O I Australia 1862 Australia & New Caledonia Tapinoma melanocephalum (Fabricius, 1793) + + + O T French Guiana 1793 Unknown Technomyrmex albipes (Smith, F., 1861) + + + O T Sulawesi 1861 Indo-pacific Area Technomyrmex elatior Forel, 1902 - + + O India 1902 Oriental & IndoAustralian + Technomyrmex rector Bolton, 2007 + + O India 2007 India Cardiocondyla nuda (Mayr, 1866) + + + O T, I Fiji Is 1866 Australia Cardiocondyla wroughtonii (Forel, 1890) + + + O T India 1890 Tropical Asia & Australia Myrmicinae 92 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Carebara carinata Bharti & Kumar, 2013 - + - C India India Carebara dentata Bharti & Kumar, 2013 + + + C India India Carebara hornata Bharti & Kumar, 2013 - + - C India India Carebara propomegata Bharti & Kumar, 2013 - + + C India India Carebara rectangulata Bharti & Kumar, 2013 + - C India India Carebara spinata Bharti & Kumar, 2013 + + - C India India Cataulacus latus Forel, 1891a + - - CS India 1891 India Cataulacus taprobanae Smith, F., 1853 + + + CS Sri Lanka 1853 India & Sri Lanka Crematogaster anthracina Smith, F., 1857 + + + GM Singapore 1857 Oriental Crematogaster binghamii Forel, 1904 + + + GM India 1904 India Crematogaster biroi smythiesii Forel, 1902 + + + GM India 1902 India Crematogaster flava Forel, 1886 + + + GM India 1886 India Crematogaster rothneyi Mayr, 1879 + + + GM India 1879 India, Sri Lanka & Burma Crematogaster sagei Forel, 1902 + + - GM India 1902 India Crematogaster subnuda Mayr, 1879 + + + GM India 1879 India, Sri Lanka & Burma Dilobocondyla gasteroreticulatus Bharti & Kumar, 2013 + - + CS India India Gauromyrmex acanthinus (Karavaiev, 1935) - + - CS Vietnam 1935 India, Vietnam, Philippines Lophomyrmex ambiguus Rigato, 1994 + - - CS India 1994 India & Nepal 93 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” + Lophomyrmex bedoti Emery, 1893 + + CS Indonesia 1893 Oriental & IndoAustralian Lophomyrmex quadrispinosus (Jerdon, 1851) + + + CS India 1851 India, Sri Lanka & Burma Lophomyrmex terraceensis Bharti & Kumar, 2012 + - - CS India 2012 India Mayriella transfuga Baroni Urbani, 1977 + + + C Nepal 1977 Oriental & IndoAustralian Meranoplus bicolor (GuerinMeneville, 1844) + + + CS India 1844 Oriental & IndoAustralian Messor himalayanus (Forel, 1902) - + + CS India 1902 India Messor instabilis (Smith, F., 1858) + + + CS India 1858 India Monomorium aberrans Forel, 1902 + + + GM India 1902 India Monomorium destructor (Jerdon, 1851) + + + GM T India 1851 India or Africa Monomorium floricola (Jerdon, 1851) - + - GM T India 1851 India & SE Asia Monomorium glabrum (Andre, 1883) + + + GM India 1883 India, Sri Lanka & Burma Monomorium indicum Forel, 1902 + + + GM India 1902 India & Burma Monomorium latinode Mayr, 1872 + - - GM Borneo 1872 Oriental,Madagascar Monomorium monomorium Bolton, 1987 + - + GM Italy 1865 Europe Monomorium orientale Mayr, 1879 + + + GM India 1879 India Monomorium pharaonis (Linnaeus, 1758) - + + GM Egypt 1750 Africa Monomorium sagei + Forel, 1902 + + GM India 1902 India + + + GM India 1879 India Monomorium scabriceps (Mayr, 1879) 94 I T, I International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders, 1842 + + + CS India 1842 Oriental Pheidole indica Mayr, 1879 + + + GM India 1879 India, Japan, China Pheidole jucunda fossulata Forel, 1902 + + - GM India 1902 India Pheidole latinoda major Forel, 1885 + + + GM India 1885 India Pheidole parva Mayr, 1865 + - + GM Sri Lanka 1865 India, Sri Lanka & Burma Pheidole pronotalis Forel, 1902 + - GM Sri Lanka 1902 India, Sri Lanka Pheidole sagei Forel, 1902 + + - GM India 1902 India Pheidole sharpi Forel, 1902 + - - GM India 1902 India, Burma Pheidole smythiesii Forel, 1902 + + GM India 1902 India, Vietnam Pheidole spathifera aspatha Forel, 1902 - + GM India 1902 India, Burma Pheidole woodmasoni Forel, 1885 + + + GM India 1885 India, Sri Lanka Pheidologeton affinis (Jerdon, 1851) + + + CS India 1851 India Pheidologeton diversus (Jerdon, 1851) + + - CS India 1851 India Pyramica membranifera (Emery, 1869) + + - O Italy 1869 Europe Pyramica nepalensis (De Andrade, 1994) + + + C Nepal 1994 Oriental Recurvidris recurvispinosa (Forel, 1890) + + + C India 1890 India Solenopsis geminata (Fabricius, 1804) - + - CS Central America 1804 Neotropics Strumigenys exilirhina Bolton, 2000 + - - C Nepal 2000 Oriental Strumigenys virgila Bolton, 2000 + - C India 2000 India, Bhutan + + - O USA 1846 SE Asia Tetramorium bicarinatum (Nylander, 1846) 95 T, I I T International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Pseudmyrmecinae Tetramorium caldarium (Roger, 1857) - - + O Tetramorium coonoorense Forel, 1902 + - - O Tetramorium caespitum (Linnaeus, 1758) - + - O Tetramorium lanuginosum Mayr, 1870 + + + O Tetramorium obesum Andre, 1887 - + - Tetramorium shivalikense Bharti & Kumar, 2012 + + Tetramorium simillimum (Smith, F., 1851) - Germany 1857 Europe India 1902 India T, I Europe 1758 Europe T Java 1870 SE Asia O India 1887 India, Burma + O India 2012 India + - O Great Britain 1851 Europe Tetramorium smithi Mayr, 1879 + + O India 1879 Oriental & IndoAustralian Tetramorium tonganum Mayr, 1870 + + + O Tonga 1870 Pacific Region Tetramorium triangulatum Bharti & Kumar, 2012 - + + O India 2012 India Tetramorium walshi (Forel, 1890) - + + O India 1890 Oriental Vollenhovia gastropunctata Bharti & Kumar, 2013 - + - CS India India Tetraponera allaborans (Walker, 1859) + + + CS Sri Lanka 1859 Oriental, IndoAustralian Tetraponera nigra (Jerdon, 1851) + + + CS India 1851 Oriental Tetraponera rufonigra (Jerdon, 1851) + + + CS India 1851 Oriental tramp species recorded from study area T, I T, I T, I Most abundant tramp species in the study area has been found to be Tapinoma melanocephalum. Most dominated tramp species of non-forest areas are Tapinoma melanocephalum (30.25%) followed by Chronoxenus wroughtonii (18.33%), Monomorium destructor (17.52%) and Monomorium pharaonis (10.38%). Primary forests are also dominated by Tapinoma melanocephalum (33.73%) followed by Monomorium destructor (17.67%) and Cardiocondyla nuda (11.65%). Secondary forests are also dominated by Tapinoma melanocephalum (39.28%) followed by Monomorium destructor (17.25%) and Monomorium pharaonis (9.82%). 96 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Two tramp species Tetramorium caldarium and Tetramorium tonganum have been reported first time from India. The tramp species reported from Secondary forests include Tetramorium caespitum, Monomorium floricola and Tetramorium simillimum while tramp species Tetramorium caldarium is unique to non-forest areas. As per their analysis in these sites, tramp species dominated in non-forest areas (44%), followed by secondary forests (38%) and primary forests (18%) as they inhabit or often nest in human structures. Solenopsis geminata, previously known from southern region of India, it has been introduced in northern region as well. This species is one of the pest species and could be dangerous.Tetramorium tonganum Mayr, 1870 has been first time collected from India. It seems to be spread throughout the Shivalik. This species has expanded its range to India and is considered as introduced one at the moment.Tetramorium caldarium (Roger, 1857) has also been collected for the first time from India. Native locality of this species is Europe. Still this species in the study area is very rare and so it is considered as Introduced species. Based on the above data, it is evident that North-west Shivalik is a disturbed ecosystem, which needs attention in terms of conservation, restoration and management. Conclusion The present study is fairly exhaustive as far as Broad Biodiversity Characterization and Inventorization of species is concerned. The 80 ant taxa representing 26 genera from three subfamilies Dolichoderinae, Myrmicinae and Pseudomyrmecinae have been treated exhaustively in the present work. During the present study, tramp/invasive ants have been reported. These ants modify ecosystems by reducing native ant diversity and negatively affect vertebrate populations, and also disrupt ant-plant mutualisms. Some of these are highly destructive invaders. These have been found to be most abundant in non-forest areas. Ant species composition and diversity patterns in different forest types have been analysed. This study emphasizes the dominancy exhibited by the subfamily Myrmicinae within the ant communities due to their ability to adapt to different niches with a variety of feeding habitats. The unique ants that thrived in primary forests were specialists and suggest the non availability of niches in secondary forests and Non-forest areas. Opportunists are dominated in non-forest areas and indicators of stress and human disturbance. Cryptic species are lesser in Non-forest areas which indicate the non availability of leaf litter. Shivalik is a fragile ecosystem due to highly anthropogenic activities with only patchy forest cover. So due to these reasons native ant fauna is being threatened by introduction of Invasive and Tramp species as elucidated in the study. To sum up, the present endeavor provides relationship of ants along with focus on diversity, abundance and health of this ecosystem. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Financial assistance rendered by Ministry of Environment and Forests (Grant No. 14/10/2007-ERS/RE), Govt. of India, New Delhi is gratefully acknowledged. references Andersen, A. N. 1987. In The role of Inverteberates in Conservation and Biological Survey. J. D. Majer (ed.). Perth, Western Australia: Department of Conservation and Land Management. Andersen, A. N. 1990. The use of ant communities to evaluate change in Australian terrestrial ecosystems: A review and a recipe. Proceedings of the Ecological Society of Australia, 16: 347-357. Andersen, A. N. 1995. A classification of Australian ant communities, based on functional groups which parallel plant lifeforms to stress and disturbance. Journal of Biogeography, 22: 15-29. Andersen, A. N. 1997. Functional groups and patterns of Organization in North American Ant communities: a comparison with Australia. Journal of Biogeography, 24: 433-460. Bharti, H. 2014. AntWeb: Ants of India. Available from: http://www.antweb.org/page.do?name=india. Accessed 20 February 2014. Bharti, H. and Sharma, Y.P. 2009. Diversity and abundance of ants along an elevational gradient in Jammu-Kashmir Himalaya-I. Halteres, 1: 10-24. Bolton, B. 2014. An online Catalogue of the ants of the World available at http://www.antcat.org/catalog Folgarait, P. J. 1998. Ant Biodiversity and its relationship to ecosystem functioning: a review. Biodiversity and Conservation, 7: 1221-1244. Majer, J. D. 1983. Ants: bio indicators of mine site rehabilitation, land use and land conservation. Environmental 97 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Management, 7: 375-383. Majer, J. D. 1985. Recolonization by ants of rehabilitated mineral sand mines on North Stradbroke Island, Queensland, with particular reference to seed removal. Australian Journal of Ecology, 10: 31-48. McGlynn, T. P. 1999. The worldwide transfer of ants: Geographical distribution and ecological invasions. Journal of Biogeography, 26: 535-548. Moller, H. 1996. Lessons for invasion theory from social insects. Biological Conservation, 78: 125-142. Narendra, A. and Ali, T. M. 2012. Ant species composition and diversity in the Sharavathi River Basin, Central Western Ghats. Environmental Information System, Bangalore, 20: 1-51. Ward, P. S. 1987. Distribution of the introduced Argentine ant (Iridomyrmex humilis) in natural habitats of the Lower Sacramento Valley and its effects on the indigenous ant fauna. Hilgardia, 55: 1-16. 98 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-XIV effeCt of some PLAnt eXtrACts on the PArAsitizAtion of egg PArAsitoid trICHOGrAmmA CHIlOnIs ishii (hymenoPterA: triChogrAmmAtidAe) Kangjam Bumpy1 and neerja Agrawal2 e-mail: kangbumpy@gmail.com and aneerja@hotmail.com 1 Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab 2 Department of Entomology, CSA University of Agriculture and Technology Kanpur-208002, India Abstract Investigations were carried out to assess the effect of 5 indigenous plant extracts viz. Vinca rosea (Sadabahar), Pongamia pinnata (Karanj), Datura stramonium (Datura), Azadirachta indica (Neem), and Parthenium hysterophorus (Parthenium) against the egg parasitoid Trichogramma chilonis Ishii (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) reared on Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) (Ledipodtera: Pyralidae). The card containing 50 eggs were sprayed with 1ml of different concentrations (2%, 3% & 5%) of the botanical pesticides and dried under shade for 30 minutes. 5 pairs of Trichogramma adults were released for parasitization. Among the botanicals treated, highest parasitization (54.00% & 50.66%) of T. chilonis was recorded in treatment with different concentrations of V. rosea i.e 2% and 3%, respectively. While P. hysterophorus 5% recorded lowest percent parasitization of 20.66%. Of all the botanicals tested V. rosea at lower concentration was found to be safest to the parasitoid. Most of the plant extracts were proved to be safer to the egg parasitoid and also can be considered safe to human beings. So they can be incorporated in Integrated Pest Management programme. Key Words: Plant extracts, Trichogramma chilonis, parasitization. Biological Control offers an advantageous alternative to the use of chemical in many ways. Biocontrol agents are being used as an alternative strategy to chemical pesticides as they are target specific, reduced risk of pest resurgence and are environmental friendly due to their higher selectivity and biodegradable nature (Waheb, 2009). The importance of biological control in IPM has been recognized in India from early 1930’s. Trichogramma chilonis Ishii (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) is one of the most important egg parasitoid of Lepidopterans and has been used extensively in biological pest suppression worldwide. In nature there are about 2400 plant species which have pesticidal properties and are distributed in 189 families (Singh, 2000). These plants produce a diverse range of metabolites which repel insects, deter feeding and oviposition on the plant, disrupt behavior and physiology of insects. These botanicals are safer than the synthetic organic insecticides. So, the compatibility of bio-agents with these botanical pesticides is very important for effective pest management. Thus, the present investigations were carried out to study the effect of plant extracts on the egg parasitoid T. chilonis. materials and methods Studies were conducted on the toxic effect of different botanicals to T. chilonis in laboratory of Department of Entomology, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh.10 g powder of different plant species viz. V. rosea, P. pinnata, D. stramonium, A. indica and P. hysterophorus was soaked overnight in 100 ml of distilled water and filtered through muslin cloth, required quantity of distilled water was added to make the volume. Egg parasitoid T. chilonis were reared on radiated Corcyra eggs for one generation and the adults emerging from the parasitized eggs were used for subsequent studies. The radiated eggs were pasted on paper cards of 2x2 cm @ 50 eggs sprayed with different concentration of botanicals at the rate of 1ml with a manually operated atomizer. A batch of card strips treated with distilled water was kept as control. The sprayed cards were allowed to dry in shade for half an hour and were introduced into glass vials of 15 x 2.5 cm at the rate of one card per vial for each treatment in three replications and labeled properly. The treated egg cards were exposed to 5 pairs of adult Trichogramma for 24 hrs for parasitization. Each treatment was replicated thrice and the experiment was conducted at 26 ± 2°C and 65 ± 5% R.H. Observations were recorded after 4th day of treatment and the number of parasitized eggs were counted. The parasitized eggs were distinguished by blackening of the eggs (Raguram and Singh, 1999). The data on parasitization was subjected to statistical analysis in completely randomized design (CRD). 99 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” results and discussion table 1: effect of different plant extracts on parasitization by t. chilonis ishii Parasitization out of 50 eggs treatment/% Botanicals used % parasitization 4dAt 5 dAt 6dAt 7dAt 8dAt 1. V. rosea 2% 7.00cde (2.642) 13.33b (3.641) 21.66b (4.641) 26.33ab (5.124) 27.00b (5.190) 54.00b (47.292)* 2. V. rosea 3% 6.33de (2.506) 11.66b (3.409) 20.00b (4.472) 24.66b (4.966) 25.33bc (5.037) 50.66b (45.371)* 3. V. rosea 5% 5.66ef (2.360) 11.33b (3.354) 18.33bc (4.246) 24.00bc (4.892) 24.33bcd (4.936) 48.66bc (44.231)* 4. D. stramonium 2% 5.33efg (2.299) 10.00bc (3.158) 12.66de (3.556) 19.00cd (4.341) 21.00cde (4.578) 42.00cd (40.395)* 5. D. stramonium 3% 3.66fg (1.862) 5.66de (2.373) 8.66efgh (2.937) 16.33de (4.032) 19.33cdef (4.463) 38.66de (38.446)* 6. D. stramonium 5% 2.00h (1.380) 4.00e (1.983) 7.66gh (2.765) 15.66de (3.948) 19.00defg (4.358) 38.00de (37.958)* 7. P. pinnata 2% 11.33b (3.355) 13.66b (3.676) 14.00cd (3.721) 17.00de (4.112) 18.00efg (4.237) 36.00def (36.868)* 8. P. pinnata 3% 9.33bcd (3.036) 11.33b (3.311) 13.66cd (3.667) 14.66def (3.787) 16.66efghi (4.053) 33.32efg (35.252)* 9. P. pinnata 5% 10.33bc (3.190) 11.66b (3.391) 12.00def (3.456) 12.66efg (3.544) 14.66ghi (3.819) 29.32gh (32.784)* 10. A. indica 2% 3.00gh (1.714) 7.00cd (2.619) 13.33cd (3.636) 14.33def (3.772) 17.00efgh (4.112) 34.00efg (35.665)* 11. A. indica 3% 2.33h (1.521) 4.33de (2.060) 12.00def (3.456) 12.33efg (3.500) 14.66ghij (3.787) 29.32gh (32.784)* 12. A. indica 5% 2.00h (1.333) 4.33de (2.065) 8.33fgh (2.875) 10.33fg (3.207) 12.66hij (3.544) 25.32hi (30.212)* 13. P. hysterophorous 2% 2.66h (1.621) 5.66de (2.360) 11.66defg (3.419) 14.66def (3.820) 15.33fghi (3.904) 30.66fgh (33.622)* 14. P. hysterophorous 3% 2.00h (1.380) 4.66de (2.132) 7.66h (2.735) 10.00g (3.146) 12.33ij (3.500) 24.66hi (29.775)* 15. P. hysterophorous 5% 2.00h (1.380) 4.00e (1.983) 6.66h (2.583) 9.33g (3.050) 10.33j (3.207) 20.66i (26.571)* 16. Control 20.33a (4.490) 23.30a (4.657) 30.33a (5.475) 33.00a (5.729) 35.66a (5.966) 71.32a (57.616)* S.E ± 0.29 0.3 0.328 0.3 0.282 1.97 C.D 0.621 0.605 0.670 0.617 0.594 4.031 Figure in parentheses are under root transformed value * Figure in parentheses are angular transformed value DAT = Days after treatment Means in a column followed by same letter is not significantly different effect on parasitization by t. chilonis In the present study it was observed that mean parasitization by T. chilonis on 4 DAT was highly significant in P. pinnata 2% (11.33 per 50 eggs) while lowest parasitization of (2.00) was noted down in A. indica 5% . After 6 and 7 DAT highest parasitization occurred in V. rosea 2% (21.66 and 26.33 per 50 eggs) and 3% (20.00 and 24.66 per 50 eggs) while lowest was observed in P. hysterophorus 3% and 5% (10.00 and 9.33 per 50 eggs). 100 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” On 8 DAT mean parasitization was highest in V. rosea 2% (27.00 per 50 eggs) which was significantly superior among all the treatments followed by V. rosea 3% and 5%. The lowest mean parasitization was recorded in P. hysterophorous 5% (10.33 per 50 eggs) (Table 1). The per cent mean parasitization was most promising in V. rosea 2% and 3% causing 54.00% and 50.66% parasitization. P. hysterophorous showed lowest per cent parasitization of 20.66 per 50 eggs, among the different plant extracts. Khan and Tiwari (2001) found that P. hysterophorous caused 48.00% parasitization and 65.33% emergence of T. chilonis. Singh (2007) studied the safety aspects of biopesticide to the bioagent T. chilonis and found Annona 0.25% and A. indica 0.05% safer to egg parasitoid. references Khan, M. A. and Tiwari, S. (2001). Effect of plant extracts on the parasitization efficiency of Trichogramma chilonis Ishii. J. Biol Control. 15(2): 133-137. Raguram, S. and Singh, R. P. (1999). Biological effects of neem (Azadirachta indica) seed oil on an egg parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis. J. Econo Entomol. 92(6): 1274-1280. Singh, M. R. (2007). Effect of Bio-Pesticides on Trichogramma chilonis Ishii and Cotesia flavipes Cameron, parasitoids of borer of sugarcane. Indian J. Entomol. 69(3): 218-220. Singh, R. P. (2000). Botanicals in pest management: An ecological prospective. G. S. Dhaliwal and B. Singh (eds) Pesticides and environment. Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi. 279-343. Waheb, S. (2009). Biotechnological approaches in the management of plant pests diseases and weeds for Sustainable Agriculture. J. Biopesticides. 2(2): 115-13. 101 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-XV imPLementAtion And imPACt of iPm in indiA narendra singh*, manoj Kumar**, A.r.naqvi*** *M.Sc. (Ag.) Scholar Dept. of Entomology, **M.Sc. (Ag.) Scholar, Dept. of Plant Breeding & Genetics, COA, SKRAU, Bikaner, *** Programme Cordinator at Date Palm Research Centre, SKRAU, Bikaner (Raj.) *E.mail- anglelv27@gmail.com Abstract Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an ecosystem approach to crop production and protection that combines different management strategies and practices to grow healthy crops and minimize the use of pesticides.(FAO) The Government is popularizing the strategy of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) through a Central Sector Scheme “Strengthening and Modernization of Pest Management Approach in India”. This scheme includes cultural, mechanical, biological and other methods of pest control and emphasizes safe and judicious use of pesticides. There are several programme like Central IPM Centres, Farmers Field Schools, The National Institute of Plant Heath Management, National Project on Organic Farming (NPOF), NCIPM etc play important role in eco-friendly management of insect pest in India. Although Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is accepted in principle as the most attractive option for the protection of agricultural crops from the ravages of pests, its implementation at the farmers’ level is rather limited. Pesticides still remain as the means of intervention and as an essential component of IPM strategies. Key words: IPM, IPM Programmes in India, Success Implementation in India. introduction Indiscriminate and injudicious use of chemical pesticides in agriculture has resulted in several associated adverse effects such as environmental pollution, ecological imbalances, pesticides residues in food, fruits and vegetables, fodder, soil and water, pest resurgence, human and animal health hazards, destruction of biocontrol agents, development of resistance in pests etc. Therefore, Govt. of India has adopted Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as cardinal principle and main plank of plant protection in the overall Crop Production Programme since 1985. IPM is an eco-friendly approach which encompasses cultural, mechanical, biological and need based chemical control measures. The IPM approach is being disseminated through various schemes/projects at national and state level. iPm in india In India, research on integrated pest management was started in 1974–75 on two crops, rice and cotton, under Operational Research Projects (ORP) (Swaminathan, 1975). Under this, location specific IPM technologies were developed in cotton and rice crops. But it was only in the mid 1980s that the Government of India re-oriented its plant protection strategy. India became a member country of the FAO initiated Inter – Country Program in 1980, but IPM activities have been intensified only since 1993. The results of ORP project were encouraging in reducing pesticide use and increasing productivity. The published literature of the ORP project in cotton (1976–1990) by the project agencies reported that adoption of IPM practices in cotton crop resulted in 73.7 and 12.4 percent reduction in the number of insecticide sprays for control of sucking pests and bollworms, respectively, in 15 villages of Indian Punjab (Dhaliwal et al., 1992). Under the same project in Tamil Nadu in the 1980s, the average quantity of insecticide used (technical grade material) was 3.8 kg/ha in six applications compared to 9.2 kg/ha in 11 sprays in non-ORP villages (Simwat, 1994). The IPM system increased the natural enemy population threefold. The spread of this program was limited to certain areas. A number of IPM programs have been launched in India from 1993 onwards. These are the FAO-Inter Country Program for IPM in rice crops in 1993, Regional Program on cottonIPM by Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International (CABI) in 1993; FAO-European Union IPM program for cotton in 2000; National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) for IPM in 2000 and Insecticide Resistance Management based IPM program by the Central Institute for Cotton Research (CICR), Nagpur in 2002 (Peshin et al., 2007). CICR, Nagpur; the Asian Development Bank (ADB) – Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau International (CABI) and Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage, Government of India conducted season – long trainings for IPM – extension workers since 1994 to promote IPM (Bambawale et al., 2004). Central Integrated Pest Management Centers (CIPMCs) were set up in 26 states which promoted the concept of IPM in cotton and rice since the 1990s. Various state departments of agriculture implemented IPM from mid – nineties. The Government of India launched the Technology Mission on Cotton in 2000 (Barik et al., 2002). FAO-EU launched an IPM program in cotton in India since 2000 for five years. Andhra Pradesh cotton IPM initiative is another active organization in IPM (Anonymous 2001). Multilocation trials have been carried 102 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” out by the All India Coordinated Cotton Improvement Project (Anonymous, 2004). The Ashta IPM model is also being implemented in Central India. Agriculture Man Ecology (AME) funded by a bi-lateral agreement between the Indian and Dutch governments is implementing IPM farmer field schools in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Sir Ratan Tata Trust project (a private sector funded project) supports the Department of Entomology at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India towards further developing, validating and disseminating cotton-IPM technology in cotton growing districts of Punjab since 2002. In the mid 1990s, India abolished its insecticide subsidy resulting in a saving of US $30 million annually and imposed a 10% excise tax, which has resulted in a US $60 million annual revenue to the government. It spends US $10 million per year on IPM-FFS (Kenmore, 1997). In 1994, the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Government of India, the nodal agency for implementing IPM programs, intensified its efforts and adopted FFS model for educating farmers through its 26 CIPMCs (presently there are 31 CIPMCs). These centers have completed pest monitoring in 10.20 million hectares and bio-control agents have been released in 7.79 million hectares up to 2006–2007. The IPM-FFS implemented during the same period are 10562, in which 318246 farmers and 43301 extension functionaries have been trained (DPPQ&S).7 The IPM-FFS has mainly been conducted for rice (5930), cotton (2002), vegetables (951) and oilseeds (916) as well as other crops. The targets for next the five years (XI Plan Period: 2008–2012) are for conducting 3250 IPM-FFS. The IPM– FFS program was designed to be implemented by CIPMCs in collaboration with the state departments of agriculture (the main extension agency in India) with technical support from the state agricultural universities. No coordination between the state agricultural universities and CIPMCs was observed (Peshin and Kalra, 2000) and presently there is no functional coordination between CIPMCs, state departments of agriculture and state agricultural universities in jointly implementing IPM-FFS. These agencies are running their own IPM programs separately or in isolation and sometimes these agencies cater to the same village one after the other (Peshin, 2009). IPM initiatives are hampered by leadership, coordination, management of human and financial resources, and evaluation mechanism of these programs. The Central Government should manage, coordinate and draw a roadmap for IPM implementation; otherwise IPM programs will remain confined to projects and project reports, conference discussions, research journals and one-upmanship between state agricultural universities, state departments of agriculture and CIPMCs. An outlay of US $2.8 million has been earmarked for state level training programs and FFS for the period 2008–2012 out of total outlay of US $266.7 million for “Strengthening and Modernising of Pest Management Approaches in India” which is meager. This scheme includes cultural, mechanical, biological and other methods of pest control and emphasizes safe and judicious use of pesticides. Central iPm Centres Under the ambit of IPM programme, the Government has established 31 Central IPM Centres in 28 State and one UT. The mandate of these Centres is pest/disease monitoring, production and release of bio-control agents/bio-pesticides, conservation of bio-control agents and Human Resource Development in IPM by imparting training to Agriculture/ Horticulture Extension Officers and farmers at grass root level by organizing Farmers Field Schools (FFSs) in farmers’ fields. farmers field schools The basic aim of FFS is to train the farmers on the latest IPM technology so that they are able to take decision in pest management operation. Besides, large number of locally available biocontrol agents are augmented from field to field based on the requirement. Major emphasis is given on judicious use of chemical pesticide as a last resort and safety in use of pesticides, alternate tools for pest management viz; cultural, physical, mechanical methods of pest control as well as use of biopesticides and biocontrol agents, effects of pesticides on natural enemies of pests, do’s and don’ts of pesticide use including proper application equipment and the technique. FFSs are run by trained personnel. At the end of training, Kisan Mela is organized at the FFS site to popularize the IPM approach among neighbouring farmers. the national institute of Plant heath management The National Institute of Plant Heath Management, an autonomous body under Ministry of Agriculture has in the recent past adopted 27 villages where field service training was conducted involving officer trainees in Plant Protection. The farmers of these villages have benefited by adoption of IPM technologies. national Project on organic farming (nPof) Under the National Project on Organic Farming (NPOF) scheme, financial assistance is being provided for setting up of fruit/ vegetable market waste/ agro-waste compost production unit for the capacity of 100 tonnes Per Day (TPD) through 103 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” NABARD as credit linked backended subsidy to the tune of 33% of total financial outlay restricted to Rs. 60.00 lakh whichever is less. Biocontrol Laboratories/ units in india 318 biocontrol laboratories or units are running in India in which 31 laboratories are coming under the CIPMCs, 48 under ICAR/SAUs/ DBT, 98 under State biocontrol Labs and 141 under Private Sector Labs. impact of iPm in india Although Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is accepted in principle as the most attractive option for the protection of agricultural crops from the ravages of pests, its implementation at the farmers’ level is rather limited. Pesticides still remain as the means of intervention and as an essential component of IPM strategies. It may not be possible to avoid chemical pesticides altogether but integrating non-chemical methods in pest management can reduce dependence on chemical control. This would reduce the costs considerably besides offering protection in an ecologically sound manner. In rice, the cost of average pesticide application is Rs. 163.50 and Rs. 447.90 per hectare respectively for IPM trained and untrained farmers. At national level, impact of IPM has been observed through the following indicators: Increase in crop yield from 6.72 to 40.14% in rice and from 22.7 to 26.63% in cotton in IPM fields compared to non-IPM fields. Chemical pesticide spray was found to have reduced to the extent of 50 – 100% in rice and 29.96 –50.5% in cotton in IPM fields compared to non-IPM fields. Net gain in farm income of farmers was found to have increased in the IPM fields as compared to the farmers practices. Use of biopesticides /neem based pesticides increased from 123 MT during 1994-95 to 8,110 MT during 2011-12, and that the consumption of chemical pesticide in the country has reduced from 75,033 MT (Technical Grade) in 1990-91 to 50,583 MT (Technical Grade) in 2011-12. Conclusion India has successfully reduced pesticide consumption without adversely affecting the agricultural productivity. This was facilitated by appropriate policies that discouraged pesticide use, and favoured IPM application. Despite it, adoption of IPM is low owing to a number of socio-economic, institutional and policy constraints. On the supply side, lack of commercial availability of biopesticides and inappropriate institutional technology transfer mechanisms are the critical impediments to increased application of IPM. The presence of private sector in biopesticide production and marketing is marginal, and needs to be improved through economic incentives. On the demand side, farmers though are aware of technological failure of pesticides to control pests, and their negative externalities to environment and human health, pest risk is too high to experiment with newer approaches to pest management. IPM is a complex process and farmers lack understanding of biological processes of pests and their predators and methods of application of new technology components. The socioeconomic environment of farming is also an important factor in adoption of IPM. There are a number of IPM practices that work best when applied by the entire community and in a synchronized mode. This is unlikely to happen without demonstrating benefits of group approach, and external motivation and support to the farmers. Though many technology programs are based on community approach, they do not have any proper exit policy to sustain the group approach. The IPM policy should also provide incentives to farmers to adopt IPM as a cardinal principle of plant protection. references Anonymous. 2001. Proceedings, Third National Roundtable on Cotton IPM. Andhra Pradesh Cotton IPM Initiative (APCOT), April 19–21, 2001, Hydrabad, 78pp. Anonymous. 2004. AICCIP Annual Report 2003–04. All India Coordinated Cotton Improvement Project, Coimbatore. Bambawale, O.M., Patil, S.B., Sharma, O.P. and Tanwar, R.K. 2004. Cotton IPM at cross roads. Proceeding of International Symposium on Strategies for Sustainable Cotton Production: A Global Vision. UAS, Dharwad, Karnataka, pp. 33–36. Barik, A., Singh, R.P. and Joshi, S.S. 2002. Technology Mission on Cotton in Nutshell. Directorate of Cotton Development, Mumbai. Dhaliwal, G.S., Arora, R. and Sandhu, M.S. 1992 Operational research project at the door of cotton growers. Farmer Parliament 27: 15–16. FAO. 2004. Benefits from Farmer Education: Impact of IPM-FFS in Cotton in Asia. Cotton IPM Newsletter No. 5, August 104 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 2004. FAO, Bangkok, Thailand. Kenmore, P.E. 1997. A perspective on IPM. Low External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture Newsletter, 13: 8–9. Peshin, R. 2009. Evaluation of Insecticide Resistance Management Programme: Theory and Practice. Daya Publishers, New Delhi, India (In Press). Peshin, R. and Kalra, R. 2000. Integrated Pest Management: Adoption and its Impact on Agriculture. Classical Publishing Company, New Delhi. Peshin, R., Dhawan, A.K., Kalra, R. and Tript, K. 2007. Evaluation of insecticide resistance management based integrated pest management programme. AI & Society Journal of Human Centred Systems 21: 358–381. Simwat, G.S. 1994. Modern concepts in insect pest management in cotton. In: Dhaliwal, G.S. and Arora, R. (eds), Trends in Agricultural Insect Pest Management. Commonwealth Publisher, New Delhi, pp. 186–237. Swaminathan, M.S. 1975. ICAR, Operational Research Projects, purpose and approach. Indian Farming, August. 105 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-XVI ProsPeCtive of miCroBiAL Chitin deACetyLAse enzyme in imProvement of AgriCuLture sonu rani Kashyap and neelam garg Department of Microbiology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-136132, Haryana, India. Sonu.microbiol@gmail.com An entomopathogenic fungus is defined as a fungus that can act as a parasite of insects and kills or seriously disables them. Entomopathogenic fungi producing chitin deacetylase have substantial potential for biocontrol of insect pests. These fungi apparently overcome physical barriers of the host by producing extracellular chitin deacetylase which help to penetrate the cuticle and facilitate infection by converting hard chitinous cuticle in to soft one by bioconversion of chitin to chitosan. The enzyme was produced in a liquid medium containing yeast extract, glucose and peptone at 370c for 2-3 days. The crude enzyme obtained by centrifugation of the inoculated fermentation media was used for quantitative assay which was done by MBTH (3-methyl-2-benzothiazolone hydrazone) method. Further, the different parameters like pH, temperature, carbon and nitrogen sources were optimized for enhance production of chitin deacetylase. The aim of my research was the production of chitin deacetylase enzyme and to find out their potential use in improvement of biocontrol agent for crop protection. Key words: Insects, Entomopatogenic fungi, Chitin, MBTH, Chitin deacetylase. introduction The presence of chitin deacetylase enzyme has been detected in variety of organisms including fungi, bacteria and insects. But fungal chitin deacetylase are widely studied [1]. Metarhizium anisoplia, a fungus was isolated from infected Pyrilla perpusilla, a sucking insect pest of Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) in National Chemical Laboratory, Pune by Nahar et al [2]. They studied the extracellular constitutive production of chitin metabolizing enzymes such as chitinase, chitosanase, and chitin deacetylase by M. anisopliae in shaking conditions. Helicoverpa armigera cuticle revealed the presence of chitosan after germination of M.anisopliae spores on it. Blue patches of chitosan were observed on cuticle, indicating conversion of chitin to chitosan. This study indicates that chitin deacetylase was important in initiating pathogenesis of M. anisopliae. Xiao-dong et al (1995) produced chitin deacetylase from fungus A. coerulea and purified it 516-fold to homogeneity by means of 65-85% ammonium sulfate precipitation followed by chromatography on butyl toyopearl-650M, Gigapite and DEAE Toyopearl-650M. Its molecular weight was found to be ~75kDa both on SDS-PAGE and Gel filtration chromatography, indicating that enzyme existed as a monomer [3]. Alfonso et al (1995) has purified an extracellular chitin deacetylase to homogeneity from autolyzed cultures of A. nidulans [4]. Chitin deacetylase was produced using a bacterium Bacillus thermoleovorans and was purified by ammonium sulphate precipitation [5]. Kim et al (2008) produced CDA by incubating a fungal strain Mortierella sp. DY-52 in yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) broth (pH 4.5) at 28oC with shaking at 150 rpm for 5 days. Culture filtrate and homogenized mycelium both were analyzed for extracellular and intracellular enzymatic activity [6]. A novel chitin deacetylase producing Penicillium oxalicum ITCC 6965 was isolated from residual materials of sea food processing industries [7] in Indian Institute of Technolology, Roorkee. Zhao et al (2010) isolated the chitin deacetylase producing fungi from soil samples obtained from Korea on peptone rose bengal agar medium. Enzyme was produced in the YPD broth (pH 5.0) under the same conditions [8]. According to Kafetzopoulos et al (1993) the purified chitin deacetylase of the fungus M. rouxii did not require any metal ions for activity and none of the metal ions tested (Mg2+,Co2+,Mn2+,Zn2+,Ca2+,Fe2+ and Cu2+) had any discernible effect on enzyme activity, when included in the assay buffer at a level of 1-10mM. However, they were inhibitory at concentration exceeding 10mM [9]. Xiao-dong et al (1995) reported that the purified CDA from A. coerulea showed similar properties but was strongly inhibited by Fe3+ at a conc. of 1mM. The enzyme was an acidic glycoprotein with a pI of 2.75 and 28% (w/w) carbohydrate content. The enzyme had an optimum pH 7.0 and was stable in the pH range 4.0-7.0[3]. Kolodziejsk et al (1999) studied the properties of CDA from crude extract of M. rouxii mycelium [10]. Tokuyasu et al (1996) also reported that the Co2+ slightly promoted the activity at 1mM, but strongly inhibited the enzyme at 10mM. However, EDTA slightly promoted the activity at both 1mM and 10mM, and about 96% and 70% of the activity was retained using 100mM and 800mM sodium acetate, respectively [11]. Chitosan from fungi is a natural antimicrobial to control L. monocytogenes. Zhao et al (2010) studied the properties and applications of CDA. They may find application for the biological control of fungal plant pathogens or insect pests in agriculture and for the biocontrol of opportunistic fungal human pathogens [8]. In the present study the focus is on the 106 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” production of chitin deacetylase from a newly reported fungus and to study the role of this enzyme in biocontrol of insect pests for better of crop production. material and methods Isolation, screening and identification of chitin deacetylase producing strains: Soil samples collected from different places were serially diluted and plated on chitin medium containing (g/lt): Chitin1.0g, Sodium nitrate-2.0g, K2HPO4-1.0g, KH2PO4-1.0g, PN-0.50g, MgSO4.7H2O-0.50g, Yeast extract-0.50g and Agar-20g (pH-7.0) [12]. The plates were observed for color production after 2-3 days of incubation. The organisms which were positive chitin deacetylase producer were identified through macroscopic observation on Nutrient agar (for bacteria) and Czapek dox agar (for fungi) to study the colony morphology and color of spores produced. The microscopic study was done through gram staining (for bacteria and yeast) and lactophenol cotton blue staining for fungus. Optimization of cultural conditions for chitin deacetylase production The isolated strain was inoculated in the production medium containing (g/lt) Yeast extract-3g, Glucose-10g, and Peptone-5 g [13] was used for the production of chitin deacetylase and subjected to various pH, temperature, incubation period, carbon and nitrogen sources etc. for the optimal production of enzyme chitin deacetylase. effect of ph on chitin deacetylase production: The selected isolate SN-37 was inoculated in different 500ml flask containing 100ml of production medium which was previously adjusted to various pH ranges -4.0, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, 8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5 and 10.0. After 2-3 days of incubation, extracts were collected and the enzyme activity was estimated. effect of temperature on chitin deacetylase production: The selected isolate was inoculated in different 500ml flask containing 100ml of production medium and incubated at various temperature- 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 600c. At the end of 2-3 days of incubation, extracts were collected and the enzyme activity was estimated. effect of Carbon and nitrogen-sources on chitin deacetylase production C-source: Glucose, Cellulose, Galactose, Fructose, Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose and Starch. N-source: Beef extract, Yeast extract, Peptone, Urea, Ammonium sulphate and Sodium nitrate were supplemented to the production medium individually to observe their effect on chitin deacetylase production. Effect of Incubation time on chitin deacetylase production:The production medium inoculated with selected isolate was incubated at different time period - 24, 48, 72, 96 and 144h for observing the enzyme activity. results Isolation and screening of Chitin deacetylase producing strains The strains were isolated and screened from the soil samples collected from different places for chitin deacetylase production by MBTH assay. The isolated strains were carefully identified by morphological Characteristics include color of the colony and growth pattern studies. Some of the microscopic characteristics examined under the microscope include spore formation and color of colony or mycelium. The fungal and bacterial strains able to grow on medium containing chitin as the only carbon source were isolated. These strains were screened by MBTH assay. Optimization of production of chitin deacetylase enzyme The isolate SN-37, a fungus isolated from soil was found to showing best enzyme activity, among all the isolates. This fungus was selected for production and optimization of chitin deacetylase. After optimization, the maximum enzyme activity was found to be 130 u/ml at 350c, pH 5.0 when using sucrose as c-source, yeast as N-source etc. Conclusion Chitin deacetylase is the vital enzyme for bioconversion of chitin to novel good quality chitosan. Apart of this principal application i.e chitosan production, chitin deacetylase has a number of biological roles like responsible for pathogenesis of plant pathogenic fungi, formation of spore wall in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and vegetative cell wall in Cryptococcus neoformans and utilization of chitin in marine ecosystems. 107 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” refernces Pareek N, Vivekanand V and Singh R P (2013) Chitin deacetylase: Characteristic Molecular Features and Functional Aspects. In P.Shukla and B.I Pletschke(eds), Advances in enzyme biotechnology, Ch-9: pp-125-136, Springer New Delhi Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London. Nahar P, Ghormade V and Deshpande M V (2004) The extracellular constitutive production of chitin deacetylase in Metarhizium anisopliae: a possible edge to entomopahtogenic fungi in the biological control of insect fungi. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 85: 80-88. Xiao–Dong G, Testuo K and Kazukiyo O (1995) Purification and characterization of chitin deacetylase from Absidia coerulea. Journal of Biochemistry, 117:257-263. Alfonso C, Nuero O M, Santamaria F and Reyes F (1995) Purification of a heat stable chitin deacetylase from Aspergillus nidulans and its role in cell wall degradation. Current Microbiology, 30: 49–54. Toharisman A and Suhartono M T (2008) Partial purification and characterization of chitin deacetylase produced by Bacillus thermoleovorans LW-4-11.Indonesian Biotechnology Conference; An International Seminar and Symposium. Yogyakarta. Kim Y J, Zhao Y, Oh K T, Nguyen V N and Park R D (2008) Enzymatic deacetylation of chitin by extracellular chitin deacetylase from a newly screened Mortierella sp. DY-52. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 18: 759-766. Pareek N, Vivekanand V, Dwivedi P and Singh R P (2011) Penicillium oxalicum SAEM-51: a mutagenised strain for enhanced production of chitin deacetylase for bioconversion to chitosan. New Biotechnology, 28(2). Zhao Y, Park R D and Muzzarelli R A A (2010) Chitin deacetylase: Properties and applications. Marine Drugs, 8: 24-46. Kafetzopoulos D, Martinou A and Bouriotis V (1993) Bioconversion of Chitin to Chitosan: Purification and Characterization of Chitin deacetylase from Mucor rouxii. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 90: 2564-2568. Kolodziejska I, Malesa-Ciecwierz M, Lerska A and Sikorski M (1999) Properties of Chitin deacetylase from crude extracts of Mucor rouxii mycelium. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 23: 45-57. Tokuyasu K, Ohnishi-Kameyama M and Hayashi K (1996) Purification and characterization of extracellular chitin deacetylase from Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. Bioscience Biotechnology and Biochemistry, 60: 1598–1603. Zhou GY, He YH, Zhang HY (2010) Screening and 16S rRNA Analysis of the Bacteria of Producing Chitin Deacetylase. Proceedings of the 4th International conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedical Engineering (ICBBE) held on June 18-20, Chengdu, China, pp.1-4. Pareek N, Vivekanand V, Dwivedi P, Singh RP (2011) Penicillium oxalicum SAEM-51: A mutagenized strain for enhanced production of Chitin deacetylase for bioconversion to chitosan. New Biotechnology; 28(2): 118-124. 108 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO- XVII Pest diversity of ArCtiid moths (LePidoPterA: ereBidAe: ArCtiinAe) from indiA rahul Joshi Assistant Professor, Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid College, Deon, Bathinda - 151001, Punjab. E-mail: joshiarctiidae@gmail.com Abstract Subfamily Arctiinae (formerly Arctiidae) is known by more than 500 species from India and has been recently classified into four tribes. Most of the species belonging to subfamily Arctiinae are serious pests of agricultural crops and ornamental plants. Spilarctia obliqua (Walker) commonly called as “Bihar hairy caterpillar” is widely distributed in the Oriental region and is a serious polyphagous pest on various crops like seasum, mash, mung, linseed, turmeric and mustard. Likewise, Uthesia pulchella Linneaus commonly called as “Sunhemp hairy caterpillar” is major pest on Sunhemp in Tamil Nadu. Another major pest in Oriental region from this family is Amsacta Moorei Butler, commonly known as “red hairy caterpillar”, which attacks seriously on crops like sunhemp, jowar, mung, etc. Adults and larvae of Amata passalis (Fabricius) belonging to subfamily Ctenuchinae is a leaf feeder and minor pest on Cow pea. Adults and immature stages of Lithosiini also feed on Lichens. Most common species that feeds on lichens includes Eilema depressum, Eilema complanum, Cisthene unifascia Grote & Robinson (commonly called Banded Lichen Moth), Clemensia albata Packard (Little White Lichen Moth), Hypoprepia fucosa Hübner, Chamiata barnardi (Lucas), Termessa nivosa (Walker), T. catocalina (Walker), etc. and many species of genera Cyana Walker and Barsine Walker. More details about interaction of these pest species and crops will be discussed during presentation. Keywords: Lepidoptera, Erebidae: Arctiinae, Pest, Lichens introduction The number of species on earth is estimated to be 8.7 million, out of which only 1.75 million are known to us and 87% of these still to be discovered and described. Among Phylum Arthropoda of Kingdom Animalia, class Insecta is represented by 1,020,007 species, and accounts for 66% of all the known animals. Under class Insecta, order Lepidoptera comprises 1,57,424 species referable to 15,578 genera (Zhang, 2011). Under family Erebidae of order Lepidoptera, subfamily Arctiinae (Formerly Arctiidae) is known by 10,945 species from the Globe (Heppner, 1991). Hampson (1900) studied this group in detail alongwith some host plants of these species. Kirti & Joshi (2013) and Kirti et al., (2013, 2014) added many new taxa and new faunistic records of these moths from India which are pests of many agricultural crops. The adults of family Arctiidae are small to fairy large and usually beautiful moths which are aposematically coloured. Family Arctiidae is principally defined by the presence of a tymbal organ on metaepisternum, and a pre-spiracular counter tympanal hood. These moths can also be easily identified from the hindwing with vein Sc+R1 anastomosing with cell near or beyond its middle part and separate from vein Rs. Vein Sc of the hindwing tends to be basically swollen. Another potential Arctiid apomorphy is the presence of a pair of glands, possibly pheromonal, dorsally and anteriorly between the ovipositor lobes. material and methods Moths of this group can be collected using a vertical sheet light trap. The collected specimens should be processed using standard techniques in lepidopterology. Terminology provided by Comstock (1918) and Klots (1970) are best suited for the study of wing venation and external genitalia. results and discussion Many species of these Arctiid moths are pests of agricultural crops, forest trees and ornamental plants. Some of the 109 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” important Arctiid pests are mentioned here. To begin with, Amsacta moorei Butler, commonly known as ‘Kutra’ or the ‘Red hairy caterpillar’ is widely distributed in the Oriental region, including India. It is a polyphagous insect and feeds practically on all kinds of vegetation growing during kharif season. Its attac3k is practically serious on sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea Linnaeus), maize (Zea mays Linnaeus), jowar (Sorghum valgare Pers.), mung (Phaseolus aureus Roxb) etc. Spilarctia obliqua (Walker) commonly called as ‘Bihar hairy caterpillar’ is a sporadic pest and is widely distributed in the Oriental region. In India, it is a very serious polyphagous pest, particularly in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab particularly on seasum (Sesamum indicum Linnaeus), mash (Phaseolus mungo Linnaeus), mung (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.), linseed (Linum usitatissimum Linnaeus), mustard (Brassica compestris Linnaeus) and some vegetables. ‘Bihar hairy caterpillar’ is also a major pest of spices like turmeric (Curcuma longa Linnaeus) and ornamental plants viz., todrelu (Barleria cristata Linnaeus). The ‘Sunhemp hairy caterpillar’ i.e., Utethesia pulchella Linnaeus is the most important pest of Sunhemp (Carotalaria juncea Linnaeus) in Tamil Nadu. The caterpillars feed on leaves and bore into the capsules. Lithosiin moths are also economically very important as many of its species and their immature stages feed on Lichens. However, not sufficient work has been carried out on this group, except for few research publications. Lichens are a group of non-vascular plants composed of fungal and algal species growing in a symbiotic relationship. These were recognised as potential indicators of air pollution because of their sensitivity to different gaseous pollutants particularly sulphur oxide. These also act as accumulators of trace metals, sulphur and radioactive elements. Lichenivory and feeding upon associated algal components of lichens is common in larvae of Lithosiinae. Most common species that feeds on lichens includes Eilema depressum, Eilema complanum, Cisthene unifascia Grote & Robinson (commonly called Banded Lichen Moth), Clemensia albata Packard (Little White Lichen Moth), Hypoprepia fucosa Hübner, Chamiata barnardi (Lucas), Termessa nivosa (Walker), T. catocalina (Walker), etc. and many species of genera Cyana Walker and Barsine Walker. Thus, Lichen moths can also act as environmental indicators of air-pollution as pollutants like acid rain and heavy metals often kill lichens. Therefore, absence or reduced diversity of lichen moth species in affected areas may indicate that damage to lichen community has occurred. references Comstock, J.H. and Needham, J.G. (1898-99) The wings of Insects. Amer. Nat., 32: 117-126, 573-582, 845-860. Hampson, G.F. (1900) Catalogue of the Arctiidae (Nolinae, Lithosianae) in the Collection of the British Museum, Taylor and Francis Ltd., London, 2: 1-589 Heppner, J.B. (1991) Faunal Regions and the diversity of Lepidoptera. Tropical Lepid., 2(1): 1-86. Kirti, J.S. and Joshi, R. (2013) New faunistic records of Lithosiin Moths (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Arctiinae) from NorthEast India. Bionotes, 15 (3): 84. Kirti, J.S., Joshi, R. and Singh, N. (2013) A new species of genus Cyana Walker (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae: Lithosiinae) from India. Journal of Chemical, Biological and Physical Sciences, Sec. B., 3(2): 1301-1310. Kirti, J.S., Joshi, R. and Singh, N. (2013) Taxonomic studies and new faunistic records of two species of the genus Stictane HAMPSON (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Arctiinae) from India. Acta Zoologica Cracoviensia, 56 (1): 1-7. Kirti, J.S., Joshi, R. and Singh, N. First record of genus Disasuridia Fang (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Arctiinae) along with description of a new species from India. Tinea, 22(4): 269-271 Kirti, J.S., Singh, N. and Joshi, R. (2013) A new species representing first record of genus Conilepia Hampson (Lepidoptera: Erebidae: Arctiinae) from India. Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift, 60(2): 231-234. Klots, A.B. (1970) Lepidoptera in “Taxonomists’s glossary of genitalia in Insects” (Ed. S.L. Tuxen). Munksgaard, Copenhagen.115-130pp. Zhang, Z.Q. (2011) Animal biodiversity: An introduction to higher-level classification and taxonomic richness. Zootaxa, 3148: 1–237. 110 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” BO-XVIII diversity of An eConomiCALLy imPortAnt grouP of moths – geometridAe (LePidoPterA) from Western ghAts of indiA tarun goyal Deputy HOD, Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid College, Muktsar Road, Bathinda E-mail : goyaltarun06@gmail.com Abstract The family Geometridae is one of the dominant families of order Lepidoptera in terms of economically important group of moths. Most of the Geometrid species are exclusively associated with forest trees, agricultural crops and fruit plants as defoliators. The moths of this group are known for its major and minor pest species and caterpillars of this family occupy diverse habitats as external foliage feeders on trees, defoliators on forest trees, agricultural crops and fruit plants. Most of the species pertaining to family Geometridae are host specific whereas some species are polyphagous. The caterpillar of Hyposidra talaca Walker besides attacking common fruit trees such as ‘Jamun’ and ‘Mango’, also destroy many oil seed crops and sweet potato. The loopers of Chlorissa punctifimbria (Warren) attack the leaves of Acacia nilotica and Carissa spinarum. Mixochlora vittata (Moore) damages the leaves of many species of Quercus and Castaea crenata. Agathia hilarata Guenée defoliates the leaves of Nerium indicum and Tracheospermum carissa; Rhomborista devexata (Walker) attacks foliage of Bauhiria variegata; Jodis aegutaria (Walker) feeds on plants of families Caprifoliaceae, Cercidiphyllaceae, Rosaceae and Staphyleaceae. The larvae of Pingasa ruginaria (Guenée) feed on red gram whereas, those of Pelagodes veraria (Hampson) and Thalassodes quadraria Guenée are associated with litchi plants. To undertake any study of ecology and the control of these pests it becomes imperative to understand their taxonomical and morphological features. Proper nomenclature and classification of these organisms is an important prerequisite for any such project. Keywords: Lepidoptera, Geometridae, Western Ghats. introduction Insects are ancient, ecologically significant and beautiful components of the living World. The evolutionary history of insects justified their existence for million of years and with passage of time in no way has diminished the wonders of insect life. Numbering over 1,000,000 animal species, insects were the first organisms to successfully colonize land. Under class Insecta, order Lepidoptera including moths and butterflies is one of the most important and third largest group, with respect to its economic importance and aesthetic value. Geometridae is one of the most important family of order Lepidoptera. The word Geometridae is comprised of two Greek words i.e. ‘Geo’ means earth and ‘Metrous’ means to measure. This character, usually diagnostic of Geometrid moths is exhibited by their caterpillars. The larvae of family Geometridae can be easily distinguished from those of other families by their ‘looping’ progression and i.e. why they are also known by common names like ‘measuring worm’, ‘loopers’, ‘inchworm’ and ‘span worm’. These insects can be easily recognized because at rest, the wings are typically held outspread. They are neither usually folded over the body or held vertically with the dorsal surfaces of wing touching. economic importance Herbivorous insects comprise a significant fraction of any insect fauna due to their sheer numerical preponderance (Ødegaard, 2000; Basset et al., 2001; Novotny et al., 2002). These are also expected to respond sensitively to deforestation and subsequent forest regeneration, since they have a close relationship with the vegetation they live in. Family Geometridae drives its name from the characterstic locomotion of its caterpillars which are commonly called as ‘Loopers’. Among insects the members of family Geometridae are of great economic importance as the loopers of a large number of species defoliate the leaves of the agricultural crops, fruit plants and forest trees. The caterpillar of Hyposidra successaria (Walker) besides attacking common fruit trees such as ‘Jamun’ and ‘Mango’, also destroy many oil seed crops and sweet potato. The loopers of Chlorissa punctifimbria (Warren) attack the leaves of Acacia nilotica and Carissa spinarum. Mixochlora vittata (Moore) damages the leaves of many species of Quercus and Castaea crenata. The larvae of Agathia hilarata Guenée defoliate the leaves of Nerium indicum and Tracheospermum Carissa. Some other important pests like Rhomborista devexata (Walker) attacks foliage of Bauhiria variegate and Jodis aegutaria (Walker) feeds on plants of families 111 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Caprifoliaceae, Cercidiphyllaceae, Rosaceae and Staphyleaceae. The larvae of Pingasa ruginaria (Guenée) feed on red gram whereas, those of Pelagodes veraria (Hampson) and Thalassodes quadraria Guenée are associated with litchi plants (Nair, 1975). Pingasa ruginaria (Guenée) damages the foliage of plants belonging to families Compositae, Lauraceae and Myrtaceae. In general the food plants of Geometrid moths included members of Compositae (Gerbera jamesonii), Lauraceae (Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Litsea elongata, Litsea polyantha), Leguminosae (Crotalaria), Myrtaceae (Psidium guajava), Rhammaceae (Ziziphus jujube, Ziziphus nucronata), Sapindaceae (Dimocarpus longan; Lepisanthes rubiginosa; Lichi chinensis; Nephelium lappaceum) and Sterdliaceae (Triplochiton scleroxylon) (Scoble, 1999). Similarly, Hyposidra talaca (Walker) was found to be inhabiting plant species of Apocynaceae (Carissa spinarum), Bombaceae (Combretum; Terminalia tomentosa), Ephorbiaceae (Cassava; Glochidion hongkongense; Hevea brasiliensis; Jatropa curcas; Mallotus; Ricinus communis), Fagaceae (Castanopsis fissa), Geraniaceae (Pelargonium), Lauraceae (Cinnamoum zeylanicum), Leguminosae (Acacia catechu; Acacia mangium; Acacia nilotica; Albizia procera; Derris, Glycine hispida); Miliaceae (Khaya anthotheca), Moraceae (Ficus parasiticus), Myrtaceae (Eugenia aquea; Eugenia cumini; Eugenia), Rubiaceae (Coffee arabica; Coffee liberica), Rutaceae (Citrus maxima; Citrus), Sapindaceae (Lichi chinensis; Nephelium lappaceum; Schleichera oleosa) and Verkenaceae (Tectona grandis) (Scoble, loc. cit.).The caterpillars of Antitrygodes cuneilinea (Walker) are serious defoliators of Anthocephalus cadamba. The forest trees like Rumax sp. and Acacia catechu are damaged by loopers of Anisephyra ocularia Fabricius and Traminda mundissima (Walker) respectively. Ascotis selenaria (Dennis and Schiffermüller) is a known pest of coffee in East Africa and Kenya respectively and its larvae feeds on leaves, fruits and flowers. materials and methods The collection of adult Geometrid moths were made with the help of light traps fitted at different places during night time in different localities of Western Ghats of India from 2006-2009. Both vertical sheet and portable light trap methods (Fry & Waring, 1996) were used for this purpose. Collected material was killed with ethyl acetate vapours in the killing bottles. The freshly killed specimens were pinned and stretched on stretching boards and thermocol sheets. Well stretched specimens were preserved in air tight fumigated wooden boxes of insect cabinet. The method proposed by Common (1970) and advocated by Zimmerman (1978) were followed for the preparation of permanent slides of fore and hindwings. To study external male genitalic attributes, the entire abdomen was detached from insect body (Robinson, 1976). The detached abdomen was placed in 10% KOH overnight to soften the chitin and for dissolving away the muscles and other unwanted parts. The abdomen was dissected in 50% alcohol for taking out the male genitalia. After proper dehydration in different grades of alcohol, the genitalic structures were cleared in clove oil and then mounted in Canada balsam on cavity slides. The photography of external male genitalic structures was done with the help of image processing unit in the department of Zoology, Punjabi University, Patiala. The terminology given by Klots (1970) has been followed in the present study for nomenclature purpose. 112 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” observations Intensive and extensive collection cum survey tours conducted during 2006-2009 in the far-flung localities of Western Ghats of India resulted in procurement of 101 species referable to 52 genera belonging to three subfamilies i.e., Ennominae, Geometrinae and Sterrhinae. Subfamily Ennominae is represented by 59 species referable to 28 genera whereas, 30 species belong to 18 genera of subfamily Geometrinae. As many as 12 species listed under six different genera have been collected in subfamily Sterrhinae. A list of studied species is given below Ascotis selenaria (Dennis and Schiffermuller) family geometridae Cleora cornaria (Guenee) subfamily ennominae C. uncupropulsaria sp. nov. Zeheba marginata Walker C. acaciaria (Boisduval) Heterostegane subtessellata (Walker) C. propulsaria (Walker) Ectropis crepuscularia (Dennis and Schiffermuller) Hypomecis transcissa (Walker) E. bhurmitra (Walker) H. infixaria (Walker) Psilalcis inceptaria (Walker) Dasybormia delineata (Walker) Chiasmia eleonora (Cramer) Hyposidra talaca Walker C. nora (Walker) H. pajnii sp. nov. C. pseudonora sp. nov. Alcis admissaria (Guenee) C. xanthonora (Walker) Zamarada apospatulata sp. nov. C. perspicuaria (Moore) comb. nov. Petelia immaculata Hampson C. emersaria (Walker) P. maculata sp. nov. C. pluviata (Fabricius) P. medardaria Herrich-Schaffer C. perfusaria (Walker) Borbacha pardaria (Guenee) C. similaria sp. nov. Ophthalmitis herbidaria (Guenee) C. frugaliata (Guenee) Fascellina chromataria Walker C. sufflata (Guenee) comb. nov. F. plagiata Walker Luxiaria contigaria Walker comb. rev. Corymica arnearia Walker L. ochrearia sp. nov. Plutodes pseudocyclaria sp. nov. L. fuscaria sp. nov. Aplochlora vivilaca (Walker) Scardamia seminigra Prout Lomographa inamata (Walker) S. pseudoseminigra sp. nov. Ourapteryx marginata Hampson S. hollowayi sp. nov. O. devikulamensis sp. nov. Abraxas leucostola Hampson Thinopteryx crocoptera (Kollar) A. sylvata Scopoli Oxymacaria palliata (Hampson) A. valvata sp. nov. A. ditritaria Walker A. poliaria Swinhoe A. fasciaria Guerin-Meneville A. scoblei sp. nov. A. crenularia sp. nov. Chorodna strixaria (Guenee) Biston suppressaria Guenee suBfAmiLy geometrinAe Pingasa ruginaria (Guenee) P. chlora (Stoll) Oenospila flavifusata (Walker) O. sacculstrix sp. nov. Herochroma costata sp. nov. Eucyclodes gavissima (Walker) E. divapala (Walker) 113 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” E. picturata (Hampson) Lophophelma ruficosta (Hampson) Comostola subtiliaria (Bremer) C. pyrrhogona (Walker) C. quantula (Swinhoe) Chlorozancla falcatus (Hampson) Orothalassodes albomaculata (Hampson) comb. nov. Maxates coelataria (Walker) M. acutissima (Walker) Protuliocnemis partita (Walker) P. castalaria (Oberthur) Episothalma robustaria (Guenee) Agathia hemithearia Guenee A. microlaetata sp. nov. A. hilarata Guenee A. lycaenaria (Kollar) A. intercissa Walker Aporandria specularia (Guenee) Thalassodes quadraria Guenee Hemithea tritonaria Walker Pelagodes veraria (Guenee) Berta chrysolineata Walker Spaniocentra pannosa (Moore) suBfAmiLy sterrhinAe Somatina anthophilata Guenee S. rosacea Swinhoe Problepsis vulgaris Butler P. deliaria Guenee P. ocellaria sp. nov. Traminda aventiaria (Guenee) T. mundissima (Walker) Chrysocraspeda olearia Guenee C. faganaria Guenee Perixera obrinaria (Guenee) Timandra responsaria Moore T. correspondens Hampson referenCes Basset, Y., Charles, E., Hammond, D.S. and Brown, V.K. (2001) Short-term effects of canopy openness on insect herbivores in a rain forest in Guyana. J. appl. Ecol., 38 : 1045-1058. Common, I.F.B. (1970) Lepidoptera (Moths and butterflies), in the insect of Australia. 1-866, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne. Fry, R. and Waring, P. (1996) A guide to moth traps and their use. The Ama. Ent., 24 : 1-60. Klots, A.B. (1970) Lepidoptera in “Taxonomist’s glossary of genitalia in Insects” (Ed. S. L. Tuxen). 115-130, Munksgaard, Copenhagen. Nair, M.R.C.K. (1975) Insects and mites of crops in India. Indian counc. Agr. Res., 1975 : 1-404. Novotny, V., Basset, Y., Miller, S.E., Weiblen, G.D., Bremer, B., Cizek, L. and Drozd, P. (2002) Low host specificity of herbivorous insects in a tropical forest. Nature, 2002 : 416, 841-844. Odegaard, F. (2000) How many species of arthropods? Erwin’s estimate revised. Biol. J. Linn. Soc., 71 : 583-597. Robinson, G.S. (1976) The preparation of slides of Lepidoptera genetalia with special reference to Microlepidoptera. Entomologist’s Gaz., 27 : 127-132. Scoble, M.J. (1999) Geometrid Moths of the World - A catalogue (Lepidoptera : Geometridae). CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, 1 : 5-482 ; 2 : 485-1016. Zimmerman, E.C. (1978) Microlepidoptera. Insects Hawaii, 9. 114 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-I resourCe ConservAtion teChnoLogies in AgriCuLture 1 s s manhas, 2K s Brar & 3J s Brar Assistant Professor, Agronomy KVK, Mansa 2Sr. Plant Breader (Pulses) PAU 3Sr. Soil Scientist, PAU Bathinda 1 The idea of agricultural sustainability centers on food production that makes the best use of nature’s goods and services while not damaging these assets. Agricultural sustainability emphasizes the potential benefits that arise from making the best use of both good genotypes of crops and animals and their ecological management. Agricultural sustainability does not, therefore, mean ruling out any technologies or practices on ideological grounds (e.g., genetically modified crop, organic practice) provided they improve productivity for farmers, and do not harm the environment. Agricultural sustainability depends upon variety of packages of resource-conserving technologies and practices. Resource conserving technologies will refer to those practices that enhance resource- or input-use efficiency. These include the following: (1) Conservation tillage, which reduces the amount of tillage, sometimes to zero, so that soil can be conserved and available moisture used more efficiently. (2) Integrated nutrient management, which seeks both to balance the need to fix nitrogen within farm systems with the need to import inorganic and organic sources of nutrients, and to reduce nutrient losses through erosion control. (3) Agroforestry, which incorporates multifunctional trees into agricultural systems, and collective management of nearby forest resources. (4) Water harvesting in dryland areas, which can mean formerly abandoned and degraded lands can be cultivated, and additional crops can be grown on small patches of irrigated land owing to better rainwater retention. Conservation tillage Conservation tillage is any tillage and planting system that maintains at least 30% of the soil surface covered by residue after planting to reduce water erosion or where wind erosion is the primary concern, maintain at least 1000 kg ha-1 of flat, small grain residue equivalent on the surface during the critical wind erosion period (CTIC, 1995). Some relevant type of conservation tillage include: a) no tillage b) reduced tillage c} mulch tillage d) conventional tillage.World wide it is now being practised over an area of 58 million hectare involving crops like rice, wheat, pulses, sugarcane, vegetables, potato, beets, cassava and fruits. In India this concept of farming has found favour in the states of Punjab, Haryana and western parts of Uttar Pradesh and as estimated about 40000 to 50000 hectares of land particularly under rice-wheat system has been brought under conservation agriculture involving primarily reduced or zero tillage, bed planting and crop residue mulching. As experienced world-wide conservation agriculture leads to the buildup of soil organic carbon and thereby arrests the decline in total factor productivity of the applied inputs; helps saving the top fertile soil from wind and water erosion, enhances the nutrient use efficiency by creating conducive rhizosphere for soil micro-flora and fauna; reduces water requirement of the crops by effectively cutting the evaporation losses; checks non-point pollution of nearby water bodies and helps sequestering the green house gasses in the soil. The farmers adopting this system have reaped good benefits and gained confidence to bring crops other than rice-wheat under this for saving their lands from deterioration and getting higher returns. A positive effect of this system of agriculture has also been reported on saving of inputs like nutrients, water and energy. The maximum soil water content was recorded with no-till treatments as compared to minimal tillage at 11 leaf stage of corn growth (Fabrizzi et al, 2005). The higher soil organic carbon content was observed in no till followed by chisel plow and moldboard plow in corn field after 28 years of study (Mahboubi et al ,1993). The transplanting of rice under unpuddled conditions or under zero-tillage can be an alternative for improving water productivity in the medium soils. This has been successfully demonstrated in the NATP project at CCS HAU, Hisar. Zero-tillage has enabled farmers to sow their wheat crop immediately after rice harvesting and without any pre-sowing irrigation in some cases. The water saving under zero-tillage has been recorded at the time of first post-sowing irrigation (Malik et al., 2004). rtC in water management The global water scarcity analysis has shown that upto two-third of world population will be affected by water scarcity over the next several decades (Wallace and Gregory, 2002). The agricultural community sees continued growth of irrigation as an imperative to achieve the goals adopted to reduce hunger and poverty. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka estimated that 29% more irrigated land will be required by the year 2025, but productivity gains and more efficient water use might decrease this diversion to 17% (Rijsberman, 2004). Appropriate water management technologies together with resource conservation technologies (RCTs) are needed for rational use of water. Development of efficient water-management practices in different cropping systems may reduce the water requirement without 115 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” significant reduction in crop yields. Reduction of water use in land preparation (zero tilled direct seeded rice and wheat, ZT transplanted rice) and adoption of second generation RCTs (laser land leveling system, residue management, bed planting and crop diversification) are being advocated for conservation of soil, water and energy, and enhancing water productivity. The productivity of water is enhanced by increasing the productivity per unit of process depletion (crop transpiration in agriculture) or other beneficial depletion, and by reallocation of water to higher-value uses. RCTs could very well be supplemented by rainwater conservation, increased bund height, irrigation scheduling, land leveling etc for in-situ moisture/water conservation and conjunctive use of rain, surface and groundwater to enhance water productivity. The bed planting of wheat can be used for a significant improvement in the water productivity but the success of this technology will depend on the type of soil and source of irrigation (Anonymous, 2005). Results of primary trials conducted in different crops under furrow irrigated raised bed system (FIRBS) in India have indicated immense saving in irrigation water. It can also be a very useful technique for introducing intercropping and crop diversification. Experiments conducted at the Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research revealed that wheat + sugarcane cropping under FIRB system resulted in better utilization of resources and out yielded wheat-sugarcane in sequence as the cane equivalent yield under FIRB was 107.8 t/ha as compared to 88.2 t/ha in sequential system. There was a 20% saving in water utilization under FIRB (Yadav, 1998). Narayanmoorthy (2004) sees the potential of drip irrigation to help solve the water scarcity in India. The installing rainwater-harvesting structures can shape vegetables or horticulture based cropping system in the profitable proposition. Laser leveling The introduction of laser leveling in the 1970’s produced a silent revolution that has raised potential of surface irrigation efficiency to the levels of sprinkler and drip irrigation (Erie and Dedrick, 1979). Laser-controlled land leveling equipment grades fields to contour the land for different irrigation practices. With sprinklers, a perfectly level field conserves water by reducing runoff and allowing uniform distribution of water. Furrow irrigation systems need a slight but uniform slope to use water most efficiently. Laser leveling can reduce water use by 20-30% and increase crop yields by 10-20%. The quality of land leveling in zero-slope fields can be estimated through the standard deviation (SD) of soil surface elevation. A field leveled with conventional equipment can attain a standard deviation of 20-30 mm, while using laser leveling the technical limit extends up to 10 mm. The research reveals that the introduction of laser leveling can result in more than 10% increase in application efficiency, while the cost of the leveling operation is two to three times that of a standard tillage operation (Playán et al. 1996). Laser land levelling is an important component of resource conservation technology that can improve water productivity at field level (Gupta, 2003). Laser-controlled precision land leveling helps to: a) Save irrigation water b) Increase cultivable area by 3 to 5% approximately c) Improve crop establishment d) Improve uniformity of crop maturity e) Increase water application efficiency up to 50% f) Increase cropping intensity by about 40%.g) Increase crop yields (wheat 15%, sugarcane 42%, rice 61% and cotton 66%)h) i) Facilitate management of saline environmentsi) Reduce weed problems and improve weed control efficiency. Choudhary et al. (2002) reported an increase in net return of Rs. 5125 ha-1 from wheat grown under laser-leveled field compared to conventional leveling. The respective B/C ratio of 2.71 and 2.04 with a difference of 0.67 was recorded under laser leveling and conventional leveling. Laser land leveling can certainly minimize yield variability at farm level, optimize input- output relation and save resources like soil, water and energy. If adopted on a large scale, the laser leveling would help in improving the quantity and quality of ground water because of improved water productivity and less accumulation and deep percolation of water-soluble pesticides and chemicals, especially nitrate. Rickman (2002) reported 10-15% reduction in operating time of agricultural machinery in the laser-leveled fields as compared to traditional leveling. Laser leveling thus may prove to be an important technology in reducing the consumption of fossil fuel for various farming operations, which will bring a direct tangible and intangible benefit to farmers. rtC in nutrient management To ensure adequate and balanced nutrient supply, integrated approach is an important option and involves more efficient use of chemical fertilizers in conjunction with judicious combination of organic manures without detriment to soil fertility and improving crop productivity. The high cost of fertilizers coupled with relatively greater losses of fertilizer N leading to environmental pollution and yield decline over the years calls for a cheaper and sustainable measures to improve the productivity. Integrated nutrient supply helps to improve the physical, chemical and biological health of soil and avoids soil degradation and deterioration of water and environmental quality by promoting carbon sequestration and checking the losses of nutrients to water bodies and atmosphere. Besides, organic source of nutrient acts as slow release fertilizers as it synchronizes the nutrient demand set by plants, both in time and space, with supply of the nutrients from the labile soil and applied nutrient pools. Research investigations have further purported that use of green manure before paddy transplanting not only help to save the 50 percent recommended NPK but also improve the soil fertility. Likewise, 50 percent substitution 116 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” of NPK through farm yard manure also help both the crops in rice-wheat system along with fertility improvement (Gill et al., 2000). Another significant investigation for realizing the high yield of paddy the recommended chemical fertilizers should be supplemented with crop residues and green manuring (Bhandari and Walia, 2000). Leaf colour chart (LCC) Improving fertilizer nitrogen (N)-use efficiency in rice is vital to achieve and sustain high crop yields and reduce N losses via ammonia volatilization, leaching of nitrate and denitrification. Fertilizer N is an expensive input but farmers have a tendency to apply N in large amounts to minimize the risk of deficiency. Efficiency of applied N generally declines with increased fertilizer use, and seldom exceeds 40 % (Cassman et al. 1993; Singh and Singh 2003). The requirement of rice for N fertilizer can vary greatly from field to field, season to season, and year to year because of high variability among fields, in soil N-supplying capacity (Cassman et al. 1996; Dobermann et al. 2003) and crop growth due to differences in climate factors (Kropff et al.1993). The need based N management in hybrid rice using LCC has the potential of replacing the blanket uniform fertilizer rates recommended. Leaf colour chart has found very useful in efficiently managing fertilizer N in inbred rice cultivars (Singh et al. 2007). references Bhandari, A.L. and Walia, S.S. 2000. Effect of FYM, green manuring and crop residues incorporation on crop and soil productivity under combine harvested rice-wheat system. Proc.International Conference on managing the natural resources for sustainable crop production in the 21st century. Feb. 14-18, 2000, IARI, New Delhi, pp 19-20. Cassman K G, Gines G C, Dizon M A, Samson M I, and Alcantara J M. 1996. Nitrogen-use efficiency in tropical lowland rice systems: Contributions from indigenous and applied nitrogen. Field Crops Research 47: 1–12. Cassman K G, Kropff M J, Gaunt J and Peng S. 1993. Nitrogen use efficiency of rice reconsidered: what are the key constraints? Plant and Soil 155/156: 359–62. Dobermann A, Witt C, Abdulrachman S, Gines H C, Nagarajan R, Son T T, Tan P S, Wang G H, Chien N V, Thoa T K, Phung C V, Stalin P, Muthukrishnan P, Ravi V, Babu M, Simbahan G C, Adviento M A A. 2003. Soil fertility and indigenous nutrient supply in irrigated rice domains of Asia. Agronomy Journal 95: 913–23. Erie, L.J., and Dedrick, A.R. 1979. Level basin irrigation: A method for conserving water and labor. USDA Farmers’ Bulletin 2261, 23. Fabrizzi A, 2005. Soil water content by soil depth under minimal and no-till treatments at 11 leaf stage in corn. Soil and Till Res 81: 57-69. Gill, M.S., Bhandari, A.L. and Walia, S.S. 2000. Sustainability of rice-wheat cropping system through integrated nutrient management. In National Symposium on Agronomy; Challenges and Strategies for the new millennium. Nov.5-18, GAU Campus, Junagarh, 18 p. Gupta, R. 2003. Agenda Notes 12th Regional Coordination Committee Meeting of Rice-Wheat Consortium for IndoGangetic Plains, February 7-9, 2004, Islamabad, Pakistan. pp. 39-50. Mahboubi S, 1993. Effect of different tillage on soil organic carbon content in corn studied for 28 years Soil Sci Soc Am J 51 : 506-12. Malik, R.K., Yadav, A., Gill, G.S., Sardana, P., Gupta, R.K. and Piggin, C. 2004. Evolution and acceleration of no-till farming in rice-wheat system of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. 4th International Crop Science Congress held in Brisbane, Australia from September 26 to October 1. 73 p. Narayanmoorthy, A., 2004. Drip irrigation in India: Can it solve the water Crisis? Water Policy 6: 117-130. Playán, E., Faci, J.M., and Serreta, A. 1996. Modeling micro topography in basin irrigation. J. Irrigation and Drainage Eng., ASCE 122(6): 339-347. Rijsberman, F.R. 2004. Water Scarcity: Fact or Fiction? Proc. 4th International Crop Science Congress held in Brisbane, Australia from September 26 to October 1. 1-27 p. Singh Bijay and Singh Yadvinde. 2003. Nitrogen management in rice-wheat system in the Indo-gangetic plains (in) Nutrient Management for Sustainable Rice-wheat Cropping System, pp 99–114. Yadvinder-Singh, Bijay-Singh, Nayyar VK and Jagmohan Singh, (Eds). National Agricultural Technology Project, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, and Punjab. Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab. Singh Yadvinder, Singh Bijay, Ladha J K, Bains J S, Gupta R K, Jagmohan-Singh and Balasubramanian V. 2007. On-farm evaluation of leaf color chart for need-based nitrogen management in irrigated transplanted rice in north-western India. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems 78:167–76. Wallace, J.S. and Gregory, P.J. 2002. Water resources and their use in food production. Aquatic Sci. 64: 363-375. Yadav, D.V. and Dey, P. 1998. Integrated nutrient management based on systems approach. Sugar Crops Newsletter 8(1): 2-3. 117 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-II furroW irrigAted BroAd Bed PLAnting system: for Better WAter mAnAgement in KHArIF mAize Jasvir singh gill and gurpreet Kaur Farm Advisory Service Scheme and Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kapurthala, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana introduction Maize (Zea mays) is one of the most versatile and vital crop diversification module (alternate to paddy) provided facilities like minimum support price, timely procurement, electrical grain drying system at reasonable rates in local grain markets are practically made available to farmers. Even maize was our traditional crop of Kharif season near three decades back when paddy had not gained its roots in Punjab state. Thereafter due to favorable government policies like subsidized inputs, minimum support price, assured marketing etc, for ensuring food security for the nation and to pile up desirable quantity of buffer-stock for addressing exigencies paddy became major crop of Kharif season. On the other hand maize fits well into multiple cropping systems (especially in very intensively cultivated belts where three hundred percent cropping intensity is not uncommon) due to its short growing season maximum up to ninety to ninety five days, crop requires less water and matures 15 to 40 days earlier than paddy. Due to short duration maize can fit well in intensive cropping systems, where potato based cropping systems are excellent example of this that is usually followed in Doaba belt of Punjab state. From trade point of view plethora of products can be synthesized from maize those has value in domestic and international market as well, provided desirable number of processing plants are available. Presently in maize cultivation there are some bottlenecks too, as crop lodges in stagnant water in the event of high rainfall and/or due to the water intrusion from adjoining areas, so its cultivation is feasible only in well drained soils. At the same time it requires enough water during hot weather for normal growth and frequent irrigations were given by the farmers to save crop from water stress. Higher incidences of stalk rot like diseases were noted in the event of humid weather following heavy rainfall. To overcome this problem new concept of broad bed planting was introduced (exclusively in farmers participatory research trials) in Kapurthala district to ensure judicious use of irrigation and rain water in maize. This concept ensures irrigation water saving from thirty to forty percent as compared to conventional system of ridge planting which also reduces the lodging of crop as space between crop rows in-between beds has more soil strength as compared to ridge planting system. This was conducted in farmers’ participatory mode at cultivators’ field at village Kolianwal in Kapurthala district were six maize hybrids were evaluated both under ridge and broad bed planting system during Kharif 2012. Key Words: Broad Beds, FIRBBS, Maize hybrids, Water productivity material and methods A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2012 farmers’ field at village Kolianwal (Location N 310 20. 605’ E 750 17.191’) in district Kapurthala. Twelve treatment combinations comprising two planting methods (Broad Bed and Ridge Planting) and six maize hybrids (PMH 1, PMH 3, JH 3956, P 3396, P 3303, NK 7204) were evaluated. The experiment was laid out in split plot design with three replications, keeping planting methods in main plots and maize hybrids in subplots. The soil was sandy loam in texture, normal in reaction. The crop was planted by manual dibbling on marks created by marker attached behind the broad bed maker (plate 1) using uniform seed (treated with Bavistin and Guacho) rate of 20 kg ha-1 on 28th June 2012. Only nitrogen @ 125 kg/ha was applied in three equal splits one as basal, at knee high and tasseling stage. All other production and protection were applied as per package of recommendations given by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. results and discussion Data depicted in table 1 revealed that maize planted on broad beds gave significantly higher grain yield (4.3 percent) than ridge planted crop. This might be due better crop strand that also resisted lodging due to more soil strength on one side of plant row, whereas ridge planted crop lodges in patches. Moreover crop planted on broad beds utilized irrigation more judiciously due to less water logging in the field. These might also be the reasons for better yield and yield attributes of crop under furrow irrigated raised broad bed system. Chengzhon et al (2008) also reported 12.1 % more grain yield in the raised bed planting system in comparison to that of conventional planting in maize. Data presented in table two clear shows 118 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” that FIRBBS is 31.6 percent is more water productive than ridge planting in Kharif maize irrespective of hybrids planted. Same quantum of water saving was also reported by Shafiq et al (2003). As far as maize hybrids were concerned highest grain yield upto the tune of 49.0 q/ha was given by PMH 3, but this was statistically at par with pioneers’ hybrid P 3303 that yielded 48.3 q/ha. Amongst other entries P 3396 (Pioneers’ hybrid), NK 7204 (Syngentas’ hybrid) and PMH 1 remained statistically at par apropos yield quantum and poured 45.9, 44.0 and 43.6 quintal grains per hectare, respectively. Lowest grain yield was given by JH 3956 (PMH 7) 42.3 q/ha. Conclusion It can be concluded that broad bed planting ensures higher grain yield in kharif maize along with more than 28 % saving of irrigation water as compare to ridge planting system. table 1 yield attributes and yield of various maize hybrids planted under ridge and broad bed plating systems at Kapurthala during Kharif 2012 Treatment Plant ht Stem (cm) Circumference (cm) Ear placement ht (cm) Cob girth (cm) Cob length (cm) No of grains/ line No of No of lines/ grains/ cob cob 1000 Grain Grain Wt yield (gm) (q/ha) Main plots (Planting Systems) Bed (FIRBBS) 233.7 6.0 119.8 15.2 16.5 27.1 14.6 390.5 270.2 46.5 Ridge 225.6 5.7 121.6 14.6 15.0 29.2 13.1 351.1 303.4 44.6 CD (p=0.05) NS NS NS 0.2 1.3 NS 1.3 26.1 NS 1.8 P 3303 237.5 6.3 115.7 14.8 19.0 31.5 13.0 392.0 276.6 48.3 P 3396 236.7 5.6 121.2 15.6 15.2 28.7 14.7 359.5 262.3 45.9 NK 7204 213.2 5.5 103.0 14.9 14.0 27.7 14.0 357.8 377.9 44.0 PMH 1 252.5 5.8 149.8 14.1 15.1 24.3 13.7 350.7 280.6 43.6 JH 3956 (PMH 7) 211.5 6.2 116.0 14.4 14.3 27.0 13.0 323.5 260.0 42.3 PMH 3 226.5 6.0 118.5 15.4 17.1 30.3 14.7 441.2 263.3 49.0 CD (p=0.05) 11.8 NS 10.4 NS 1.5 2.8 NS 45.5 60.0 2.1 Sub plots (Maize Hybrids) table2: Water consumption and productivity various maize hybrids under different methods of planting. Treatment Number of irrigations Water applied (cum/ha) Grain yield (q/ha) Water productivity (Kg/cum) FIRBBS 4.0 1203 46.5 3.8 Ridge 4.0 1680 44.6 2.6 Percent difference - 28 4.2 31.6 references Chengzhong Xu, Xiaomin Kong and Chao Wang (2008) Effect of sowing in ridge on root system leaves and yield components of summer maize. J Maize Sci 16(1):101-103. Shafiq M, Hassan I and Hussain Z (2003) Maize crop production and water use efficiency as affected by planting methods. Asian J Pl Sci 2 (1): 141-144. 119 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-III fACtors infLuenCing AdoPtion of direCt seeding of riCe teChnoLogy in PunJAB AgriCuLture sumit Bhardwaj*, Baljinder Kaur sidana and Parminder Kaur Abstract Direct seeded rice could be a viable alternative to transplanted rice due to availability of short duration varieties, effective herbicide and escalating cost of labour. A purposively sample of 40 adopters as well as non-adopters of the technology was chosen for study for the year 2012-13. To assess how much value is being obtained from the use of water the per hectare water productivity was calculated. The per hectare water productivity on direct seeded rice basmati fields was 0.91 kg per m3 and in non-basmati fields was 1.25 kg per m3. However, on non-DSR farms the per hectare water productivity was 0.06 kg per m3 and 0.94 kg per m3 on basmati and non-basmati farms respectively. This means direct seeded rice resulted in the enhancement of water productivity to the tune of 51.67 per cent and 32.97 per cent in basmati and non-basmati varieties, respectively. To study the adoption behavior of DSR technology binary logistic regression was applied and the set of regressors influencing technology adoption used in the model are operational area per unit of the horse power of electric motor, age of the respondent, availability of family labour, scarcity of hired labour, educational level of respondent and lectures attended of DSR technology. The estimated odds ratio for educational level of respondent, scarcity of hired labour and lectures attended of DSR technology were 2.92, 11.92 and 5.15, respectively. All these factors had positive influence on the adoption of DSR technology by the magnitude of their respective odds ratio. However, the estimated odds ratio for availability of family labour was 0.086 with negative sign of estimated coefficient which suggested a negative influence on the adoption of DSR technology. Subsidizing cost of direct seeding of rice per acre will increase the area under this technology as more farmers will go for its adoption. Key Words: - Direct Seeding of Rice, Binary Logistic Regression Model, Water Productivity introduction During the green-revolution, Punjab state played an important role to make India self sufficient in food grains production. At present, Punjab is contributing about 43.80 and 25.40 per cent of wheat and rice, respectively, to central pool from 1.5 per cent of geographical area of the country. But the continuous rice-wheat cultivation has resulted over- exploitation of the two most important natural resources i.e. soil and water. Due to the assured procurement policy, minimum support price and subsidized power supply by the government, the farmers are not willing to replace rice with other crops. So, there is a need for developing efficient techniques to conserve underground water by increasing irrigation efficiency in rice. Rice is not only a water intensive crop but the cultivation practices followed by the farmers also indiscriminately use ground water resources. Rice is mainly cultivated through transplanting, after puddling which damage soil structure and result in formation of hard pan. Puddling though, helps in retaliation of water and effective weed control but it requires more time, labour, energy and tillage operation for succeeding wheat crop. It also hinders the root growth of wheat which limits water uptake and consequently lowers crop yield. In the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) in general and in Punjab state particular, which lies in the Trans-Gangetic region of IGP, the underground water is being over exploited by excessive pumping to meet the water need of transplanted paddy. As a consequence the ground water table has declined. The water table has gone down drastically in Central Punjab and most of the development blocks have been categorised as ‘dark’ (Sidhu et al., 2010). To arrest this dangerous trend of ground water exploitation there is an urgent need to conserve irrigation water through various on farm water conservation practices (Bhatt and Sharma, 2009). Looming water crisis, water-intensive nature of rice cultivation and escalating labour cost drive the search for alternative management methods to increase water productivity in rice cultivation. Punjab Agricultural University has suggested many technique for saving irrigation water in rice such as direct seeding of rice technology, use of tensiometer, laser land leveling, optimum scheduling of irrigation to rice, delaying of rice transplanting to 15th June and bed planting etc. Amongst global water scarcity, when the future of rice production is under threat direct-seeded rice offers an attractive alternative (Farooq et al., 2011). Change in the method of crop establishment from traditional manual transplanting of seedling to direct seeding has occurred in many rice (Oryza sativa) growing countries in response of increasing production cost, especially for labour and water. At global level, 23 per cent rice is direct seeded. In Asia, rice is sown directly on an area of about 29 million ha which is approximately 21 per cent of the total rice area in the region (Pandey and Velasco, 2005). Direct seeded rice is also becoming popular in tropical asian countries like Philippines, Malaysia and Myanmar primarily due to labour shortage. 120 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Direct seeding has already replaced transplanted rice in many parts of South-East Asia. In India, rice is direct seeded on about 42 m ha area in parts of several states including Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, West-Bengal, Kerala, Karnataka and hill states of Uttaranchal (Patil et al., 2005). The preliminary research conducted at Punjab Agricultural University indicated that direct seeded rice could be a viable alternative to transplanted rice due to availability of short duration varieties, effective herbicide, non-availability of labour and escalating cost of labour. It also shortens the crop duration because it matures earlier (10-12 days) than transplanted crop due to the absence of transplanting of nursery to the seedlings (Dhyani et al., 2005). In this context, this paper attempts to analyze the factors influencing the adoption of direct seeding of rice in punjab agriculture and to assess enhancement in irrigation efficiency by the use of this technology. methodology Multi-stage random sampling technique was followed for the selection of the study sample for the year 2012-13. As direct seeding of rice technology is being practiced in certain pockets of Punjab, two districts viz. Faridkot and Ferozepur were purposively selected for the present study. Therefore, a total sample of 80 farmers (40 adopters and 40 non-adopters) covering six villages, two blocks and two districts of Punjab state was finally chosen for the ultimate analysis. The required information pertaining to the size of operational holding, human labour, seed, fertilizers and farm yard manure, pesticides, insecticides, machinery, area, production, productivity of paddy was collected from the selected adopters and non-adopters and also the data related to the age, education and family size were taken to account for the socio-economic characteristics. Analytical framework i). Water productivity Water productivity and economic analysis combines physical accounting of water with yield or economic output to assess how much value is being obtained from the use of water (Abdullaev et al., 2007). For this analysis, physical WP was calculated by equation (1): WP = Output/Q …(1) Where, WP is the productivity of water in kgm , output is the production of crop in kilograms and Q is water used by the crop (m3). Total amount of water used in paddy crop was calculated by multiplying the discharge from the tube-well bore with total time taken for irrigating the crop throughout the season (total irrigation hours multiplied by volume of water drawn out per hour by submersible pump). The volume of water drawn out by a submersible pump differed with the horse power of the pump. The submersible motors having different horse powers were brought to the same denominator by allocating the weight (i.e. discharge rate in litres per second) to different horse power motors. Considering the water table depth in the study area, discharge rates were applied, to different horse power motors; to reach at the water-use figures of paddy crop for the selected sample. -3 ii) Binary Logistic regression model To study the factors affecting the adoption behavior of direct seeding of rice the logit model was selected and maximum likelihood technique was used for estimation. The dependent binary variable for the logit model was Yi = 1, if farmer i has adopted direct seeded rice technology 0, otherwise The probability of adoption, P, for a given set of values of variables is given by the logit model Where βi’s are logit coefficients for the n variables Xi’s, and ε is the error term. In case of binary independent variables, exponential of the respective coefficient gives the proportion of change in odds for shift in the given independent variable. However, if the independent variable is continuous, exponential of coefficients is associated with the effect of per unit change in the given independent variable to odds ratio. In both types of variables sign of coefficient reveals the direction of change. The set of regressors, comprising personal and socio-economic variables influencing technology adoption, used in the model are listed in table 1 below. 121 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1: description of the variables used in logistic model Dependent Variable Adoption status (Y) Description 1 if the farmer adopts Direct Seeded Rice Technology; 0 otherwise Explanatory Variables OpAem Operational area per unit of the horse power of electric motor/submersible pump AI Age of the respondent AL Availability of family labour SL Scarcity of hired labour Edu Educational level of respondent Lec Lectures attended of DSR technology The model used to analyze the factors affecting the adoption of direct seeding of rice technology thus becomes: Yi = β0 + β1 (OpAem) + β2 (AI) + β3 (AL) + β4 (SL) + β5 (Edu) +β6 (Lec) + εi. results and discussion socio-economic characteristics The socio-economic characteristics such as age, education, years of farming experience, family size, etc. are expected to be the important determinants of adoption of any technology or practice. These characteristics are briefly summarized below for the adopters as well as non-adopters of the technology in the study area. Age-wise distribution Among the adopters of DSR technology, about 67.50 percent of the respondents i.e. half of them were below 40 years of age which clearly revealed that technology adopters were mostly young and were keen to go for new techniques of crop production. About 22.50 per cent of them were found to be in the age group of 41- 50 years, while the remaining 10 per cent of adopters were old age farmers i.e. more than 50 years (Table 2). In the case of non-adopters i.e. non-DSR respondents, 5 per cent of them were of 30 years or below, about 55 per cent were in the age group of 30-50 years, which is the middle age group and the rest i.e. about 40 per cent of them had crossed the age of 50 years. On the whole, relatively younger farmers (67.50 per cent) appeared to be the adopters of direct seeding of rice technology. educational level Education plays an important role in determining socio-economic status and level of awareness of the respondents. Education generally enables a man to think and judge a situation in rational way. The study revealed that 77.50 per cent of the technology adopters and 70 per cent of the non-adopters had passed up to matric level. As far as education is concerned the majority of the non-adopters i.e. farmers growing paddy by conventional method were educated upto primary level whereas most of the adopters of DSR had passed matric i.e. Xth standard, thus representing that adopters were more educated than non-adopters. Among the overall sample, 20 per cent of the farmers had passed secondary education and 6.25 per cent were post-graduate. Family size The size of family is an important factor to determine the family labour force engaged on the farm. Among DSR respondents i.e. technology adopters, about 42.5 per cent had small families of four or less members, whereas, 12.5 per cent had large sized families of more than six members(Table 2). In the case of non-adopters, 40 per cent had small families i.e. up to 4 members, about 35 per cent were having family of 5 or 6 persons and 25 per cent had large-sized families i.e. more than 6 members. Among the overall respondents 41.25 per cent of the sample farmers were having small families i.e. up to 4 members and 18.75 per cent of them had large-sized families i.e. more than 6 members respectively. In the nut shell, the sample farmers (DSR and non-DSR) had small-sized families. 122 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” years of farming experience The DSR practicing farmers having less than 10 years of agricultural experience were 20.0 per cent followed by 12.5 per cent having 10-15 years of experience and 42.5 per cent having 15-20 years of experience. table: 2 socio-economic characteristic of sample farmers, Punjab, 2012-13 (Numbers) Age (years) DSR respondents Non-DSR respondents Overall respondents Up to 30 3 (7.5) 2 (5) 5 (6.25) 30-40 24 (60) 13 (32.5) 37 (46.25) 41-50 9 (22.5) 9 (22.5) 18 (22.5) Above 50 4 (10) 16 (40) 20 (25) Overall 40 (100) 40 (100) 80 (100) Illiterate 5 (12.5) 5 (12.5) 10 (12.5) Up to primary 15 (37.5) 17 (42.5) 32 (40) Matric 11 (27.5) 6 (15) 17 (21.25) Secondary 8 (20) 8 (20) 16 (20) Post-Graduate 1 (2.5) 4 (10) 5 (6.25) Overall 40 (100) 40 (100) 80 (100) Less than 4 17 (42.5) 16 (40) 33 (41.25) 4-6 18 (45) 14 (35) 32 (40) More than 6 5 (12.5) 10 (25) 15 (18.75) Overall 40 (100) 40 (100) 80 (100) Upto 10 8 (20.0) 5 (12.5) 10 (12.5) 10-15 5 (12.5) 8 (20) 11 (13.75) 15-20 17 (42.5) 3 (7.5) 14 (17.5) 20 & above 10 (25.0) 24 (60) 45 (56.25) Overall 40 (100) 40 (100) 80 (100) educational level Family Size (Persons) farming experience (years) Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total number of respondents in each category 123 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” On the other hand, the farmers practising non-conventional method of paddy transplanting having more than 20 years of agricultural experience were 60 per cent followed by 20 per cent having 10-15 years and 7.5 per cent having 15-20 years of agricultural experience respectively. On the whole, 75 per cent i.e. of the sample farmers who adopted this technology had agricultural experience of less than 20 years, which clearly revealed that technology adopters were mainly young farmers. occupation Though the main occupation of the sample respondents was farming, yet they had some other occupations like dairy, bee keeping, poultry, private/government service, taxi/truck driving etc. The perusal of table 3 showed that 61.25 per cent of the sample farmers were engaged in agricultural farming only, whereas very few of them i.e. merely 16.25 per cent had adopted other subsidiary occupation along with farming. table 3 :occupation of the sample farmers, Punjab, 2012-13 (Numbers) Occupation DSR respondents Non-DSR respondents Overall respondents Agriculture 28 (70) 21 (52.5) 49 (61.25) Agriculture and Dairy 6 (15) 12 (30) 18 (22.5) Agriculture and allied activities* 6 (15) 7 (17.5) 13 (16.25) Overall 40 (100) 40 (100) 80 (100) Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentage to total number of respondents in each category *Allied activities included poultry, bee keeping, private/government service, commission agents etc. Among the adopters, about 15 per cent were having dairy as their subsidiary occupation and remaining 15 per cent were having poultry, bee keeping, private/government service, aarhat etc. as their subsidiary occupation. In the case of nonadopters, the corresponding percentage came out to be 30 and 17.5 per cent respectively. Along with the agricultural income, the adopters of direct seeding rice technology had other sources of income like income from dairy and other allied activities viz. poultry, bee keeping, taxi or truck driving, custom hiring etc. operational holding The average operational holding for DSR adopters was 2.97 hectares whereas; it was 3.57 hectares for sample farmers who had used conventional method of paddy transplanting. The average leased in area by the sample farmers ranged between 16 to 18 per cent of total operational area which revealed that almost all the sample farmers whether DSR adopter or nonadopter go for leasing-in of land (Table 4). table 4 : operational area of the sample farmers, Punjab, 2012-13 (In hectare) Area DSR adopter Non-adopter Owned 2.48 (83.50) 3.52 (98.59) Leased In 0.49 (16.50) 0.66 (18.48) Leased Out - 0.61 (17.08) Total Operational Area 2.97 (100) 3.57 (100) Note: Figures in parentheses indicates per cent to total operational area respectively variety-wise operational Area The variety-wise average operational holding of sample farmers has been presented in Table 5. After analyzing the collected data, the results revealed that three varieties namely PR 114, PR 118 and Pusa Basmati 1121 were grown by the selected sample farmers. PR 114 and PR 118 commonly called as Parmal varieties (Non-Basmati), matures in about 150 days, 124 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” resistant to four out of seven races of bacterial blight pathogen and were grown both by the adopters as well as non-adopters of the technology. Pusa Basmati 1121 has longest cooked rice length among all the aromatic rice varieties recommended for Punjab and matures in about 137 days. The sample results revealed that this variety Pusa Basmati1121 commonly called as basmati was mostly grown by DSR practising farmers in Faridkot and Ferozepur districts. Basmati as reported by sample farmers is less susceptible to insect/pest attack and is more resistant to weeds when sown by using DSR technology as compared to other rice varieties. Owing to differences in sowing/harvesting periods, time of maturity, input-use pattern, tillage practice, productivity in basmati and non-basmati variety, the variety-wise further analysis was done on DSR and non-DSR practising farms respectively. table 5 : variety-wise operational area among sample farmers, Punjab, 2012-13 Area Adopter (In hectare) Non-adopter Basmati Non-basmati Basmati Non-basmati Owned 2.34 (85.72) 2.58 (84.04) 2.60 (80.74) 3.46 (88.04) Leased In 0.39 (14.28) 0.54 (17.58) 0.62 (19.25) 0.67 (17.05) Leased Out - 0.05 (1.62) - 0.20 (5.08) Total Operational Area 2.73 (100) 3.07 (100) 3.22 (100) 3.93 (100) Note: Figures in parentheses indicate per cent to total operational area respectively The average operational holding size was 2.73 hectare and 3.07 hectare for DSR practising farmers for basmati and nonbasmati varieties respectively. A major proportion of operational area (80-85 per cent) was owned by the sample farmers. Almost 14 to 19 per cent of the operational area was leased-in by the sample farmers growing two different varieties Pusa Basmati 1121 (Basmati) and PR114, PR 118 (Non-basmati).The land was fully utilized (100 per cent) by all the sample farmers and there was no fallow land. A very small proportion of the operational area was leased out by the farmers growing non-basmati varieties. Cropping pattern Besides agro-climatic conditions, the resource endowment and the relative profitability of different enterprises also play a dominant role in determining the cropping pattern of an area. The paddy and wheat were the major kharif and rabi crops grown respectively in the area under study which were grown on about 41.02 and 91.91 per cent on DSR farms and 56.13 and 92.99 per cent on non-DSR farms respectively (Table 6). Cotton was the next important crop. It occupied 6.06 per cent area on DSR farms and 4.48 per cent area on non-DSR farms in the kharif season. Potato was another important crop in rabi season which was grown on about four per cent area respectively. Fodder occupied one per cent area on both DSR and non-DSR farms in kharif and rabi season. It indicates the relative importance of dairying in farm structure. Hence, it can be inferred that the cropping pattern on the technology adopters as well as non-technology adopters farms was dominated by wheat in rabi and paddy in kharif season. table 6 : Cropping pattern of the sample farmers, Punjab, 2012-13 Crop DSR respondents (Per cent) Non-DSR respondents Kharif Crops Paddy 41.02 56.13 Basmati 48.88 36.03 Cotton 6.06 4.48 Fodder 1.01 1.12 Maize 0.68 0.56 Vegetables 1.22 0.56 Others* 1.13 1.12 125 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Total operational area 100 100 Wheat 91.91 92.99 Potato 4.38 3.08 Fodder 1.01 0.84 Vegetables 1.35 1.40 Others* 1.35 1.69 Total operational area 100 100 rabi Crops Note: Figures in the table are percent to average operational area under DSR (2.97 hectare) and non-DSR (3.57 hectare) respectively *other includes moong, arhar etc. in kahrif and sarson in rabi season. Water productivity and energy saving in paddy crop Ground water is the highly over-exploited and inefficient used resource in the Punjab state primarily due to cultivation of rice crop on large area. The water table has gone down drastically in Central Punjab and most of the development blocks have been categorized as ‘dark’. Direct seeding of rice reduces the use of water in rice crop without any adverse impact on productivity. The perusal of Table 7 clearly revealed that direct seeded rice was effective in saving of irrigation water to the tune of 28.10 per cent in basmati fields and 25.33 per cent in non-basmati fields. It is due to the fact that in direct seeded rice, the irrigation is applied at 3 and 4 days interval instead of continuous ponding during early establishment. Further, the mean paddy yield on direct seeded rice farms was 4232.56 kg per hectare and 6990.56 kg per hectare on basmati and non-basmati farms respectively, as compared to 3909.53 kg per hectare and 7015.23 kg per hectare on non-DSR farms. A minimal decrease in yield of 0.35 per cent was observed on direct seeded rice fields in Parmal varieties. table 7: Water productivity and energy saving of paddy crop among sample farmers, Punjab 2012-13 Particular Basmati Difference (DSR farms over NonDSR farms) Non-basmati DSR farms Non-DSR Farms Difference (DSR farms over NonDSR farms) DSR farms Non-DSR farms Water-use (cu.m/ha) 4639.04 6452.33 -1813.29 (28.10) 5549.72 7432.51 -1882.79 (25.33) Yield (kg/ha) 4232.56 3909.53 323.03 (8.26) 6990.56 7015.23 -24.67 (0.35) Water productivity (kg/ m3) 0.91 0.60 0.31 (51.67) 1.25 0.94 0.31 (32.97) Energy-use (Kwh/ ha) 1058.15 1352 -293.85 (21.73) 1147.72 1384.84 -237.12 ( 17.12) Note: Figures in parentheses indicate the per cent change for DSR farms over non-DSR farms The per hectare water productivity on direct seeded rice basmati fields was 0.91 kg per m3 and in non-basmati fields was 1.25 kg per m3. However, on non-DSR farms the per hectare water productivity was 0.06 kg per m3 and 0.94 kg per m3 on basmati and non-basmati farms respectively. This means direct seeded rice resulted in the enhancement of water productivity to the tune of 51.67 per cent and 32.97 per cent in basmati and non-basmati varieties, respectively. The energy used by the farmers who adopted direct seeded rice technology was less as compared to non-DSR sample farms. About 17 to 22 per cent energy was saved on DSR farms over non-DSR farms in both varieties. Binary Logistic regression To identify the factors affecting the adoption of direct seeding of rice technology, binary logistic model was used in which adoption of direct seeded rice technology was regressed with independent variable listed in Table 8. The dependent variables in logistic regression is usually binomial, that is, the dependent variable can take the value 1 with a probability of success q, or the value 0 with the probability of failure 1-q. In the model, the dependent variable was “1” for adopter of technology and “0” for non-adopter of the technology. The explanatory variables were operational size of holding per horse power of electric motor used, age of respondent, educational level of respondent, availability of family labour, scarcity of hired labour and lectures attended of DSR technology conducted by government or agricultural department. To assess 126 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” how well the model fitted the data, Hosmer and Lemeshow’s Goodness-of-Fit test statistic was calculated and a chi-square test between the observed and expected frequencies was computed. There was little difference between the observed and predicted values for the both adopter as well as non-adopters as is evident by the chi-square value not being significant. The Hosmer and Lemeshow’s statistics evaluate the goodness-of-fit by creating 10 ordered groups of subjects and then compares the number actually in the each group (observed) to the number predicted by the logistic regression model (predicted). Thus, test statistic is a chi-square with a desirable outcome of non-significance, indicating that the model prediction does not significantly differ from observed. The Hosmer and Lemeshow’s test was non-significant indicating that overall model was correctly specified. The likelihood ratio test is significant at one percent level indicating that the model has good explanatory power. The co-efficient of multiple determination (Nagelkerke R2) of the fitted model was 0.80 implying that 80 per cent of the variation in adoption of DSR technology could be explained by the variables included in the model. In this model the six most relevant explanatory variables were included. Among these six variables, educational level of respondent was positively significant at one per cent level whereas availability of family labour was negatively significant at one per cent level, whereas, scarcity of hired labour and lecture attended by respondent on DSR technology was positively significant at 5 per cent level. The other variables i.e. operational size of holding per horse power of electric motor and age of the respondent were positively non-significant. In Table 1, odds ratio are also presented which shows the effects of individual independent variables of the possibility or chance of adoption of direct seeding of rice technology, others things being equal. table 8: estimated results for Logistic regression model Variables Estimated Coefficients Standard Error Significance Odds Ratio Constant -11.149 4.88 0.022 0.000 Operational area per horse power of electric motor used 0.471 1.123 0.675 1.601 Age of respondent 0.044 0.041 0.286 1.045 Educational level of respondent 1.073 0.332 0.001* 2.923 Availability of family labour -2.457 0.819 0.003* 0.086 Scarcity of hired labour (0;1) 2.479 1.286 0.050** 11.924 Lectures attended of DSR technology 1.640 0.723 0.023** 5.153 Log likelihood Ratio 36.31 Nagelkerke R2 0.80 Cox & Snell R 2 0.60 *Significant at 1 per cent level **Significant at 5 per cent level *** Significant at 10 per cent level The odds ratio is computed by exponentiating the parameter estimates for each explanatory variable. The estimated odds ratio for educational level of respondents was 2.92 which means if the education of a respondent increase by one year, the adoption of DSR technology will increase by 2.92 times. Similarly, the estimated odds ratio for the availability of family labour was 0.08 (the estimated coefficient has negative sign) which means that as the availability of family labour decreased there were 0.08 times fewer chances that the farmers will adopt DSR technology. The odds ratio for scarcity of hired labour was 11.92 which shows strongest association with the DSR technology, indicating that one per cent increase in the scarcity of hired labour would increase the adoption of DSR technology by 11.92 times. The estimated odds ratio for lectures attended by the respondent about DSR technology was 5.15 which suggested that one per cent increase in lectures attended by the respondent will lead to increase in the technology adoption by 5.15 times. The co-efficient of operational area per horse power of electric motor used and age of respondent were positive, but were not statistically significant. Conclusions The adoption of direct seeded rice technology resulted into water saving of 28.10 per cent and 25.33 per cent in basmati and non-basmati variety, respectively. Direct seeded rice resulted in the enhancement of water productivity to the tune of 51.67 per cent and 32.97 per cent in basmati and non-basmati varieties, respectively. The explanatory variables namely, scarcity of hired labour, lectures attended by the respondent about DSR technology and educational level of respondent had a significant association with the adoption of DSR technology. This implies that the knowledge of respondents about DSR technology plays an effective role in it’s adoption. Hence, it is suggested that government/agricultural departments 127 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” should play an active role in organizing regular training/seminar/lectures on this technology to increase area under DSR. As, weeds are one of the most serious biological constraints in DSR technology, so capacity building of farmers with regard to knowledge about timely insecticide/ weedicide spray will increase the area under DSR. references Abdullaev I, Hasan M U and Jumaboev K (2007) Water saving and economic impacts of land leveling: The case study of cotton production in Tajikistan. Irrig Drainage Systm 21: 251-63 Bhatt R and Sharma M (2009) Laser leveller for precision land leveling for judicious use of water in Punjab. Extension Bulletin, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kapurthala, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Dhyani V C, Singh V P and Singh G (2005) Response of rice to crop establishment and weed management. Ind J Weed Sci 37: 260-62 Farooq M, Siddique K H M, Rehman H, Aziz T, Lee Dong-Jin and Wahid A (2011) Rice direct seeding:Experiences, challenges and opportunities. Soil & Tillage Res 111: 87-98 Pandey S and Velasco L (2005) Economics of direct seeding rice in Asia: Patterns of adoption and research priorities. In: Pandey S, Mortimer , Wade L, Tuong T P, Lopez K and Hardy B (ed.) Direct Seeding : Research Strategies and opportunities. Proceedings of International workshop on direct seeding in Asian rice system, Jan 25-28, 2000 held at Bangkok, Thailand, IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines. Pp: 3-14 Patil S G, Sivaprasad B, Aladakatti Y R, Siddalinga D, Gupta R and Ladha J K (2005) Agronomic practices and Production Economics of Direct-Seeded Rice in Karnataka, India. Rice-Wheat Consortium for the Indo-Gangetic Plains, Paper series 18. Pp: 36, New Delhi, India. Sidhu R S, Vatta K and Dhaliwal H S (2010) Conservation agriculture in Punjab- Economic implications of technologies and practices. Ind J Agri Econ 65(3): 413-27 128 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-IV ComPArAtive PerformAnCe of different resourCe ConservAtion teChnoLogies system in riCe (OryzA sAtIVA L.) 1 dipender Kumar; 2r.K. naresh; 1madhulika Pandey Department of Agronomy, PAU, Ludhiana (Punjab), Department of Agronomy, SVBPUA&T, Meerut (U.P) e-mail: kumar_dipender03@rediffmail.com Major research and development efforts in the ‘Green revolution era’ focussed on enhancing production and productivity of selected foodgrain crops, the new challenges demand that issues of efficient use of resource and resource conservation technologies received high priority to ensure that past gains can be sustained and enhanced to meet the emerging needs. Conservation agriculture has importance in view of widespread resource degradation and the need to reduce production costs, increase profitability. The growing concerns for sustainable agriculture have been seen as a positive response to limits of both low-input, traditional agriculture and intensive modern agriculture relying on high levels of inputs for crop production. Sustainable agriculture relies on practices that help to maintain ecological equilibrium and encourage natural regenerative processes. Agricultural systems relying on such approaches are not only able to support high productivity, but also preserve biodiversity and safeguard the environment. Some long-term experiments have showed a stagnation and even decline in yields of rice in South Asia (Hobbs and Morris, 1996; Dawe, 2000; Duxbury, 2000). Therefore, the every region has to face huge challenges: how can future food demands be met sustainably. Resource-conserving technologies are defined here as any practice that improves the efficiency of use of natural resources, including water, air, fossil fuels, soils, inputs, and people. Such technologies are rapidly gaining popularity among farmers, in such a way that they increased production with low costs, resulting in higher profits, cheaper food, and improved farmer livelihoods (Naresh et al, 2010). Among other things, the efficiencies gained include less land and time needed to produce the required staple cereals, allowing farmers to diversify crops and cropping patterns or pursue other gainful activities. The RCTs have resulted in improving the productivity of land, efficiency of water, energy and nutrient use to the tune of 20 to 30% with an average saving of about Rs 2,500 ha-1. The present investigation was, therefore, carried out with the following objectives : to improve productivity of rice planting with wide/narrow bed system; to compare productivity of controlled traffic vs. paired row system; to evaluate the benefits of flat planting and bed planting systems vs. conventional practice of crop establishment, in terms of water, fuel and yields. Keywords: Conservation agriculture, RCT, Wide bed, Raised bed material and methods Experiment was conducted at research farm of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture & Technology, Meerut (Uttar Pradesh), India, during kharif, 2010. The experimental design was randomized block design in triplicate. The soil is generally sandy loam to loam in texture and low to medium in organic matter. Soil with a bulk density of 1.47 Mg m-3, pH=7.4, total N =0.84 g kg-1,Olsen P =21 mg kg-1,and K =180.5 mg kg-1 and had 0.54 % organic carbon. There were six treatments which are as follows:T1- PR-TPR- Paired row (transplanted rice); T2- NP-TPR- Non-puddled transplanted riceequal spacing; T3- NP-CTTPR- Non-puddled transplanted rice-controlled traffic; T4- NBed-TPR- Narrow raised-bed (nonpuddled) transplanted rice; T5- WBed-TPR- Wide raised-bed (non-puddled)transplanted rice; T6- CT-TPR- Conventionaltill (puddled) transplanted rice result and discussion Data pertaining to yield attributes and yield are presented in Table 1. The panicle length increased with the improvement in moisture supply to the crop planted in various geometry mode. T1, T5 and T6 treatments performed greater panicle length as compared to T2 and T4 treatments. However, the differences among the treatments T1 and T3 were non-significant. The thousand grain weight varied from 24.90 g (T5) to 23.66 g (T4). Treatment T5 was slightly superior over T1, T2, T3, & T4 . Treatments T1, T2 and T3 were at par with each other, but superior over T4. 129 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1. effect of different treatments on panicle length, test weight, grain yield, straw yield and harvest index Treatments Panicle length(cm) 1000 grain weight (g) Grain yield (q ha-1) Straw yield (q ha-1) Harvest index T1 28.32 26.12 27.77 25.35 29.82 29.45 0.79 24.40 23.80 24.30 23.66 24.90 24.70 N.S 52.36 47.33 48.31 40.72 59.73 54.15 1.80 60.40 53.51 58.09 45.55 69.93 67.29 2.41 0.46 0.47 0.44 0.47 0.45 0.44 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 Cd at 5% 0.01 The grain yield recorded the highest value of (59.73 q ha-1) in T5 and the lowest value (40.72 q ha-1). The highest straw yield was recorded in T5 (69.93 q ha-1) followed by T6 and T1. T6 was superior over T1, T2, T3, and T4. Treatment T4 recorded the lowest straw yield (45.55 q ha-1) and was significantly inferior over T2 and T3. Harvest index of rice in the experiment ranged from 0.44 to 0.47. There was slightly significant variation in harvest index of rice due to different treatments. However T3 & T6 and T2 & T4 at par but T3 &T6 was found inferior to T2 & T4 which was also found superior over T1. table 2. effect of different treatments on irrigation water applied and water productivity treatment t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 Average irrigation water applied (mm ha-1) 2323 2251 2299 2012 1916 2395 2199 Water productivity (kg grain m-3) 0.225 0.210 0.210 0.200 0.311 0.226 0.230 The total water application in rice varied markedly due to tillage and crop establishment techniques. The treatment T6 consumed more water (2395 mm ha-1) as compared to treatment T4 (2012 mm ha-1) and T5 (1916 mm ha-1). The excessive use of water was saved by 16.26% with beds as compared to conventional puddled transplanted rice. Conclusion The yield contributing factors viz. , panicle length, 1000 grain weight showed positive response to various RCT’s treatments which resulted in increased grain and straw yield kg ha-1 increased with increasing moisture supply in all RCT’s treatments. The highest grain and straw yield were obtained under wide raised bed and conventional practice and lowest under narrow beds. Other parameters like water productivity and irrigation water applied are also affected in different RCT’s treatments. Wide bed require 19-21% less water than conventional practice or any other method, wide raised bed also has more water productivity which gives more profit and labor saving than conventional practice. references Dawe D, Dobermann A, Moya P, Abdulrachman S, Singh B, Lal P, Li SY, Lin B, Panaullah G, Sariam O, Singh Y, Swarup A, Tan PS and Zhen QX 2000. How widespread are yield decline in long term rice experiments in Asia. Field Crop Research, 66:175-193. Duxbury JM, Abrol IP, Gupta RK and Bronson KF 2000. Analysis of long term soil fertility experiments with rice-wheat rotations in south Asia. In: Abrol I.P. et al. (Eds.), Long-term Soil Fertility Experiments in Cropping Systems. RiceWheat Consortium for the Indo-Gangetic Plains, New Delhi, pp vii-xxii. Hobbs PR and Moris ML 1996. Meeting South Asia’s future food requirements from rice-wheat cropping systems: priority issues facing researchers in the post green revolution era. NRG Paper 96-01, Mexico, CIMMYT. Pp:46. Naresh RK, Gupta RK, Singh B, Kumar Ashok, .Shahi UP, Pal Gajendra, Singh Adesh, Ashok Kumar Yadav and Tomar SS. 2010. Assesment of No-Tillage and Direct Seeding Technologies in rice-wheat rotation for Saving of Water and Labour in Western IGP. Progressive Agriculture an International Journal.10(2): 205-218. 130 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-V nitrous oXide mitigAtion PotentiAL of ConservAtion AgriCuLture PrACtiCes for WheAt CroP vivek shankar*, grewal, m. s**, tek sapkota§ and Jat, m.L# (*) : PhD Student, Deptt. Of Soil Science ,Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar. vivek_29apr@rediffmail.com (**) : Professor, Deptt. Of Soil Science, Haryana Agriculture University, Hisar. (§) : Mitigation agronomist, CIMMYT, India. (#) : Cropping System Agronomist, CIMMYT, India A two year (2011-13) field study was carried out at farmer’s field at Karnal, Haryana, to study nitrous oxide (N2O); a potent green house gas (GHG), mitigation potential from wheat crop under contrasting tillage crop established methods (TCE) viz., 1) Conventionally tilled wheat (CTW) 2) Zero-tilled wheat without rice residue (ZTW-R) and 3) Zero-tilled wheat with rice residue (ZTW+R). Opaque closed chamber method was used for GHGs sampling and emission values, after sample analysis on gas chromatograph were linearly extrapolated and calculated to obtain the flux value for the entire cropping season. Results suggested that for both the years, N2O fluxes were higher for ZTW+R plots; being 0.32 and 0.90 (kg ha-1) respectively, as compared to CTW plots being 0.29 and 0.72 (kg ha-1). The emission for ZTW-R plots (1.0 kg ha-1) for second year was higher as compared to the ZTW+R plots. Thus, nitrogen fertilization is going to play a key role in mitigating the overall global warming potential from wheat crop as we move from conventional to conservation agricultural practices. Keywords: nitrous oxide, mitigation potential, wheat introduction With an increasing rate of approximately 0.26% per year, the atmospheric concentration of N2O reached 319 ppb in 2005 (IPCC 2007a), which was 270 ppb during the pre-industrial era. Nitrous oxide is a major greenhouse gas with a global warming potential 298 times greater than that of carbon dioxide (CO2) on a 100-year horizon (IPCC 2007a). Furthermore, N2O participates in reaction with ozone, thus destroying the stratospheric ozone layer and resulting in a higher UV-B intensity on the earth (Cicerone 1987). Agricultural production acts as an important source of atmospheric N2O, contributing about 1.7–4.8 Tg N2O-N year-1 and 60% of the global anthropogenic N2O emission (IPCC 2007b). Therefore, it is quite urgent to establish technologies and practices of reducing N2O emission from agricultural soils. Returning crop residue back to the fields is an important way to improve soil fertility and soil organic carbon storage. Currently, Indian farmers return rice straw to the field prior to wheat cultivation mainly in three ways: (1) burning rice straw in situ; (2) mulching rice straw over the field; and (3) evenly incorporating rice straw into the topsoil. Pathak et al. (2002) reported that fields with burnt rice straw emitted almost the same amount of N2O emission as fields without rice straw incorporated. He also observed that incorporation of rice straw enhanced N2O emission during the wheat- growing season of a rice–wheat rotation system. In order to overcome this menace of straw burning, conservation agriculture (CA) involving different resource conservation technologies (RCTs) emerge as best option to evade the hazard of air pollution and increasing GHGs concentration in the atmosphere. RCTs such as zero-tillage (ZT) has shown to be beneficial in terms of improving soil health, water use, crop productivity and farmers’ income (Gupta and Sayre, 2007; Gupta and Seth, 2007). ZT is widely adopted by farmers in the Northwestern IGP of India, particularly in areas where rice is harvested late. In wheat, ZT reduces irrigation requirements compared with conventional- tillage by using residual water more effectively (Gupta et al., 2003; Erenstein et al., 2007). However, it should be considered that whilst conservation agricultural practices may promote soil C accumulation, the capacity of soil to accumulate C is finite (Six et al. 2004), and theoretically N2O emissions will always occur when fertilizers and crop residues are added to the soil. So far, very little information about N2O emission during the wheat season, as affected by changing the tillage crop establishment (TCE) i.e. from conventional to conservation agriculture practices, exists for the Indian context. Therefore this study was initiated in a farmer’s participatory mode at Karnal, Haryana with the specific objective of assessing the nitrous oxide mitigation potential of conservation agriculture practices for wheat crop. material and methods The location for conducting the experiment was chosen in the village Taraori, under farmer’s participatory mode (N 29°48’35; E 76°55’16) in Karnal district of Haryana, which was under rice-wheat rotation continuously since past 15 years. The experiment was installed in the year 2011 on a soil classified as clay loam texture (38 % clay, 32 % silt and 30 % sand). Soil was low in available nitrogen content (90 kg N ha-1), medium in available phosphorous content (16 kg P2O5 ha-1) and 131 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” medium in available K content (290 kg ha-1). The experiment consisted of different TCE & residues and nitrogen levels system with a split-plot experimental design with three replicates. The three main plot treatments were 1). conventionally tilled wheat, where wheat was seeded in rows 20 cm apart (using a seed-cum-fertilizer drill) following the conventional practice of two harrowing, three ploughings (using a cultivator) and one planking (using a wooden plank) 2). Zero tilled wheat, without residue of previous rice crop, where wheat was drilled directly without any preparatory tillage using the no-till multi-crop seed-cum-fertilizer planter. 3). wheat (no-till) with full residue retention, where wheat crop was planted using ‘Turbo-Seeder’, a planter capable of drilling directly in full residue (surface retention) condition. The sub plot treatment included two nitrogen levels, as 1). Recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN), that was 150 kg N ha-1 recommended by Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana was used, nitrogen as urea was applied in two splits, ½ as basal, ½ at crown root initiation stage (CRI) 2). 80 per cent of RDN as basal + green seeker guided treatment where 80 per cent of the RDN i.e. 120 kg N ha-1 was applied as basal and rest, what so ever was applied as guided by the green seeker optical sensor using standard calibration curve. Under green seeker guided treatments, there was saving of an average of 3 kg N ha-1 for ZTW-R plots during wheat 2011-12, while CTW and ZTW+R plots showed an excess of 2 and 5 kg N ha-1, respectively. During wheat crop of 2012-13, CTW plots showed saving of an average of 11 kg N ha-1, while for ZTW-R and ZTW+R plots there was saving of 12 and 5 kg N ha-1. N2O fluxes were monitored using an opaque chamber manual sampling system (Clayton et al. 1994; Dong et al. 2000; Qi et al. 2007). The assembly consisted of semi permanently installed gas chambers made of tin, which were removed only during field operations i.e. tillage, puddling, seeding or harvesting, when occurred. An evacuated and airtight 30 ml glass vial was used for GHG collection and storage. To cover the best scenario of N2O fluxes throughout the crop season, the gas sampling frequency was designed as i). before and after tillage and puddling operations. ii). after application of fertilizer (basal/broadcast) for seven consecutive days. iii). for the rest of the crop growth period samples were taken at one week interval. At each sampling date, GHG samples were collected at 0, 10, 20 and 30 minutes interval from each gas chamber. Collected samples were analyzed for N2Ofluxes using a Bruker Gas Chromatograph equipped with Electron Capture Detector. Fluxes of N2O were calculated by linear regression. Gas concentrations in ppm, at each sampling (0, 10, 20 and 30 minutes after chamber deployment) were converted into mole of gas by using ideal gas law taking air temperature into account. Linear regression was performed considering sampling time as independent variable and gas concentration as dependent variable to calculate the rate of gas emission per unit of time to come up with the flux per unit area per day. The fluxes in between two sampling dates were estimated by linear interpolation. The gas fluxes of all days in crop season were summed up to calculate cumulative emission during whole crop season. redox potential and volumetric water content. The redox potential (Eh) was measured on each day of gas sampling using a battery operated pH cum millivoltmeter (Eutech pvt. Ltd). The electrode was inserted into the root zone (~ 15 cm) into each main-plots (CTW, ZTW-R and ZTW+R) of wheat one day prior to the sampling date to provide sufficient time for the electrode to come in equilibrium with soil before recording the observation. Volumetric soil moisture content was determined for each main plot treatments on the date of GHG sampling. The soil moisture content was determined by oven drying the weighted mass of soil at 105ºC and then measuring the weight of oven-dried soil. result and discussion Wheat crop was grown for two successive years (2011-13) after the rice crop under semi-arid subtropical climate, characterized by very hot summers and cool winters. The main weather parameters during the two year wheat crop are depicted in Figure 1 & 2. Wheat season (2011-12) received total of 5.2 mm of rainfall while for the second year crop season (2012-13) the total amount of rainfall received was 29.1mm. During wheat cycle (2011-12), the weather was very favourable for the crop growth and development and due to extended post flowering cool weather, the grain filling period was relatively longer. While for the second crop cycle, the increased amount of rainfall and an increase in the minimum temperature during the maturity phase for wheat could have affected the total emissions of N2O from the wheat crop. 132 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Fig 1. Weather during wheat crop (2011-12) at the experimental site, recorded at CSSRI, Karnal, Haryana. Fig 2. Weather during wheat crop (2012-13) at the experimental site recorded at CSSRI, Karnal, Haryana. 133 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” redox potential and volumetric water content The trend of redox potential and volumetric water content recorded during the two year wheat cycle has been shown in the figure 3. Fig. 3. Trend for redox potential and volumetric water content under wheat crop Eh for CTW, ZTW-R and ZTW+R treatments varied from 350 to 200 mv, showing a strong oxidizing status for the soil, while the volumetric water content for soil under these treatments showed that their values have been consistently higher for ZTW+R followed by ZTW-R and CTW treatments showing almost same behavior. nitrous oxide emission The amount of nitrous oxide (N2O-N in kg ha-1) emission for the two year wheat cycle in presented in the table 1. table 1: total n2o-n (kg ha-1) emissions across the contrasting tillage crop establishment methods (tCe) for wheat crop and nitrogen levels for two consecutive years. TCE↓ N-levels→ 2011-12 2012-13 RDN 80% RDN as basal + Green seeker guided Mean RDN 80% RDN as basal + Green seeker guided Mean CTW 0.20 0.38 0.29 0.64 0.80 0.72 ZTW-R 0.22 0.35 0.28 0.72 1.28 1.00 ZTW+R 0.28 0.38 0.33 0.80 1.01 0.91 Mean 0.23B 0.37A lsd (p = 0.05) TCE = NS, Nitrogen = 0.13,TCE x Nitrogen = NS 0.72B 1.03A TCE = NS, Nitrogen = 0.23,TCE x Nitrogen = NS For both the years, across the main TCE methods, no consistent results or trends were observed in the emissions of N2O-N (kg ha-1). For the first year wheat season (2011-12), emission values for ZTW+R was 0.33 (N2O-N kg ha-1), which exceeded the emissions for ZTW-R and CTW plots, which were, 0.28 and 0.29 (kg of N2O-N ha-1), respectively, the flux values for CTW plots being higher than that of the flux for ZTW-R plots. Nitrous oxide emissions for ZTW+R plots were higher than the rest of the treatments; this could possibly be due to tillage residue effect that the applied fertilizer nitrogen was readily available for aerobic nitrification by the soil microorganisms. This is in accordance with the findings of Staley et al. (1990) and Palma et al. (1997), who attributed the greater denitrification and N2O production under no till due to the presence of higher amounts of available C under NT and greater aeration under CT created by tillage. This also supported by the redox potential measurement values for the different TCE methods as shown in Fig. 3 for two consecutive crop cycles. For the second year wheat crop (2012-13), N2O-N (kg ha-1) flux were higher for ZTW-R plots being 1 kg of N2O-N ha-1, exceeding 134 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” the emission values for ZTW+R plots, which were 0.91 tons of N2O-N ha-1. Although the flux for ZTW-R plots were higher than the ZTW+R plots but there was no statistical difference amongst the two emission values. Flux for CTW plots were lowest than the other two main plot (ZTW-R and ZTW+R) treatments, being 0.72 tones of N2O-N ha-1. Fluxes for the two years were statistically non-significant for each of the main plot treatments. In a long-term study in Michigan, Grandy et al. (2006b) reported no difference in N2O fluxes between no-tillage and conventionally tillage. Groffman (1984) reported no difference on denitrification activity between no-tillage and conventionally tillage when soil water content was high, but when soil water content was low, denitrification activity was higher under no-till condition. nitrous oxide emission across nitrogen levels. The flux for the two nitrogen levels i.e., the recommended dose of nitrogen and 80 per cent of recommended dose of nitrogen plus green-seeker guided treatments differed significantly for each of the two years. For the first year wheat crop, flux for 80 per cent of RDN + green seeker treatment plots (0.37 kg of N2O-N ha-1) was significantly higher than that for the RDN treatments plots (0.23 kg of N2O-N ha-1). Similar trend was observed in the second year crop cycle, where flux for 80 per cent of RDN + green seeker treatment plots (1.03 kg of N2O-N ha-1) was found to be significantly higher than that for the RDN treatments plots (0.72 kg of N2O-N ha-1). This could be because of more amount of fertilizer nitrogen added (120 kg N ha-1) at the time of seeding of the wheat crop under 80 per cent basal sub plots as compared to RDN plot treatments (75 kg N ha-1) which resulted in the availability of more substrate for nitrification by the soil microorganisms, moreover in case of no tillage treatments. A graphical representation of emission scenarios across the nitrogen levels for the two crop cycles is presented in figure 4. Graph I and II represents the fluxes from the RDN plots for two crop cycles respectively and graph III and IV represents the emission trends from the 80 per cent of RDN as basal treatments across the three TCE methods. Emissions from ZTW+R treatments and ZTW-R treatments closely followed the trend, emissions being higher for ZTW+R plots. Conclusion Emissions of N2O were found to be higher for ZTW+R and ZTW-R plots as compared to CTW plots under the present study. Although no-tillage systems are being promoted as superior to conventional tillage as they improve soil structure, increase soil moisture, reduce erosion, sequester carbon and subsequently increase yields and economic benefits to the producer (Grandy et al., 2006a). However, some reports have shown that NT systems may increase N2O emissions as well as NO3-N leaching, while others have reported the opposite or no difference. Thus switching from conventional to no-tillage system should be done with utmost care and precaution considering the environmental consequences in mind, as N2O is around 300 times more powerful on a molar basis than CO2 in terms of radiative forcing, it would be expected that in CO2 equivalents, the impact of N2O emissions would finally overtake C sequestration for no-till cropping system. Acknowledgement We are grateful to Dr NK Arora and Dr Rajvir Rathi, Bayer Crop Science, India for funding the project and their very active interactions, suggestions and visits to the experimental sites. We are also grateful to Dr Raj Gupta, CIMMYT-India for his untiring efforts at all stages of this project and supporting us as a guiding force. 135 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Fig 4. Graphical representation of nitrous oxide emission trends for two nitrogen levels for two seasons of wheat crop 136 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” refrences Cicerone, R. J. (1987). Biogeochemical aspect of atmospheric methane. Global Biogeochem Cycles. 2; 299 – 327. Clayton, H,., Arah, JRM and Smith KA. (1994). Measurements of nitrous oxide emissions from fertilized grassland using closed chambers. J Geophys Res 99:16599–16607 Dong, YS., Zhang, S., Qi YC., Chen, ZZ. and Geng YB. (2000). Fluxes of CO2/N2O and CH4 from a typical temperate grassland in Inner Mongolia and its daily variation. Chin Sci Bull 45:1590–1594. Erenstein, O., Farooq, U., Malik, R.K., Sharif, M., (2007). Adoption and impacts of zero tillage as a resource conserving technology in the irrigated plains of South Asia. In: Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. Research Report 19, Colombo, Sri Lanka, International Water Management Institute. Grandy, A.S., Loecke, T.D., Parr, S., Robertson, G.P., (2006b). Long- term trends in nitrous oxide emissions, soil nitrogen, and crop yields of till and no-till cropping systems. J. Environ. Qual. 35, 1487–1495. Grandy, A.S., Robertson, G.P., Thelen, K.D., (2006a). Do productivity and environmental trade-offs justify periodically cultivationg no- till cropping systems. Agron J. 98, 1377–1383. Groffman, P.M., (1984). Nitrification and denitrification in conventional and no-tillage soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49, 329–334. Gupta, R.K., Hobbs, P.R., Jiaguo, J., Ladha, J.K., (2003). Sustainability of post-green revolution agriculture. In: Ladha, J.K., et al. (Eds.), Improving the Productivity and Sustainability of Rice–Wheat Systems: Issues and Impacts. ASA Spec. Publ. 65, ASA, CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 1–25. Gupta, R.K., Sayre, K., (2007). Conservation agriculture in South Asia. Journal of Agricultural Sciences Cambridge 145, 207–214. Gupta, R.K., Seth, A., (2007). A review of resource conserving technologies for sustainable management of the rice–wheat cropping systems of the Indo- Gangetic plains. Crop Protection. 26, 436–447. IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2007b) Climate Change 2007. The Science of Climate Change. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. 572 p IPCC (2007a) Climate Change 2007: mitigation. In: Metz B, Davidson OR, Bosch PR, Dave R, Meyer LA (eds) Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 851. Palma, R.M., Rimolo, M., Saubidet, M.I., Conti, M.E., (1997). Influence of tillage system on denitrification in maize cropped soil. Biol. Fertil. Soils 25, 142–146. Pathak, H., Bhatia, A., Prasad, S., Singh, S., Kumar, S., Jain, M. C., et al. (2002). Emission of nitrous oxide from soil in rice wheat systems of Indo-Gangetic plains of India. Environtmental Monitoring and Assessment, 77,163– 178. Qi, YC., Dong, YS., Liu, JY., Domroes, M., Geng, YB., Liu, LX., Liu, XR. and Yang, XH. (2007). Effect of the conversion of grass land to spring wheat field on the CO2 emission characteristics in Inner Mongolia, China. Soil Tillage Res 94:310–320 Six, J., Ogle, S.M., Breidt, F.J., Conant, R.T., Mosier, A., Paustian, K., (2004). The potential to mitigate global warming with no-tillage management is only realized when practised in the long term. Glob. Change Biol. 10, 155–160. Staley, T.E., Caskey,W.W., Boyer, D.G., (1990). Soil denitrification and nitrification potentials during the growing season relative to tillage. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 54, 1602–1608. 137 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-VI PhenotyPiC And PLAnt groWth Promoting (PgP) diversity of mesorhizoBiA from ChiCKPeA (CICer ArIetInum L.) rhizosPhere. gaganpreet Kaur*, Poonam sharma and Kailash Chand Kumawat* Departmant of Microbiology and Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab) E-mail for Correspondence: gagsrai90@gmail.com * Abstract Chickpea is one of the most important food legumes grown in India as major source of dietary protein. It also maintains soil fertility through its symbiotic nitrogen-fixing association with mesorhizobium species. There is a need to exploit the potential strains of mesorhizobium with PGP traits. The aim of the present study was to assess the biodiversity of mesorhizobium spp. isolated from chickpea rhizosphere. In total, 20 mesorhizobial isolates were purified from the nodules collected from different chickpea growing areas of Punjab. All the isolates were subjected for morphological, biochemical and functionality traits. On the basis of morphological characters all the isolates produced round shaped, white translucent colonies with regular margin on Congo Red Yeast Extract Mannitol Agar (CRYEMA) medium. All the isolates were positive for oxidase, catalase, citrate utilization, urease production, while negative for methyl red, Voges Proskauer and 3-ketolactose production tests. In vitro production of Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) revealed that 5% were excellent producers whereas 85% were moderate and 10% were poor producers in Luria broth ammended with L-tryptophan. Out of 20 isolates, 40% were siderophore producers forming halo-zone on Chrome Azurol S (CAS) medium and 20% were phosphate solubilizers forming zone on National Botanical Research Institute’s Phosphate (NBRIP) growth medium. Salt tolerance ability was reduced with increasing salt concentration, 75%, 50% and 10% of the isolates were able to grow at 1%, 5% and 10% NaCl concentrations respectively. The present study indicates that chickpea rhizosphere contain diversity of mesorhizobia endowed with PGP traits and N2 fixing potential. Key Words: Chickpea, Mesorhizobium, BNF, IAA introduction Legumes can meet 5–83% of their nitrogen (N) requirements through biological nitrogen fixation(BNF). Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) being a leguminous crop can drive 54–80% of its demand by fixing atmospheric nitrogen under field conditions and the remaining demand is met from the soil N pool. Chickpea is a major legume crop contributing 38% of national pulse production in India. India stands first in terms of area of 68% and production of 70%. Globally, chickpea is cultivated on about 13.20 m ha and produces 11.62 m tones with an average productivity of 880 kg/ ha Singh and Sewak (2013). Its seeds are high in protein and it is one of the earliest cultivated vegetable Perfanova et al (2010). Major constraints in increasing production of chickpea are poor soils, inadequate moisture, harsh climatic conditions, weeds and inadequate or even without supply of fertilizers Giri and Joshi (2010). Nutrient deficiencies in chickpea have been reported to cause yield losses of varying magnitude due to poor nodulation and hence nitrogen deficiency and due to immobilization of phosphorus Solaiman et al (2010). High yielding varieties of chickpea along with use of effective rhizobial strains can enhance the yield Bhuiyan et al (2008). It is necessary to select high yielding varieties with elevated N2 fixing ability for sustainable agriculture. Currently, chickpea rhizobia are included in the genus Mesorhizobium, which has been described in between Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium. Different species of mesorhizobia such as Mesorhizobium ciceri, Mesorhizobium mediterraneum, Mesorhizobium temperadae and Mesorhizobium trianshanense have been reported to form nodules in chickpea Nandwani and Dudeja (2009). Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) can fix atmospheric nitrogen through its symbiosis with rhizobia and increases the input of combined nitrogen to the soil. Therefore, this legume has beneficial effect on productivity of cereals and other crops in agricultural rotations. Inoculation of leguminous seeds with the selected rhizobial strains is being widely practiced to ameliorate the plant yield by enhanced root nodulation and N uptake of plant Babic (2008). Therefore, present investigation was carried out to study phenotypic and plant growth promoting (PGP) diversity of mesorhizobia in Chickpea. material and methods Collection of nodule and soil samples : Nodule and soil samples were collected from different chickpea growing areas of Punjab. 138 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” isolation of chickpea mesorhizobium sp. (cicer). Isolation from soil Mesorhizobium sp. were isolated from different soil samples by serial dilution method Minakshi et al (2005). Ten gram of soil sample was shaken in 90 ml sterilized distilled water and serially diluted upto 10-5 dilution. From 10-4 and 10-5 dilutions pouring was done on Yeast Extract Mannitol Agar Medium (YEMA) containing congo red (0.01%), plates were incubated at 28±2°C for 2-3 days. Isolation from nodules Nodules were carefully detached from tap roots, healthy nodules were selected, washed with different changes of water, and surface sterilization was done with 0.1% HgCl2 for 30 secs followed by 95% ethanol (10 secs) and sterilized distilled water. Root nodules were crushed in a drop of sterilized water using mortar and pastel and the paste was streaked on Petriplates amended with CRYEMA medium Vincent (1970) and incubated at 28±2°C for 2-3 days. Further, Mesorhizobium sp. colonies were purified, and transferred on slants. All the cultures were maintained on YEMA medium and further subcultured once in a month throughout the period of investigation and stored at 4ºC in refrigerator. The medium used was sterilized at 15 psi (121°C) for 20 minutes by autoclaving. Characterization of mesorhizobium sp. isolates for functionality traits Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) production Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) synthesized by different Mesorhizobium sp. was quantitatively evaluated by the method of Gordon and Weber (1951). Mesorhizobium strains were grown in Luria Bertani broth supplemented with 0.01% tryptophan separately by inoculating a loopful of culture and incubated at 28±2°C for 3 days with shaking. The Broth was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 20 min at 4°C to collect the supernatant. To the 2ml of supernatant 2 drops of orthophosphoric acid was added, appearance of pink colour indicated the production of IAA. The amount of IAA was qualitatively determined by adding 4 ml of Salkowski’s reagent (I ml of .05 M Fecl in 50 ml of 35% HClO4) to 2ml of culture supernatant. Absorbance was measured at 535 nm after 20 min. Uninoculated broth with Salkowski’s reagent served as reference. phosphate (p) solublisation Assay : Qualitative estimation All isolates were screened on NBRIP (National Botanical Research Institute’s Phosphate growth medium) Nautiyal (1999) agar plates for phosphate solubilization. Petriplates were inoculated with different Mesorhizobium sp. and incubated at 28±2ºC for 4-5 days. Formation of halo zone around the bacterial colonies on NBRIP media respectively indicated the qualitative phosphate solubilization activity of the organism. siderophore production Assay for siderophore production was done using Chrome azurol S (CAS) agar Schwyn and Neilands (1987). CAS dye (60.5 mg) was dissolved in 50 ml deionised water, and then mixed with 10 ml of a FeIII solution (1 mmol/L FeCl3.6H2O in 10mmol/L HCl). This mixture was mixed with 72.9 mg of Hexa-decyl-Trimethyl-Ammonium Bromide (HDTMA) dissolved in 40 ml water. The resulting mixture was autoclaved, cooled to 50- 60°C and mixed with 900 ml succinate media. The medium was poured into Petriplates and different Mesorhizobium sp. were inoculated. Appearance of halo zones around the colony due to chelation of iron bound to CAS dye indicated the production of siderophore. salt tolerance The ability of the isolated Mesorhizobium sp. to grow in different concentration of salt was tested by streaking them on YEMA medium ammended with different NaCl concentrations viz. 1%, 5% and 10%. Plates were incubated for 4-5 days at 28±2°C for growth assessment. results and discussion In the present study, a total of 20 Mesorhizobium sp. were isolated from soil and nodule samples of chickpea collected from different areas of Punjab. Isolation was done on CRYEMA, the medium specific for Mesorhizobium. The isolates were maintained on YEMA, stored at 4°C for further studies. On the basis of morphological characters, all the isolates produced round shaped, white translucent colonies with regular margin on CRYEMA medium. Grams reaction of all the isolates were confirmed by microscopic observations and all the Mesorhizobium sp. were found to be gram negative. All the colonies were odourless .On the basis of morphological characters these isolates were tentatively assigned to genera Mesorhizobium. Similarly, Rai et al (2012) and Kamble et al (2006) described Mesorhizobium sp. on the basis of their growth characteristics. 139 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1: morphological characterization of chickpea mesorhizobia Character Shape Colour Margin Grams reaction Observations Round White translucent Regular Gram –ve Biochemical characterization Biochemical characterization was done on the basis of biochemical tests viz oxidase, catalase, citrate utilization, methyl red, Voges Proskauer, nitrate reduction, urease production and 3-Ketolactose production. All the isolates were positive for oxidase, catalase, citrate utilization, urease production, while found negative for methyl red, Voges Proskauer and 3-Ketolactose production tests. On the basis of biochemical observations, all isolates were designated as Mesorhizobium sp. Results are in well agreement with the findings of Wani and Khan (2013), Gachande and Khansole (2011) who also reported that Rhizobium isolates were positive for catalase activities and citrate utilization and Rhizobium sp. were negative for MR-VP and indole reaction. Positive results for oxidase, catalase and urease were obtained by Gauri et al (2012). table 2: Biochemical characterization of chickpea mesorhizobia Characteristics Oxidase Catalase Citrate utilization Methyl red (MR) Voges Proskauer (VP) Nitrate reduction (NR) Urease 3-Ketolactose production % of isolates showing reactions 100% 100% 100% 0% 0% 100% 100% 0% indole Acetic Acid Production (iAA) IAA is naturally occurring auxin with broad physiological activities and it plays a central role in plant growth and development as a regulator of numerous biological processes. In the present study all Mesorhizobium sp. were screened for their ability to produce IAA both in absence and presence of L-tryptophan. All isolated mesorhizobia showed red colour reaction with Salkowaski reagent indicating their ability to produce IAA. Of 20 isolates of Mesorhizobium sp. 10%, 85% and 5% were found to be low, medium and high producers of IAA, respectively in the presence and absence of L-tryptophan. Similarly, preference of tryptophan for IAA production by Rhizobium species has also been reported earlier by Datta and Basu (2000), Jida and Aseefa (2012). Mesorhizobium strain 6G from Bathinda was able to produce highest amount of IAA followed by reference culture. Ammendment of L- tryptophan to media enhanced the auxin production by several folds. salt tolerance Chickpea is very sensitive to salinity, which affects its growth and development. All isolates were tested for their ability to grow at different concentrations of NaCl. Ability of Mesorhizobium sp. to grow on different concentrations of salt pointed out their ability to survive in arid areas. Out of 20 isolates 75%, 50% and 10% of the isolates were able to grow at 1%, 5% and 10% NaCl concentrations respectively. Gauri et al (2012) also reported that at higher concentrations, number of tolerant strains decreased rapidly in Mesorhizobium sp. isolates obtained from chickpea nodules. Mesorhizobium strain 10G isolate from Bathinda showed excellent growth on 10% NaCl ammended YEMA medium. These results are in well agreement with findings of Rai et al (2012) who reported that chickpea rhizobia that can tolerate 1.5% NaCl concentration and such potential rhizobia is better choice for inoculation in saline soils. 140 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Fig 1: Percentage of Quantitative measurement of Indole acetic acid (IAA) production by isolates of Mesorhizobium sp. in - and + of L-tryptophan Phosphate solubilization Of 20 isolates, 5 mesorhizobia including reference Mesorhizobium sp. showed P-solubilization and resulted into formation of yellow halo zone on NBRIP medium. P solubilization on NBRIP medium varied in the range of (0 – 1.6 cm). Phosphate solubization by rhizobia, particularly, Mesorhizobium sp. nodulating chickpea are the most effective solubilizers in vitro Verma et al (2012), indicating that the solubilization of phosphorus varies in different strains of the same species. siderophore Production Siderophores are ferric ion-specific ligands with high affinity for iron that are taken into cells via specific membrane receptors. Siderophore production and utilization in rhizobia is of particular interest due to the dominant role of iron in the N2 fixation and assimilation process. Siderophore production was tested by streaking Mesorhizobium sp. on CAS agar medium. Formation of orange halo zone around the inoculated bacterial colonies on CAS agar indicated siderophore production. Out of 20 isolates of Mesorhizobium sp. 40% were able to produce halo zone after 48 hours incubation. Ahemad and Khan (2011) and Raychaudhuri et al (2005) also reported the production of siderophores by Mesorhizobium sp. isolated from chickpea. Mesorhizobium isolates from chickpea rhizosphere involved in biological control of pathogens and also provided competitive advantage to them Rai et al (2012). fig 2: Percentage of different naCl concentration on growth of mesorhizobium sp. 141 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Conclusion Of 20 Mesorhizobium sp. two isolates were found promising as they are endowed with multiple PGP traits and can be explored as biofertilizer for chickpea in saline affected soil. references Ahemad M and Khan M S (2011) Toxicological assessment of selective pesticides towards plant growth promoting activities of phosphate solubilizing Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung 58: 169–187. Babic K H, Schauss K, Hai B, Sikora S, Redzepovic S, Radl V and Schloter M (2008) Influence of different Sinorhizobium meliloti inocula on abundance of genes involved in nitrogen transformations in the rhizosphere of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.). Environ Microbiol 10:2922 Bhuiyan M A, Khanam H D, Hossain M F and Ahmed M S (2008) Effect of Rhizobium inoculation on nodulation and yield of chickpea in calcareous soil. Bangladesh J Agril Res 33:549-54. Datta C and Basu P S (2000) Indole Acetic Acid production by a Rhizobium species from root nodules of leguminous shrub Cajanus cajan. Microbial Res 155:123-27. Gachande B D and Khansole G S (2011) Morphological, cultural and biochemical characteristics of Rhizobium japonicum and Bradyrhizobium japonicum in soyabean. Biosci Discovery 2: 1-13. Gauri, Singh A K and Bamania M (2012) Characterization of Mesorhizobium sp. isolated from root nodules of Cicer arietinum. Int J Agri Sci Res (IJASR) 142-154. Giri N and Joshi N C (2010) Growth and yield response of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) to seed inoculation with Rhizobium sp. Natu Sci 8:232-36. Gordon S A and Weber R P (1951) Colorimetric estimation of indoleacetic acid. Pl Physiol 26: 192-95. Jida M and Assefa F (2012) Phenotypic diversity and plant growth promoting characteristics of Mesorhizobium species isolated from chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) growing areas of Ethiopia. Afr J Biotechnol. 11: 7483-93. Kamble P M, Singh A, Kashyap L R (2006) Characterization of intrinsic variability of Mesorhizobium ciceri isolates of cultivated fields. Indian J Expt Biol 671-74. Minakshi, Saxena A K and Matta N K (2005) Selection of culturable PGPR from diverse pool of bacteria inhabiting pigeonpea rhizosphere. Indian J Microbiol 45: 21-26. Nandwani R and Dudeja S S (2009) Molecular diversity of a native mesorhizobial population of nodulating chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) in Indian soils. J of Basic Microbiol Pp 463-70. Nautiyal CS (1999) An efficient microbiological growth medium for screening phosphate solubilizing microorganisms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 170: 265–70. Perfanova Y, Marckova A and Altimirska R (2010) Effect of inoculation with nitrogen fixing bacteria on chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) yield and rhizosphere microflora. Gen App Pl Physiol 36:73-77 Rai R, Dash P K, Mohapatra T and Singh A (2012) Phenotypic and molecular characterization of indigenous rhizobia nodulating chickpea in India. Indian J Exp Biol 50:340- 50. Raychaudhuri N, Das S K and Chabrabarty P K (2005) Symbiotic effectiveness of siderophore overproducing mutant of Mesorhizobium ciceri. Polish J Microbiol 54: 37-41. Schwyn B and Neilands J B (1987) Universal assay for the detection and determination of siderophores. Anal Biochem 160: 47-56 Solaiman A R M, Talukder M S and Rabbani M G (2010) Influence of some Rhizobium strains on chickpea nodulation, dry matter yield and nitrogen uptake. Bangladesh J Microbiol 27: 61-64. Singh N P and Sewak S (2013) Global Perspective of Chickpea Research. AICRP on Chickpea, Pp: 8-13 Verma J P, Yadav J and Tiwari K N (2012) Enhancement of nodulation and yield of chickpea by co-inoculation of indigenous Mesorhizobium spp. and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria in eastern Uttar Pradesh. Commun in Soil Sci and Pl Analysis 43: 605-21. Vincent J M (1970) A Manual for the Practical Study of Root-Nodule Bacteria, Pp: 164 Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. Wani and Khan (2013) Isolation of multiple metal and antibiotic resistant Mesorhizobium sp. and their plant growth promoting activity. Research J of Microbiol 8: 25-35 142 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-VII effeCt of roCK PhosPhAte inCuBAted With fym And Bio-fertiLizer on ProduCtivity, soiL fertiLity, QuALity And eConomiCs of WheAt K.g. vyas*, A.m. Patel, P.K. Bhatt, C.h. raval, B.L. yadav, v.B. mor and monika sharma *Ph.D Scholar & SRF (Agronomy), S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat) Email: kgvyas09@gmail.com Mob. +91-9510081869 Department of Agronomy, C. P. College of Agriculture Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar-385 506 (Gujarat) Abstract A field experiment was conducted at Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar during rabi 2010-11 on loamy sand soil to assess the agronomic feasibility of Udaipur Rock Phosphate (URP) sources (URP 31% and URP 34%), incubation methods (No incubation, incubation with farmyard manure, incubation with phosphate solubilizing bacteria, incubation with farmyard manure + phosphate solubilizing bacteria) and farmyard manure (zero and ten tonnes ha-1) on wheat (Triticum aestivum L. emend. Fiori & Paol.). The agronomic efficacy of the sources of URP 31% and 34% was not found significant in all the aspects. However, the effect of incubation methods influenced the productivity, quality of wheat and available nutrient status of soil after harvest of the crop. Application of FYM @ 10 tonnes ha-1 also had direct significant influence in improving growth attributes, yields (grain and straw) and quality of wheat crop. Application of P2O5 @ 40 and 60 kg ha-1 was found to be at par, while both the sources of P (i.e. Diammonium phosphate and Udaipur rock phosphate) were found equally effective. In terms of economics, higher net return was recorded with the application of DAP @ 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 closely followed by incubation of URP with FYM + PSB and incubation of URP with FYM + PSB + 10 t FYM ha-1. Key Words: FYM, phosphate solubilizing bacteria, Udaipur rock phosphate, wheat introduction Wheat is the world’s single most important cereal crop not only in quantitative but in qualitative terms too and considered to be integral component of food security system of several nations and to feed the increasing population, production is to be increased. Phosphorus is one of the important major nutrients required by the crop and in many soils its availability limits the crop yield due to intensive cropping and adoption of high yielding varieties in irrigated agriculture. The agronomic efficacy of rock phosphate as a direct phosphorus fertilizer along with certain acidulants was evaluated in wheat by Pareek et al. (2004) and Soni and Aery (2004). The results indicated that acidulants such as farmyard manure, vegetable waste, saw dust etc. resulted in enhancement in crop production over the absolute control. Therefore, the present investigation was conducted to find out the effect of applied Udaipur rock phosphate sources incubated through various methods in presence and absence of farmyard manure on productivity, quality of wheat and soil available nitrogen and phosphorus status. materials and methods The field experiment was conducted during rabi season of 2010-11 at Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar, Gujarat. The soil was loamy sand in texture having available nitrogen 259 and 232 kg ha-1, phosphorus 22.3 and 19.7 kg ha-1 and potash 256 and 242 kg ha-1 from 0-15 and 15-30 cm depth, respectively. The soil was neutral in reaction (pH 7.2 - 7.7). Eighteen treatments were evaluated, viz. two sources of Udaipur rock phosphate (31 and 34%) @ 60 kg P2O5 ha-1, four incubation methods (No incubation, incubation with farmyard manure, incubation with phosphate solubilizing bacteria and incubation with farmyard manure + phosphate solubilizing bacteria) and two farmyard manure levels (zero and ten tonnes ha-1) along with two checks (40 and 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 through diammonium phosphate). Recommended doses of nitrogen and potash @ 120 and 30 kg ha-1 were applied to wheat crop through urea and MOP, respectively. Before incubation, 300 kg soil of respective field was added to the rock phosphate. The Udaipur rock phosphate (URP) was incubated for 21 days in gunny bags with continuous aeration and wetting before use. These 18 treatment combinations 143 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” [(2×4×2)+2] were replicated three times in factorial randomized block design. Bacillus subtilis var. phosphaticum was used for incubation. A uniform dose of 60 kg N, 30 kg K2O ha-1, all the phosphorus sources and farmyard manure were applied at sowing of wheat. Remaining 60 kg N ha-1 was top-dressed at the time of first irrigation. Wheat was harvested from each experimental plot separately. The observations were recorded on growth attributes, yield determinates and yields of wheat at harvest. The protein content was evaluated by using (NIR) near infrared spectroscopy and soil samples were drawn from each experimental unit after harvesting of wheat and analyzed for available nutrients as per the following methods; alkaline potassium permanganate method for nitrogen (Subbiah and Asija, 1956), Olsen’s method for phosphorus (Olsen et al. 1954) and flame photometric method for potash (Jackson, 1973). The economics of different treatment combinations was worked out in terms of net returns ha-1 and B:C (benefit cost) ratio. results and discussion Effect of sources of URP, incubation methods and FYM on growth and yield attributes, yield and quality of wheat. udaipur rock phosphate sources While assessing the comparative efficacy of URP (31 & 34%) in respect of growth parameters, yield attributes and yields (grain and straw), protein content of wheat and soil available nitrogen and phosphorus status, both the URP sources were proved equally effective (Table 1). The better efficacy of URP sources might be due to absence of carbonate gangue and the acidity generated by organic acidulating materials helps in bringing phosphorus into available forms, the agronomic efficacy of rock phosphate as a direct fertilizer was also evaluated on wheat by Pareek et al. (2004) and Soni and Aery (2004) and they observed rock phosphate as a better source of phosphorus. Incubation methods Incubation of URP with FYM, PSB and FYM+PSB recorded significant improvement in yields (grain and straw), protein content of wheat and soil available nitrogen and phosphorus status over no incubation (Table 1). Incubation of URP with FYM + PSB increased the grain and straw yields by 14.24 and 11.29 per cent over no incubation. The corresponding increase with FYM incubated URP were to the tune of 8.77 and 6.25 per cent respectively, over no incubation. Further, significantly higher protein content (12.70 per cent) of wheat grain was recorded under incubation of URP with FYM+PSB which was found at par to incubation of URP with FYM alone. Similarly, incubation of URP with FYM+PSB recorded the highest available phosphorus (11.08 per cent more) status of soil compared to no incubation which was found statistically similar to incubation of URP with FYM alone. These results might be due to better nutritional environment for wheat under incubation of URP with FYM and FYM+PSB treated plots, which have increased the solubility and availability of phosphorus from URP and yield attributes of wheat. The results are in close conformity with Shaktawat et al. (2004). Farmyard manure (Fym) The growth parameters viz. plant height and yield attributes were influenced due to farmyard manure application to wheat, thereby grain and straw yields also increased significantly by 7.89 and 6.27 per cent over no FYM. Protein content was again influenced by the presence of FYM as the soil available nitrogen and phosphorus status were significantly improved to the tune of 4.33 and 9.29 per cent respectively, compared to no FYM (Table 1). In general, it can be attributed to their efficient extraction of nutrients per translocation in the plant system due to enhanced activities of roots on account of pivotal role of farmyard manure on maintenance of better physico-chemical and biological properties of soil. The results are in close conformity with the findings of Singh et al. (1998) and Chaplot (2000). effect of phosphorus levels The results presented in table 1 revealed that increase in application of phosphorus from 40 and 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 through diammonium phosphate did not significantly influenced the growth parameters, yield attributes, yields (grain and straw), protein content of wheat and soil available nitrogen, phosphorus and potash status. Since both the doses of phosphorus were remained at par to each other. This might be due to medium phosphorus status of the experimental soil and higher extraction capacity of wheat plants to utilize the native phosphorus present in soil. Comparison of Check vs. rest treatments Use of Udaipur rock phosphate to wheat crop found equally effective to that of diammonium phosphate (Check) in influencing growth parameters, yield attributes, productivity and protein content of wheat grain as well as soil available nitrogen and phosphorus status. The equal performance of Udaipur rock phosphate to that of Check (DAP) was probably 144 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” due to solubilization of phosphorus from Udaipur rock phosphate in presence of phosphate solubilizing bacteria and farmyard manure. Similar findings were reported by Shaktawat et al. (2001) and Rajput et al. (2007). table 1: effect of rock phosphate sources, incubation methods and fym on plant height at harvest (cm), 1000 grain weight (g), grain and straw yield (kg ha-1), protein content (%) of wheat and post harvest available nitrogen, phosphorus and potash status of soil. Treatment Plant height at harvest (cm) 1000 grain Grain weight yield (g) (kg ha-1) Straw yield (kg ha-1) Protein content (%) 90.41 36.36 6460 11.01 Available Nutrients (kg ha-1) Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash 275 23.6 268 urP sources (60 kg P2o5 ha-1) URP (31%) 4412 URP (34%) 92.37 37.68 4525 6591 11.26 276 24.4 268 SEm± 2.91 1.10 96.29 129.31 0.26 4.03 0.48 5.21 CD 5% NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS No incubation 90.11 36.14 4185 6227 10.55 275 22.9 254 Incubation with FYM 91.89 37.21 4552 6616 11.52 276 24.5 273 Incubation with PSB 90.40 36.62 4357 6331 10.57 275 23.2 260 Incubation with FYM+PSB 93.14 38.12 4781 6930 11.89 277 25.5 284 SEm ± 4.11 1.56 136.17 182.87 0.36 5.69 0.67 7.36 CD 5% NS NS 391.4 525.6 1.04 NS 1.94 21.16 0 86.84 35.22 4299 6327 10.72 270 22.9 261 10 95.93 38.82 4638 6724 11.55 282 25.1 276 SEm± 2.91 1.10 96.29 129.31 0.26 4.02 0.48 5.21 8.36 3.17 276.7 371.6 0.74 11.57 1.37 14.97 40 92.13 36.11 4324 6242 10.65 274 25.5 264 60 95.17 38.65 4736 6849 11.81 276 28.3 268 ‘F’ test NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS incubation FYM (t ha-1) CD 5% -1 Check (P2o5 kg ha ) Check vs. rest treatments Check (DAP) 93.65 37.38 4530 6546 11.23 275 26.9 266 Rest treatments 91.39 37.02 4469 6526 11.13 276 24.0 268 ‘F’ test NS 15.55 NS 14.58 NS 10.54 NS 9.70 NS 11.25 NS 7.14 S 9.61 NS 9.52 CV (%) NS : Non Significant S : Significant economics The economic evaluation of different treatments (Fig. 1) indicated that application of DAP at the rate of 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 (C60) fetched maximum net monetary return of 55314 ha-1 with B:C ratio of 2.45 followed by P2I3F0 (URP-34% + incubated with FYM+PSB) with net return of 53732 and B:C ratio of 2.47. Conclusion It is inferred that application of 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 through Udaipur rock phosphate (34%) incubated with FYM+PSB along with addition of 10 t FYM ha-1 (P2I3F1) and recommended dose of nitrogen (120 kg ha-1) and potash (30 kg ha-1) to wheat crop is the most appropriate nutrient management strategy for getting higher seed yield. However, looking into the net 145 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” return, due to higher cost of FYM it was found inferior as compared to the application of 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 through DAP and P2I3F0 (URP-34% + incubation with FYM+PSB) under prevailing condition of North Gujarat. With regards to B:C ratio, P2I3F0 (URP-34% + incubation with FYM+PSB) recorded higher B:C ratio followed by C60 (60 kg P2O5 ha-1 through DAP) and P2I1F0 (URP-34% + incubation with FYM). Net Return (Rs./ha) 60000 Benefit : Cost Ratio 3.00 Net Return (Rs./ha) 40000 2.27 2.13 2.30 2.21 2.36 2.20 2.47 2.31 2.45 2.27 2.00 1.50 30000 1.38 20000 1.60 1.53 1.27 1.17 1.39 1.25 1.37 1.00 B:C Ratio 2.50 50000 0.50 10000 45528 37382 49720 44803 47102 40610 50567 48853 46769 39925 51377 45121 49091 43484 53725 51774 49353 55309 0.00 0 Fig. 1: Effect of rock phosphate sources, incubation methods and FYM on net return and B:C ratio of wheat P1 = URP (31%) i0 = No incubation f0 = No FYM C40 = DAP @ 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 P2 = URP (34%) i1 = Incubation with FYM f1 = FYM 10 t ha-1 C60 = DAP @ 60 kg P2O5 ha-1 i2 = Incubation with PSB i3 = Incubation with FYM+PSB Acknoledgement We are highly grateful to Rajasthan State Mines and Minerals Limited, Udaipur for providing Udaipur rock phosphate for conducting the research. references Chaplot, P.C. 2000. Response of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) to organic manures, balanced fertilization and bioregulator under late sown conditions of Southern Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis, Submitted to MPUAT, Udaipur. Jackson, M.L. 1973. Soil Chemical Analysis, pp - 498. Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi Olsen, S.R., Cole C.S., Watanable F.S. and Dean L.A. 1954. Estimation of available phosphorus in soils by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. USDA, Washington, D.C. Circ. No. 939. Pareek, D.K., Masih, M.R. and Deo, C. 2004. Studies on utilization of high grade rock phosphate in wheat crop grown on loamy sand soil. In: Phosphate Rich Organic Manure Ed. Himanshu Publications, Udaipur. 49-53. Rajput, S.S, Shaktawat, M.S. and Intodia, S.K. 2007. Residual effect of Udaipur rock phosphate sources and faryard manure on productivity and nutrient uptake by succeeding maize (Zea mays) after wheat (Triticum aestivum). Indian J. Agril. Sci. 77 (3) : 145-149. Shaktawat, M.S., Aery, N.C., Singh, M., Swami, B.N. and Katewa, M.K. 2004. Phospate Rick Organic Manure. In: Phosphate Rich Organic Manure Ed. Himanshu Publications, Udaipur. 13-18. Shaktawat, M.S., Sharma, D.D. and Vyas, A.K. 2001. Effect of rock phosphate incubated with FYM and PSB on production of soybean-mustard cropping system on calcareous soil. In: Proc. of PROM Review - 2002, held at RSMML, Udaipur. 82-89. Singh, K.P., Singh, H., Ranwa, R.S., Kathuria, M.K. and Singh, S.M. 1998. Relative efficiency of vermicompost and organic manures integrated with chemical fertilizers in cereal based cropping system. Haryana J. Agron. 14 (1) : 34-40 Soni, P. and Aery, N.C. 2004. Agronomic effectiveness of high grade rock phosphate with organic sources and phosphate solubilizing bacteria on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). In: Phosphate Rich Organic Manure. Ed. Himanshu Publications, Udaipur. 58-64. Subbiah, B.V. and Asija, G.L. 1956. A rapid procedure for estimation of available nitrogen in soils. Curr. Sci. 25 (8) : 259260. 146 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-VIII ProduCtivity And eConomiCs As infLuenCed By different summer PeArL miLLet BAsed interCroPPing systems B.L. yadav*, B.s. Patel, K.g. vyas, P.K. Bhatt, C.h. raval, v.B. mor, B. saini and monika sharma *Ph.D Scholar & SRF, AICRP on Integrated Farming Systems S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat) Abstract A field experiment was conducted during the summer season 2010 at Agronomy Instructional Farm, Department of Agronomy, Chimanbhai Patel College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat) on “Productivity and economics as influenced by different summer pearl millet based intercropping systems”. Thirteen treatments of sole crops and intercropping systems viz., T1 Pearlmillet sole, T2 Cowpea sole, T3 Greengram sole, T4 Mothbean sole, T5 Sesame sole, T6 Pearlmillet + Cowpea (1:1), T7 Pearlmillet + Cowpea (1:2), T8 Pearlmillet + Greengram (1:1), T9 Pearlmillet + Greengram (1:2), T10 Pearlmillet + Mothbean (1:1), T11 Pearlmillet + Mothbean (1:2), T12 Pearlmillet + Sesame (1:1) and T13 Pearlmillet + Sesame (1:2) were evaluated in a randomized block design with three replications. The soil was loamy sand, neutral low in organic carbon, available nitrogen, medium in available phosphorus and high in potassium. Pearlmillet intercropped with greengram at 1:2 and 1:1 row ratios were produced significantly higher pearlmillet equivalent yield than sole pearlmillet. The highest net return was obtained when pearlmillet intercropped with greengram at 1:2. But in case of BCR, significantly higher BCR was recorded in sole greengram followed by pearlmillet + greengram at 1:2 row ratio. Intercropping system of pearlmillet + greengram at 1:2 row ratio was superior over sole pearlmillet and found most feasible. Key words: Pearlmillet equivalent yield, Net returns, LER, Pearlmillet, Cropping system, introduction Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) is mostly spread in Guj., Raj., MS, MP, UP and AP where it is grown comparatively on large scale. Generally, pearl millet is adapted to stress intensive environment, yet it is highly versatile, input responsive and high quality cereal with great potential to become a valuable component of non-traditional season like summer under irrigated and high input management conditions. Pulse is generally taken as an intercrops and by adapting appropriate stand geometry in the intercropping system, the total productivity can be enhanced. In comparison to sole cropping, intercropping system with pulses is gaining popularity because of its multifarious advantages. material and methods The experiment was conducted in summer-2010 at Agronomy Instructional Farm, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar, where the soil was loamy sand, neutral (pH 7.0) in reaction, low in OC (0.17%) and available N (149 kg N/ha), medium in available P (46 kg P2O5/ha) and high in K (281 kg K2O/ha). Thirteen treatments of sole crops and intercropping systems viz., Pearl millet sole, Cowpea sole, Green gram sole, Moth bean sole, Sesame sole, Pearl millet + Cowpea (1:1), Pearl millet + Cowpea (1:2), Pearl millet + Green gram (1:1), Pearl millet + Green gram (1:2), Pearl millet + Moth bean (1:1), Pearl millet + Moth bean (1:2), Pearl millet + Sesame (1:1) and Pearl millet + Sesame (1:2) were evaluated in a RBD with three replications. results and discussion effect of Intercrops on pearl millet The results indicated that significantly higher grain and straw yields were recorded by sole pearlmillet than rest of the intercropping treatments, which could be attributed to higher and optimum plant densities in sole cropping system. Lower significant grain and straw yields were noticed under pearlmillet with cowpea, greengram, mothbean and sesame at 1:2 row ratio intercropping system (Table 1). This might be due to lower plant densities of pearlmillet and also higher competition offered by intercrops for natural resources like space, plant nutrient, moisture and incoming sun radiation. The results are corroborate with the finding of Yadav and Yadav (2001), and Kumar et al. (2006). 147 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table: 1. effect of different sole and intercropping systems on yield, Pmey, Ler and economics Yields (kg/ha) PMEY (kg/ha) LER Net Return (Rs/ha) B:C Ratio Grain Stover/ Haulm Pearl millet sole 3854 8748 6240 1.00 44386 1.83 Cowpea sole 1181 1973 3581 1.00 19757 1.01 Green gram sole 1250 2051 6057 1.00 47464 2.48 Moth bean sole 885 1478 2682 1.00 10931 0.59 Sesame sole 296 1258 2210 1.00 5128 0.27 Pearl millet + Cowpea (1:1) 2368 (467) 5045 (878) 5178 1.01 34276 1.51 Pearl millet + Cowpea (1:2) 2079 (630) 3847 (1122) 5052 1.07 33240 1.49 Pearl millet + Green gram (1:1) 2445 (485) 5355 (926) 6279 1.02 46625 2.08 Pearl millet + Green gram (1:2) 2248 (695) 4428 (1188) 6831 1.14 53122 2.41 Pearl millet + Moth bean (1:1) 2353 (307) 4965 (599) 4653 0.96 29039 1.31 Pearl millet + Moth bean (1:2) 2073 (465) 3981 (818) 4576 1.06 28716 1.33 Pearl millet + Sesame (1:1) 2298 (69) 4710 (336) 4099 0.83 23222 1.06 Pearl millet + Sesame (1:2) 2044 (102) 3618 (467) 3793 0.65 20614 0.98 CD at 5 % 460 950 559 0.12 4095 0.20 Treatments * Data presented in parenthesis indicates intercrops values sale Price (rs./kg): Pearl millet: Seed - 11, Straw - 3, Cowpea: Seed - 30, Straw - 2, green gram: Seed - 50, Straw - 2, moth bean: Seed - 30, Straw - 2, sesame: Seed - 80, Straw - 0.5 effect of pearl millet on Intercrops All the intercrops noticed higher grain and haulm yields of cowpea, green gram, moth bean and sesame were reduced in both the row ratios of intercropping systems as compared to their sole cropping. Such variation could be ascribed due to decrease in plant densities when grown as intercrops with pearl millet and higher competition among pearl millet and intercrops for natural resources like soil moisture, plant nutrient, space and sunlight responsible for higher photosynthesis rate resulting lower accumulation of dry matter per plant in comparison of sole crop. These results are in conformity with findings of Yadav and Yadav (2001). effect on pearl millet equivalent yield and ler The highest PMEY was recorded with pearlmillet + greengram in 1:2 row ratio and found comparable with pearlmillet + greengram in 1:1 row ratio. As far as LER concerned, 1-14 % higher yield advantage was found in pearl millet with green gram at 1:2 row ratio over sole cropping, because of additional advantage of intercrop yield and higher yield of pearlmillet with greengram due to better complementary relationship. These findings are in conformity with those reported by Rathore and Gautam (2003). economics of different treatments The economic evaluation of different treatments indicated that the net income was significantly higher in different intercropping systems as compared to sole pearlmillet. Looking to overall economics all Pulses and pearlmillet with pluses and oilseed intercropping treatments gave significantly higher net return over that of sole pearlmillet. This could be attributed to higher yield advantage under sole pulses and intercropping systems. Pearlmillet + greengram (1:2) combination gave the highest net return (Rs 53,122) per hectare and significantly higher benefit cost ratio of 1:2.41 followed by sole greengram 148 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” which gave net return of (Rs 47,464) per hectare with 1:2.48 benefit cost ratio (Table 1) which confirmed the superiority of sole greengram and pearlmillet with greengram at 1:2 row ratio over other treatments. Conclusion Based on the results from one year experimentation, intercropping of pearl millet + green gram at 1:2 row ratio was found superior to sole pearl millet and more economical by realizing the highest net return, PMEY and LER on loamy sand soils. references Kumar, R., Hooda, R.S., Singh, H. and Nanwal, R.K. (2006). Performance of intercropping and strip cropping systems of pearl millet - legume association. Indian J. Agric. sci. 76(5): 319-321. Rathore, S.S. and Gautam, R.C. (2003). Agro-techniques to improve the productivity of pearl millet + cowpea intercropping system under dryland conditions. Annals of Agricultural Research. 24(4): 971-975. Yadav, R.S. and Yadav, O.P. (2001). The performance of cultivar of pearl millet and cluster bean under sole cropping and intercropping systems in arid zone conditions in India. Experimental Agriculture. 37(2): 231-240. 149 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-IX infLuenCe of PLAnt groWth reguLAtors on ChLoroPhyLL of Cotton PLAnts rajni* and J s deol Department of Agronomy, PAU Ludhiana – 141004 * rajni-sharma@pau.edu introduction Chlorophyll is a green pigment present in chloroplast which is responsible for absorbing light energy from sun for synthesis of carbohydrates and represents the photosynthetic capacity of plant. This light energy absorbed by chlorophyll pigment is further broken up into a spectrum of colors. Chlorophyll uses red and blue part of this light to create the energy required for photosynthesis. Plant growth regulators (PGRs) have emerged as magic chemicals that could increase agricultural production at an unprecedented rate and help in removing and circumventing many of the barriers imposed by genetics and environment (Kumar et al 2005). PGRs include a broad category of organic compounds that promote, inhibit or modify physiological and/or morphological behavior of the plant. More et al (1993) reported enhancement of chlorophyll content in cycocel treated cotton leaves. Similary Reddy et al (1996) reported that pix (MC) treated leaves had more chlorophyll content while Krasichkova et al (1989) reported that higher yielding cotton genotypes had higher levels of chlorophyll content and photosynthetic activity as compared to low yielding cotton genotypes. Norton et al (2005) also reported positive effect of plant growth regulators on chlorophyll content and fruiting nodes in cotton. Keeping this in view, the present investigation was conducted to study the effect of PGRs on chlorophyll content of cotton leaves. materials and methods The present investigation was carried out at the Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, PAU Ludhiana, during 2008 and 2009. Plant material consists of Bt Hybrid RCH-134 and experiment was conducted in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with four replications. Treatments include T1-Control, T2-Detopping, T3-Mepiquat chloride (MC) 200 ppm, T4-MC 300 ppm, T5-Cycocel (CCC) 250 ppm, T6-CCC 500 ppm, T7-Kinetin 25 ppm, T8-Kinetin 50 ppm, T9-GA3 25 ppm, T10-GA3 50 ppm, T11-NAA 25 ppm and T12-NAA 50 ppm. Treatments T2 to T6 were applied at maximum vegetative growth stage (75 DAS) and those from T7 to T12 were applied at flower initiation stage. The foliar application of PGRs were done in the morning hours with Knap Sack Sprayer using cone type nozzle by keeping 400 l/ha liquid volume. The total chlorophyll content of leaves was estimated first before PGRs spray and 30 days thereafter using Spectronic 20. It was based on the principle of light absorption by aqueous acetone (80%) extract of chlorophyll (Arnon 1949). The composite sample of leaves was collected and chopped into small pieces. A known weight of the tissue sample was extracted with 80% aqueous acetone solution in pestle and mortor. The extraction was repeated until the residue had no greenness in it. The ground sample was left in the dark for 10 min at room temperature. The residue was removed by centrifugation at 3000 rpm for 15 min. The volume of the supernatant was raised to 25 ml using 80% acetone in a volumetric flask. The optical density (OD) was read at 645 and 663 nm wavelength. The amount of total chlorophyll was calculated by the following formula: [20.2 (OD 645 nm) + 8.02 (OD 663 nm)] Total chlorophyll (mg/g leaf tissue) = --------------------------------------------------------- x V 1000 x W (Where, OD-Optical density, V-Volume of the extraction (ml), W-Weight of leaf tissue taken) The data collected was statistically analysed as prescribed by Cheema and Singh (1991) in statistical package CPCS-1 and the comparison was made at 5 % level of significance. results and discussion Higher level of chlorophyll content in leaves indicates enhanced photosynthetic efficiency of the crop which influences the crop growth and ultimately yield. The data pertaining to chlorophyll content in leaves is graphically depicted in Fig 1 & 2. Persual of the data reveals that before the application of plant growth regulators, chlorophyll content in leaves was statistically at par in all the treatments (i.e. at 75 DAS). Application of PGRs had a significant effect on chlorophyll content of leaves. Higher chlorophyll content of 1.642 and 1.615 mg/g of leaf tissue was observed at 105 DAS with application of CCC 500 ppm followed by CCC 250 ppm (1.630 and 1.608 mg/g of leaf tissue), which was significantly higher than 150 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” control (1.475 and 1.436 mg/g of leaf tissue) and rest of the treatments except MC application. MC at 200 ppm (1.605 and 1.598 mg/g of leaf tissue) and 300 ppm (1.622 and 1.601 mg/g of leaf tissue) were statistically at par with CCC 250 ppm and 500 ppm in both the years 2008 and 2009, respectively. Detopping, kinetin (25 and 50 ppm), GA3 (25 and 50 ppm) and NAA (25 and 50 ppm) application did not have any significant effect on the chlorophyll content of leaves in any of the two years. Kumar et al (2005) also reported significantly higher total chlorophyll content with application of growth retardants i.e. MC and CCC than NAA and control treatments. Similar results were also reported by Brar et al (2000). It can be concluded that the higher chlorophyll content of leaf tissue was observed with CCC 250 and 500 ppm and MC 200 and 300 ppm, which was significantly higher than control. Non significant differences were recorded for chlorophyll content of leaves amongst rest of the treatments. Fig 1: Leaf chlorophyll content as affected by PGRs in 2008 Fig 2: Leaf chlorophyll content as affected by PGRs in 2009 references Arnon D I (1949) Copper enzyme in isolated chloroplast polyphenol oxidase in Beta vulgaris. Plant Physiol 24:1-15 Brar Z S, Singh A and Singh T (2000) Response of hybrid cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) to nitrogen and canopy modification practices. Indian J Agron 45: 395-400. Brar Z S, Singh J, Mathauda S S and Singh H (2001) Fruit retention and yield of cotton as influenced by growth regulators and nutrients. J Res Punjab agric Univ 38: 6-9 Cheema H S and Singh B (1991) Software Statistical Package CPCS-I. Department of Statistics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. Krasichkova G V, Asoeva L M, Giller Yu E and Singinov B S (1989) Photosynthetic system of G. barbadanse at the early stages of development. Doklady Vsesovuznoi Ordena Trudovogo Krasnogo Znameni Akademii Sel Skokhozya Istvennykh Nauk Imen V. I. Lemina, 12: 9-11 institute fiziologi I Biofiziki Rastenil, an Tadazh S. R., Dushanbe, Tadzhik SSR. Kumar K A K, Patil B C and Chetti M B (2005) Effect of plant growth regulators on physiological components of yield in hybrid cotton. Indian J Plant Physiol 10: 187-90 More P R, Waykar S K and Coulwar S B (1993) Effect of Cycocel (CCC) on morphological and yield contributing characters of cotton. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 18: 294-295. Norton L J, Clark H, Borrego and Bryan Ellsworth (2005) Evaluation of two plant growth regulators from LT Biosyn Arizona Cot. Rep., May 2005, p. 142. Reddy A R, Reddy K R and Hodges H F (1996) Mepiquat chloride (PIX) induced changes in photosynthesis and growth of cotton. Plant Growth Regulation, 20: 179-189. 151 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-X CroP PerformAnCe And irrigAtion WAter ProduCtivity of riCe (OryzA sAtIVA) in reLAtion to divergent estABLishment methods rajan Bhatt and s s Kukal Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab 141 004 E-mail : rajansoils@gmail.com A field experiment was carried out in 2012 at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana to investigate the effect of various rice establishment techniques on its performance and irrigation water productivity. The treatments included (i) mechanical transplanting in puddled (MT-P); and (ii) mechanical transplanting in zero till field (MT-ZT); (iii) direct seeded rice in conventional (DSR-CT) and (iv) direct seeded rice in zero tilled soil (DSR-ZT) in addition to (v) puddled transplanted rice (PTR). The average highest number of tillers/m2 were observed in the DSR-ZT plots (135.8) followed by MT-P (117.3), MT-ZT (116.7), DSR-CT (91.0) and PTR (73.8) respectively. On an average DSR-ZT produced the smallest panicles (20.1 cm) that bore lower number of grains per panicle (69.7) and lower 1000-grain weight (20.8 g) which resulted lower grain yield in comparison to MT-P plots, which produced panicles of 22.9 cm leading to highest number of grains per panicle (124.8) and 1000-grain weight (23.9 g). This finally resulted in the highest grain yield. The irrigation water productivity (WPI) comes out to be highest in MT-P (0.68 g kg-1) and PTR (0.65 g kg-1) plots followed by MT-ZT (0.56 g kg-1), DSR-CT (0.21 g kg-1) and lowest with DSR-ZT plots. Keywords: Paddy transplanting, Direct seeded rice, Mechanical transplanting, Water productivity. The states of Punjab and Haryana often referred to as the ‘Food Bowl’ of the country, produce 50% of the total rice in the country (Dhillon et al. 2010). However, over the past couple of decades, the ground water resources have been depleting at an alarming rate (>75cm year-1), thereby threatening the sustainability of agriculture/water productivity (WP) in the region (Humphreys et al. 2010). Thus, woth an objective to improve WP, a field experiment was conducted using PR-115 with seed rate of 30 kg ha-1 to evaluate the performance of different establishment methods of rice to uplift crop performance and water productivity during Kharif 2012 in sandy loam soil. The treatments included mechanical transplanting in puddled(MT-P) and zero-tilled soils (MT-ZT), dry seeded rice in conventional-(DSR-CT) and zero tilled soils (DSR-ZT) and puddled transplanted system (PTR) (Fig. 1) which earlier reported to had detrimental effects (Kukal and Aggarwal, 2003a, Kukal and Aggarwal, 2003b). Statistical design used was randomized block design. DSR and PTR was done on 12th June and 5th July respectively. The irrigation water was applied to the plots through PVC pipes laid in the experimental field. The irrigation water amount was measured for each plot using a flow meter. The crop was raised as per the recommendations of Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The leaf area index (LAI) was measured at 60 and 90 DAS using SUNSCAN while chlorophyll content of leaves with SPAD meter. The grain yield so obtained is reported at 14% moisture content while straw yield is reported at zero moisture content. The panicle length was significantly higher in PTR (25.6 cm) compared to that in all other treatments (Table 1). The filled spikelets were highest in MT-P (124.8) which was at par with PTR and both were significantly better than in both of the DSR establishment methods (Table 1). The fertility percentage was highest in MT-P had highest while DSR-ZT had lowest fertility percentage. However, it was significantly higher in DSR-CT than DSR-ZT but was at par with that in PTR. The 1000-grain weight was highest in MT-P plots but was statistically similar to that in PTR plots. The highest chlorophyll index (42.6-45.2) in MT and PTR plots, respectively compared to CT and ZT DSR plots (39-39.9), respectively, could also have resulted in better crop yield in these plots (Table 1). 152 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” fig 1: different establishment methods used to establish rice. table 1 effect of different establishment methods on the different agronomic parameters Treatments Panicle length Filled spikelets/ U n f i l l e d Fertility (cm) panicle spikelets / %age panicle MT (P) 23.0 124.8 13.1 91.4 MT (ZT) 22.3 115.9 18.3 86.6 DSR (ZT) 20.9 69.7 25.6 72.7 DSR(CT) 21.6 75.3 19.4 79.7 PTR 25.6 115.8 37.4 76.4 LSD (0.05) 2.2 16.8 10.5 6.2 1000 grain Plant height Chlorophyll weight (g) (cm) index 23.9 20.8 20.8 22.2 22.9 1.6 82.4 72.8 66.3 65.2 91.7 5.4 43.9 42.6 39.9 39.0 45.2 2.25 The leaf area index was similar in all the establishment methods at 60 DAS while at 90 DAS, the PTR plots had significantly higher over all other treatments. This was followed by MT-P plots which had significantly higher LAI over MT-ZT plots. The grain yield of rice was highest (5.6 t ha-1) in MT-P plots and was statistically similar to PTR (5.3 t ha-1) plots (Table 2). The grain yield was statistically better in CT than ZT plots of DSR because of lesser weed pressure. table 2 effect of different establishment methods on leaf area index and crop yield Treatments Leaf Area Index MT (Pudlled) 60 days 2.7 90 days 3.9 MT (Zero tilled) 2.4 2.2 Straw yield (t ha-1), 0% moisture content Grain yield (tha-1),14% moisture content 18.3 5.6 16.4 4.2 DSR (Zero tilled) 3.0 1.5 15.2 3.2 DSR (Conven. tilled) 3.2 4.2 12.0 3.6 PTR 2.7 NS 3.2 0.65 13.1 2.72 5.3 1.1 LSD (0.05) 153 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Straw yield was at par in MT-P and MT-ZT plots, while MT-P had significantly higher straw yield over DSR (ZT), DSR (CT) and PTR. Better performance of puddle transplanted rice than direct seeded rice system could be because of higher weed pressure and greater infiltration and percolation losses in DSR plots. The DSR may be effective in the fine textured soils Sudhir Yadav et al. (2011). ZT plots dried later than CT plots due to presence of crop residues as mulch at the surface which decreases evaporation rate (Singh et al. 2011; Bhatt and Khera, 2006). The irrigation water productivity (WPI) of MT plots was sufficiently higher than the DSR plots but similar to the PTR plots (Fig 3). The higher WPI of MT-P than MT-ZT plots could be due to lower grain yield in MT-ZT plots. Similar was the trend for DSR plots. The WPI of DSR-CT plots were higher than that in DSR-ZT plots. It was mainly due to lower grain yield and higher weed pressure in DSR-ZT plots. fig. 3 irrigation water productivity (g kg-1) as affected by different establishment methods It can thus be concluded that mechanically transplanted rice in puddle system perform similarly to conventional puddle system of transplanting and prove to be an effective establishment method which also sort out the problem of labour shortage during the peak transplanting period (Prasad et al 2001). referenCes Bhatt R and Khera K L. 2006. Effect of tillage and mode of straw mulch application on soil erosion in the submontaneous tract of Punjab, India. Soil Till. Res. 88:107-15. Cabangon R J, Tuong T P and Abdullah N B. 2002. Comparing water input and water productivity of transplanted and direct-seeded rice production systems. Agri. Water Manage. 57: 11–31 Datta S K. 1986. Technology development and spread of direct seeded flooded rice in South East Asia. Ferti. Res. 9:171-86. Dhillon B S, Kataria P and Dhillon P K. 2010. National food security vis-à-vis sustainability of agriculture in high crop productivity regions. Curr. Sci. 98: 33–36. Humphreys E, Kukal S S, Christen E W, Hira G S, Singh B, Yadav S and Sharma R K. 2010. Halting the groundwater decline in north-west India-which crop technologies will be winners? Adv. Agron. 109: 156-99. Kukal S S and Aggarwal G C. 2003a. Puddling depth and intensity effects in rice–wheat system on a sandy loam soil. I. Development of subsurface compaction. Soil Till Res. 72:1–8. Kukal S S and Aggarwal G C. 2003b. Puddling depth and intensity effects in rice–wheat system on a sandy loam soil II. Water use and crop performance. Soil Till. Res. 74: 37–45. Parsad S M, Mishra S S and Singh S J. 2001. Effect of establishment methods, fertility levels and weed management practices on rice (Oryza sativa). Ind. J Agron 45: 216-21. Singh B, Humphreys E, Eberbach P L, Katupitiya A, Singh Y and Kukal S S. 2011. Growth, yield and water productivity of zero till wheat as affected by rice straw mulch and irrigation schedule. Field Crop Research 121: 209–25. Sudhir-Yadav, Humphreys E, Kukal S S, Gill G and Rangarajan R. 2011b. Effect of water management on dry seeded and puddled transplanted rice. Part-2 Water balance and water productivity. Field Crop Research 120: 123–32. 154 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XI isoLAtion And ChArACterizAtion of non-rhizoBiAL endoPhytes BACteriA in soyBeAn (GlyCIne mAX (L.) merriLL) K.C. Kumawat*, Poonam sharma**, B.s. gill** and g. Kaur* * Department of Microbiology and **Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab) E-mail : kailashkumawat02@gmail.com Abstract Plant associated bacteria that colonize internal plant tissue without causing any harmful effect to plant are defined as endophytic bacteria. The present investigation was carried out to analyze the morphological, biochemical and phenotypic diversity in non-rhizobial bacterial endophytes of wild (Glycine soja and G. tementella), cultivated variety SLE-27 and Cross [SL295 X SL (E) 2] of soybean. A total 43 bacterial endophytes were isolated from four tissues; roots,stems, nodules and leaves. All the isolates were subjected to morphological and cultural characteristics. Out of 43 non-rhizobial bacterial endophytes 39.5% were Gram negative and 60.5% were Gram positive on the basis of Gram’s reaction. In vitro, 95.6% and 94.1% of bacterial endophytes isolates from wild and cultivated soybean respectively were able to produce Indole acetic acid (IAA) in Luria broth amended with 0.01% L-tryptophan as precursor. Non-rhizobial endophytic isolate 16N revealed highest amount of IAA (49.0µg/ml) followed by strain 8J (42.5 µg/ml) isolate from leaves of soybean cross [SL 295× SL (E)2] and cultivated (SLE27) variety, respectively. On National Botanical Research Institute’s Phosphate (NBRIP) medium 52.2 and 29.4% bacterial endophytes from cultivated and wild soybean, respectively were able to solubilize tricalcium phosphate as inorganic source of phosphorous. Bacterial endophytic strain 7J (Stem of SLE-27) showed highest phosphorous solubilization Index (PSI) of 4.79 followed by strain 3J (Root of Glycine soja) with SI 4.58. Future Studies on 16S rRNA are needed to determine the potential application as consortium biofertilizer in soybean. Keyword: Biological nitrogen fixation, Endophytic bacteria, IAA-Production and P-Solubilization introduction Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merill) is one of the most important legume crop in India. It is often called the Miracle crop as it contain high protein content (38-45%) as well as high oil content (20%) (Hamayun et al 2010). It can provide their own nitrogen requirement through nitrogen fixation in symbiosis with soil bacteria collectively known as rhizobia. Symbiotic association between the leguminous plant and rhizobia is required for active nitrogen fixation plays a significant role in the agricultural crop production. Plant associated bacteria colonize the rhizosphere (Rhizobacteria), the phyllosphere (epiphytes) and the inside the plant tissues (endophytes). Endophytes are sheltered from environmental stresses and microbial competition by host plant. Soybean shows a remarkable diversity because of its long history of cultivation and selection under various agro- climatic conditions. A large numbers of non-rhizobial endophytes bacteria are generally associated with different legumes including viz. Agrobacterium, Bacillus, Curtobacterium, Enterobacter, Erwinia, Mycobacteria, Paenibacillus, Pseudomonas, Phyllobacterium, Ochrobacteriun, Sphingomonas, Rhizobium, Ensifer, Mesorhizobium,Burkholderia, Devosia, Acetobacter, Arthrobacter, Azorhizobium, Proteus, Serratia, Klebsiella and Xanthomonas etc. have been reported to plant growth (Bashan and de Bashan 2010, Hung et al 2007). The application of plant growth promoting non rhizobial endophytes in crop production is steadily increasing as it offers an attractive way to replace the use of chemical fertilizer, pesticide and other harmful input for human being. Plant growth promoting endophytic bacteria are involved with host plants in mutual interaction. They promote plant growth directly or indirectly. Non rhizobial endophytic bacteria are known to produce phytohormones namely auxins, cytokinins, gibberllins and certain volatile compounds. Production of IAA is a chief phytohormone enhances lateral root growth formation and thus amplifies inoculation effect. Similarly, IAA producing bacteria may enhance plant growth in drought condition by stimulating formation of well-developed root system enough for providing sufficient water from soil (Ruchi et al 2012). Phosphate solubilization activity are observed by endophytes isolated from leguminous crops such as Medicago sativa, Prosopis strombulifera, Lespedeza sp. and Mammillaria fraileana ( Palaniappan et al 2010; Hung et al 2007; Sgroy et al 2009). The ability of endophytic bacteria to solubilize mineral phosphate therefore has been of immense interest to agricultural microbiologists since it can enhance the availability of phoshrous for effective plant growth. The aim 155 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” of our work were to assess the diversity of non- rhizobial endophytic bacteria isolated from different tissue of cultivated and wild soybean and to identify the potential strains for promoting plant growth in soybean. material And methods isolation and characterization of non- rhizobial endophytic bacteria: Host plant used in the experiment were cultivated variety SLE27 and cross [SL295×SL(E)2] and 2 wild species( Glycine soja and Glycine tementella) species of soybean during Kharif 2013 at Pulses Research Farm, Departments of Plant Breeding & Genetics, PAU, Ludhiana. Soybean tissue was collected at the flowering stage. Two healthy plants were carefully removed, washed under tap water to remove soil and separated into stems, roots, nodules and leaves. Stems and roots were cut into 2-3cm long and put in beaker, soaked in distilled water and drained. It was rinsed in 0.1% HgCl3 for 30 seconds and then sterilized with 70% ethanol for 3 min for roots and 5 minutes for stem. The same methods applied for leaves and nodules and the tissue was washed thrice times with sterile water (Gagne et al 1987). Surface disinfectant tissue was aseptically macerated with homogenizers. Serial dilution of the macerated tissue was made up to 10-6 dilution and 100 microlitres from appropriate dilution were placed on different medium, viz. Nutrient agar (NA), Pseudomonas agar and Jensen’s agar medium for the isolation of specific bacteria. Sterility check was performed by plating the washing of tissue on same media. Plates were incubated at 28±2°C. Bacterial colonies were carefully isolated and streaked over the surface of their specific media viz. Nutrient Agar for Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas Agar for Pseudomonas sp. and Jensen’s (Jensen 1942) for Azotobacter sp. Further, bacterial isolates were also maintained on specific media. The Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria were isolated on the basis of Gram’s reaction and morphologically characterized on the basis of colony morphology including viz. shape, elevation , texture, margin, colour, size and pigmentation. Biochemical characterization of PGP non- rhizobial endophytes was done on the basis of Oxidase, Catalase, Citrate utilization, Nitrate reduction test, Methyl Red (MR) test, Voges Proskauer (VP) test, P- solubilization and Indole acetic acid production as per standard procedure (Cappccino and Sherman 1992). plant Growth promoting (pGp) activities of non- rhizobial endophytes: Assay for phosphate solubilization: P- solubilization ability of plant associated bacteria was determined qualitatively by spot inoculated strain on NBRIP (National Botanical Research Institute’s phosphate growth) medium. Presence of yellow clear zone around bacterial growth after 3-4 days incubation period at 28-30°C was used as indicator for positive P- solubilization (Nautiyal 1999). P-solubilization Index (PSI) was calculated by using following formula. PSI = A/B A= Total diameter (Colony+ halozone) and B= Diameter of colony Qualitative and Quantitative analysis of Indole acetic acid (IAA) : IAA production in different isolates as PGP nonrhizobial endophytes was detected accoding to Gordon and Weber (1951) by inoculating bacterial suspension in 10 ml Luria Bertanni broth containing 0.01% tryptophan separately and incubated for 3-6 days at 28-30°C. Two drops of orthophosphoric acid was added to 1 ml supernatant. Appearance of pink colour confirmed the production of IAA. The amount of IAA (µg/ml) was determined quantitatively by adding 2 ml of Salkowski’s reagent (1 ml of 0.5m FeCl3 in 50 ml of 35% HClO4) to 1 ml of culture supernatant. Absorbance was measure at 535 nm after 20 min alongwith uninoculated broth with Salkowski’s reagent as a reference. results And discussion A total 43 isolates of non rhizobial endophytic bacteria from one each of cultivated (SLE27) variety, cross of soybean [SL295×SL(E)2], wild species Glycine soja and Glycine tementella were procured from four different tissues ( stems , roots, nodules and leaves) of soybean. All isolates were grown on nutrient agar medium, Pseudomonas agar medium and Jensen’s agar medium for tentatively isolating Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp. and Azotobacter sp. Out of 43 non rhizobial endophytic isolates 27.9% each from stems and leaves and 18.6% each from roots and nodules were isolated from different sources of soybean. 156 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1. isolation of non rhizobial endophytic bacteria from different tissues of soybean Sources Tissue Cultivated short duration varieties(SLE27) Cross(SL295×SL(E)2) Glycine soja Glycine tementella Charcoal based isolates Designated non rhizobial endophytes Stem (3) 11N, 9P,7J Root (2) 9N, 7P Nodule (3) 10N, 8P, 6J Leave (3) 12N, 10P, 8J Total 11 Stem(3) 15N, 13P,11J Root(3) 13N, 11P, 9J Nodule(3) 14N, 12P, 10J Leave (3) 16N, 14P, 12J Total 12 Stem(3) 5N, 3P, 3J Root(2) 6N, 4P Nodule(3) 7N, 5P,4J Leave (3) 8N, 6P, 5J Total 11 Stem 3N, 1P, 1J Leave 4N,2P, 2J Total 6 3 1N, 2N, 17N Total 43 table 2. morphological and biochemical characteristics of non rhizobial endophytes Isolates Bacillus Pseudomonas Azotobacter Cell shape Rod Rod Rod Elevation Umbonate Raised Raised Texture Mucoid Mucoid Mucoid Margin Irregular Smooth Smooth Colour Cream Light yellow Transparent opaque Size Medium Medium Medium Pigmentation None Fluorescent green None Oxidase + + + Catalase + + + Citrate utilization + + + Methyl red(MR) - - + Voges Proskauer(VP) + - - Nitrate reduction(NR) + + + Indole - - + Seven isolates on Pesudomonas agar medium produced round shaped and raised colonies having smooth, shiny surface with smooth margin and light yellow to off white in colour and were tentatively assigned to genera Pseudomonas sp. on the basis of morphological characteristics. Further, isolates also produced a fluorescent green pigment on King’s B medium. Thirteen isolates from nutrient agar medium produce large spreading, irregular shaped, off- white and rough colonies and were tentatively placed in genera Bacillus sp. Nine isolates streaked on nitrogen free Jensen’s medium produced transparent, glistening and shiny colonies and were assigned as a Azotobacter sp. 157 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Further all the non rhizobial endophytic isolates were characterized on the basis of shape, Gram’s reaction and motility. On the basis of Gram’s reaction of 43 non rhizobial endophytic isolates, 60.5% were gram positive and 39.5% were gram negative. Motility of all non rhizobial endophytic bacteria may confer an advantage for intercellular ingress and spreading as with the host plant. Motility also provides another interesting feature since it’s promote endophytic colonization (Selvakumar et al 2010, Dawwam et al 2013). (Bacillus sp. was rod shaped, motile and gram positive in reaction, where as Pseudomonas sp. and Azotobacter sp. were rod, motile, gram negative in reaction.) On basis of the biochemical characterization, out of 43 non rhizobial endophytic isolates were found to be positive for Oxidase (72.1%), Catalase (93.02%), Methyl red (13.95%), Voges Proskauer (2.33%), Nitrate reduction (33.56%) and Citrate utilization (41.86%). Out of 43 non rhizobial endophytic isolates 30.23%, 20.93% and16.28% was identified as Bacillus sp., Azotobacter sp. and Pseudomonas sp. respectively and 32.58% isolates were unidentified. Previous studies have also reported that Bacillus and Pseudomonas as dominant genera in rhizosphere of chickpea(Joseph et al 2007) and wheat ( Joshi and Bhatt 2011) which have ability to efficiently utilized the nutrient present in the root exudates. Kaur and Sharma (2013) reported Bacillus as a dominant group followed by Azotobacter in mungbean rhizosphere. Dominance of these genera in rhizosphere of different crops is useful because of their significant ecological roles in soil and nutrient cycling (Gray and Smith 2005) plant Growth promoting (pGp) activities Phosphate solubilization activity of non rhizobial endophytes Non rhizobial endophytic bacteria possess the capacity to solubilize immobilized mineral phosphate. In this study all the 43 isolates were subjected for their phosphate solubilising activity on NBRIP medium amended with 0.1% tri calcium phosphate as inorganic source of phosphorous. Out of 17 non rhizobial endophytic isolates 67%, 35.29% and 17.65% of Azotobacter, Pseudomonas and Bacillus, respectively showed as clear halo yellow zone on NBRIP medium indicated the positive test for P-solubilization. Phosphate solubilization Index (PSI) ranged from 1.48 to 4.79. Highest P solubilization index was shown with 7J (4.79) strain isolated from stem of cultivated (SLE27) variety followed by 3J (4.58) strain isolate from root of wild (Glycine soja) species. Lowest PSI was recorded with 12J (1.48) strain isolated from leaves of cross [SL295×SL (E) 2] soybean. fig 1: Percentage phosphate solubilising non rhizobial endophytic bacteria of soybean These results are in harmony with the finding of Kumar et al (2012) who found that 12 out of 30 rhizobacteria were able to produced clear zones ranging from 4 to 20 mm in French bean. Results are also found coherent with the finding of Kaur and Sharma (2013) in mungbean who reported that Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas sp. and Azotobacter sp. as effective P- solubilising genera. Results showed that all the non rhizobial endophytic bacterial isolates produced IAA ranging from 35.1 to 42.5µg/ml and 35.8 to 49.0µg/ml after incubation of 3 and 6 days of incubation in Luria broth amended with 0.01% tryptophan as a substrate, respectively. In without tryptophan treatment IAA was ranged from 2.6 to 4.8µg/ml and 2.7 to 10.9µg/ml after incubation of 3 and 6 days, respectively. Highest IAA production was observed with 16N (49.0 µg/ml) strain isolated from leave of cross[SL295×SL (E) 2] followed by 8J (42.5 µg/ml) isolate from leave of cultivated (SLE27) variety at 6, 3 days respectively and lowest IAA production was detected with 4J (35.8µg/ml) isolate from stem of wild Glycine soja followed by 14P (35.1µg/ml) strain from leave of cross[SL295×SL (E) 2] at 3, 6 days respectively with tryptophan. The results are in harmony with the finding of Patel et al (2012) who also reported that all the bacterial endophytes (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) were able to produce IAA in the presence of tryptophan. Several bacteria have the ability to anabolise 158 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” IAA supplemented with L- tryptophan isolated from plant surface. IAA producer bacterial isolates have the potential in different plant microbe interaction as phytohormones for colonization phytostimulation and also circumvent plant defence mechanism. It has been hypothesized that IAA of bacterial origin from the nodules is transported to other plant parts and dually occupied nodules serves as hot spot for lateral gene transfer of symbiotic gene from rhizobia(Dawwam et al 2013). Present study showed the presence of diverse non rhizobial endophytic bacteria in soybean nodules. Most common genera were Bacillus, Pseudomonas and Azotobacter with PGP traits. Presence of non-rhizobial putative endophytes with PGP traits is the first report from soybean in the present agroclimatic zone (Punjab) to the best our knowledge. Further studies are required to prove the endophytic nature of these isolates and to harness their potential as a biofertilizers in soybean under sustainable agriculture system. T11& T12: with tryptophan; T01 & T02: without tryptophan Percentage of non rhizobial endophytic bacteria showing indole acetic acid production (with and without tryptophan) in soybean references Bashan Y and de- Bashan LE (2010). How the plant growth- promoting bacterium Azospirillum promotes plant growth a critical assessment. Advances in Agronomy 108:77-136 Cappuccino J C and Sherman N (1992). In.Microbiology: A Laboratory Manual., New York, Pp 125-79. Dawwam G E, Eibeltagy A, Emara H M, Abbas I H and Hassan M M (2013).Beneficial effect of plant growth promoting bacteria isolated from the roots of potato plant. Annals of Agricultral Science 58:195-201 Gagne S, Richard C, Rousseau H and Antoun H (1987). Xylem residing bacteria in alfalfa roots. Can. J. M icrobiol 33: 996-1000. Gordon S A and Weber R P(1951. Colorimetric estimation of indole acetic acid. Plant Physiology 26: 192-95. Gray E J and Smith D L (2005).Intracellular and extracellular PGPR: commonalities and distinctions in the plant- bacterium signalling processes. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 37:395-12. Hamayun M, Khan S A, Khan A L, Shinwari Z K, Hussain J, Sohn E Y, Kang S M, Kim Y H, Khan M A and Lee I J (2010). Effect of salt stress on growth attributes and endogenous growth hormones of soybean cultivar Hwangkeumkong. Pak. J. Bot., 42: 3103-12. Hung P Q, Senthil M, Kumar V, Govindsamy and Annapurna K (2007). Isolation and characterization of endophytic bacteria from wild and cultivated soybean varieties. Biol Fertil Soils 44:155–62. Jensen H L (1942). Nitrogen fixation in leguminous plants. General characters of root nodules bacteria isolated from species of Medicago and Trifolium . Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 66:98-108. Joseph B, Patra R R and Lawrence R (2007).Characterization of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria associated with chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Intern. J. of Plant Production 1:141-51. Joshi P and Bhatt A B (2011).Diversity and function of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria associated with wheat rhizosphere in north Himalayan region. Intern. J. of Environ. Sci. 1:1135-43. Kumar A, Kumar A, Devi S, Patil S, Payal C and Negi S(2012). Isolation, screening and characterization of bacteria from rhizospheric soils for different plant growth promotion (PGP) activities: an in vitro study. Recent Research in 159 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Science and Technology 4: 1-5. Nautiyal C S (1999). An efficient microbiology growth medium for screening phosphate solubilising microorganisms. FEMS Microbiology Letters 170: 265-70. Palaniappan P, Chauhan P S, Saravanan V S, Anandham R and Sa T (2010). Isolation and characterization of plant growth promoting endophytic bacterial isolates from root nodule of Lespedeza sp. Biol. Fertil. Soils 46: 807-16. Patel A H, Patel K R, Khristi S M, Parikh K and Rajendran G (2012). Isolation and Characterization of bacterial endophytes from (Lycopersicon esculentum) plant and their plant growth promoting characteristics. Nepal Journal of Biotecnology.2:37-52. Ruchi, Kapoor R, Kumar A, Patil S, Thapa S and Kaur M (2012). Evaluation of plant growth promoting attributes and lytic enzyme production by fluorescent Pseudomonas diversity associated with Apple and Pear. Intern. J. Sci. Res. Pub. 2:1-8. Selvakumar G, Mohan M, Kundu S, Gupta A D, Joshi P, Nazim S and Gupta H S (2008). Cold tolerance and plant growth promotion potential of Serratia marcescens strains SRM (MTCC 8708) isolated from flowers of summer squash (Cucurbita pepo ). Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 46: 171-75. Sgroy V, Cassain F, Masciarelli O, Papa M F, Lagares A and Luna V (2009). Isolation and characterization of endophytic plant growth-promoting (PGPB) or stress homeostasis-regulating (PSHB) bacteria associated to the halophyte Prosopis strombulifera. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 85:371-81. 160 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XII eConomiC returns And enhAnCed QuALity in orChid (DenDrOBIum soniA 17 ) using BiosAfe ComPound- ChitosAn dr. sunilaKumari, dr. Jitendra singh, dr. Panj f. g. Asst. Professor/SMS (Horticulture), Principal Scientist (Hort.), Dept. of Hort., COA, IGKV, Raipur, Asst. Director Horticulture, State Dept. Of Hort., Govt. of Gujarat, Gandhinagar, Department of Horticulture, Collage Of Agriculture, Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Raipur (C.G.) *Corresponding authors present address: K.V.K., Navsari Agricultural University, Surat (Gujarat) E-mail: sunila.flora@gmail.com Abstract Increasing consumer demand and buoyant world market have promoted the status of orchid growing to an industry in our country which has led to higher focus on developing techniques to improve orchid quality and economics. Environment friendly inputs based on efficient use of natural resources are the need of present day planning, chitosan is one such compound. The present experiment was conducted under factorial completely randomized block design (Factorial CRD) with three factors replicated thrice at a net house to study the effect of chitosan foliar spray on orchid Dendrobium cv. Sonia. Results showed that chitosan significantly affected the yield, quality and thus the economics of orchid production. Chitosan treated plants yielded more number of spikes per meter square, greater spike length, increased internodal length, enhanced diameter of flower and more number of florets per spike. 7.5 ppm chitosan chlorohydrate applied thrice yielded 100 percent A grade spikes. The economics calculated showed the highest benefit cost ratio (B:C) in 7.5 ppm chitosan acetate applied four times and 7.5 ppm chitosan acetate applied thrice (3.22 and 3.16, respectively). Apart from all these effects of chitosan, the chitosan treated plants showed lesser disease and pest infestation and also resulted in better overall appearance of spikes. Thus chitosan can play an important role in designing a sustainable production technology for orchids. Key words: Dendrobium, chitosan, biosafe, quality improvement introduction Orchids are accepted to be the world’s most exotic and fascinating flowers, with extraordinary variety of sizes, shapes, colours and markings and are cosmopolitan occurring in almost all parts of world.The orchid cut flower industry is growing at an annual rate of 10-20% (Griesbach, 2002) and have immensely contributed to the economy of several developed and developing countries.With the increasing health consciousness and concern for environment, organic substitutes have drawn attention all over the world. Recently, role of Chitosan (a partially N-acetylated polymer of β-(1-4)-linked glucosamine) in improving production and quality of orchids has been indicated (Chandrkachanget al., 2005; Uthairatanakij et. al., 2007). It is gaining popularity as it is environment friendly and bio degradable. Chitosan is yet to receive scientific evaluation in India. Hence the present study was undertaken to evaluate and standardize the chitosan application for quality improvements of orchids and make orchid cultivation more profitable by reducing cost of cultivation. materials and methods Present experiment was carried under partially controlled net house at Department of horticulture, Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Raipur for two consecutive years during 2010-12. Two-year-old tissue culture plants of Dendrobium cv. Sonia were used as experimental material. The experiment was laid in Factorial Completely Randomized Design with additional control, with total thirty-three treatment combinations. The treatment combinations consisted of two different formulations of chitosan (CP1 and CP2) at four different concentrations (C1-2.5ppm, C2-5ppm, C3-7.5ppm, C4-10 ppm) and four different number of applications (A1-one spray, A2-two spray, A3- three spray). Foliar application of chitosan was carried out until run off, using a manual sprayer, at monthly interval. Observation on various yield and quality parameters were taken and subjected to suitable statistical analysis. results Results showed that chitosan significantly affected the yield and quality parameters under study and improvement was recorded with all the treatments as compared to control. Also significant variation was observed among chitosan formulation, their concentrations and application frequencies. Data are presented in table 1. 161 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Among the two chitosan formulations, chitosan acetate (P1) recorded, more number of flowers per meter square (144.05) and significantly longer vase life of spike (10.34 days) and more internodal length (2.80 cm). While, P2 recorded significantly longer spikes (30.78 cm), more florets per spike (7.48) and more flower diameter (6.97 cm).Among all the chitosan concentrations applied, 7.5 ppm (C3) was found to be beneficial for most characters and recorded maximum number of spike per plant (9.93), maximum number of spike per meter square (151.25), maximum spike length (32.87 cm), maximum number of floret per spike (8.45), maximum diameter of flower (7.92 cm), maximum internodal length (4.5 cm) and maximum vase life of spike (10.81 days). Three applications were found beneficial in most of the cases, and further more applications resulted in detrimental effects in most of the parameters under study. Three applications (A3) recorded maximum spike length (30.23 cm), maximum flowerdiameter (6.90 cm), maximum number of spike per plant (9.32) and maximum yield per m. sq. (139.27). Four applications (A4) recorded maximum vase life but they were at par with three applications (A3). The benefit to cost (B:C) ratio was highest in treatment combination P1C3A3 (7.5 ppm chitosan acetate applied thrice) and P1C3A4 (7.5 ppm chitosan acetate applied four times) and lowest in untreated control followed by P1C1A1 (2.5 ppm chitosan acetate applied once) (Table 3).Apart from all these effects of chitosan, the chitosan treated plants showed lesser disease and pest infestation, especially lesser leaf spots and mites infestation and also resulted in better overall appearance of spikes. discussion Flower quality parameters decide the significance of a particular variety suitable for commercial cultivation and the value it fetches in market. In addition to number of florets, the compactness and arrangement of florets in spike are the other two characters which govern the price of spike. Length of internode of spike should be optimum for proper display of flowers, ample clearance between successive florets is essential to prevent overcrowding of florets whereas more clearance leads to the ungainly, prominent exposure of spike. The length of internode of spike was more in in P1 treated plants. Chitosan acetate (P1) and C3 (7.5 ppm) recorded better vase life as compared to chitosan chlorohydrate (P2), which depends on spike length, flower diameter and number of florets per spike.Increase in vase life may be attributed to more photosynthates accumulated in chitosan treated plants. Similar results were reported by Chandrkrachang et al., (2005). Wanichpongpanet. al. (2001) had earlier reported that chitosan significantly enhanced growth factors in terms of the average values of flower-stem length as well as the number of flowers per bush in gerbera plants.In addition, chitosan may enhance growth and development by some signaling pathway related to auxin biosynthesis via a tryptophan-independent pathway (Uthairatanakijet. al., 2007). In case of quality parameters, higher concentration of chitosan was found to be detrimental and best treatment (7.5 ppm) was followed by 5 ppm (C2) rather than 10 ppm except in case of flower diameter which recorded an increase with increase in chitosan treatment. Similar results were reported by Tantasawatet. al., 2010, who reported no stimulatory effect of chitosan at higher concentrations.In the present study P1 produced more number of spikes per plant and also higher yield per meter square. The increased flower yield might be attributed to enhanced accumulation of photosynthates due to chitosan application (Chibu and Shiayama, 2001; Abdel-Mawgoudet al., 2010). Since Dendrobium orchid cultivation is an upcoming business opportunity especially in tropical belts of India, it is essential to work out economics. In the present study chitosan application was found to be beneficial in increasing the profits. Similarly, Walkaret al., 2004 found that the profit at different cost levels was maximum in case of orchid and the inputoutput ratio worked out to be 1 : 1.30 in orchid. The economics is directly related to yield, thus the present results in economics may be attributed to higher spike yield per plant and per meter square area. Thus present study proves Dendrobium cv. Sonia as a rewarding commercial crop, where cost of chemical can be reduced and quality can be significantly improved using chitosan application. These results are in accordance with that of Nagare and Pal (2008). Thus, chitosan is not only pollution safe, but nourishes the plant and less costly too (Delphineet al., 2005). Acknowledgment This research was supported byICAR, New Delhi in the form of PGS-SRF. The author thanks Multan Industries, Gujarat for supplying Chitosan in kind. 162 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1. : effect of chitosan foliar spray on yield and quality of Dendrobium cv. sonia 17 SN Treatments Spike Length No. floret/spike Spike diameter Internodal length vase life yield / m.sq. 1 Control 18.92 4.92 5.00 2.80 6.75 70.83 Products 2 P1 27.92 6.45 6.28 3.18 10.34 144.05 3 P2 30.78 7.48 6.97 3.14 9.73 124.64 SE 0.21 0.08 0.05 0.04 0.07 1.22 C. D 0.59 0.22 0.14 0.11 0.21 3.44 Concentrations 4 C1 24.91 5.94 5.21 3.10 9.25 128.44 5 C2 30.03 6.74 6.36 3.31 10.21 142.81 6 C3 32.87 8.45 7.92 4.50 10.81 151.25 7 C4 29.60 6.74 7.0 3.53 9.88 114.88 S.E. 0.30 0.11 0.07 0.05 0.10 1.72 C. D 0.83 0.31 0.20 0.15 0.30 4.87 no. of applications 8 A1 28.50 6.70 6.36 3.47 9.75 129.54 9 A2 29.41 6.86 6.66 3.61 9.94 133.17 10 A3 30.23 7.11 6.90 3.75 10.17 139.27 11 A4 29.26 7.19 6.60 3.62 10.29 135.40 12 S.E. 0.30 0.11 0.07 0.05 0.10 1.72 C. D 0.83 NS 0.20 0.15 0.30 4.87 Control vs rest S.E. 0.60 0.22 0.15 0.11 0.21 3.50 C. D 1.69 0.63 0.41 0.31 0.60 9.89 interactions S.E. C. D. S.E. C. D. S.E. C. D. S.E. C. D. S.E. C. D. S.E. C. D. 13 PXC 0.42 S 0.15 NS 0.10 S 0.08 S 0.15 S 2.44 S 14 PXA 0.42 NS 0.15 NS 0.10 NS 0.08 NS 0.15 NS 2.44 NS 15 CXA 0.59 NS 0.22 NS 0.14 NS 0.11 NS 0.21 NS 3.45 NS 16 P XC XA 0.83 NS 0.31 NS 0.20 NS 0.15 NS 0.30 NS 4.88 NS C.V.% 4.98 7.75 5.35 7.29 table 2:Cost* of production of orchid (Dendrobium cv. sonia) excluding Chitosan treatment Details of area and plant population Total no. of plants @ 16 pt per m2 (25 cm x 25 cm) = 21860 Total area of green house = 2000 m2 Grossed planted area = 1366.2 m 2 items cost * A. Fixed cost 1 Planting material @ 120 per plant (3 yrs life) 874400 2 Net House @Rs. 1000 per m (life 25 yrs) 80000 2 3 Shed net @ 30 per msq (life 4 yrs) 15000 4 Repair and maintenance @2% of total fixed cost 19388 B. Cost of Cultivation 163 5.17 6.38 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 4 Growing medium per plant @Rs 20/plant/year 437200 5 Chemicals (like fertilizer, pesticides except chitosan treatments) @ Rs 1.47 per plant per year 32134.2 6 Labor (365 man days @ 120 per day) 43800 7 Miscellaneous @ 2% of cost of cultivation 10262.684 Grand Total (A+B) 1512184.884 Total cost of production excluding Chitosan Treatment (X) = 1512184.884 = rs. 1512185 2 note: rental value of land is not included, * Cost per 2000 m for one year table 3:economics of chitosan treatments Treatment Cost of cultivation Cost of chitosan treatment (Y) Total (X+Y) Gross Income Net return Cost Benefit Ratio (CBR) P1C1A1 11 1512196 3048334 1536138 1.02 P1C1A2 22 1512207 3256110 1743903 1.15 P1C1A3 33 1512218 3600506 2088289 1.38 P1C1A4 44 1512229 3665970 2153741 1.42 P1C2A1 22 1512207 3610943 2098736 1.39 P1C2A2 44 1512229 3840540 2328311 1.54 P1C2A3 66 1512250 4612823 3100572 2.05 P1C2A4 87 1512272 4764623 3252350 2.15 P1C3A1 33 1512218 5464800 3952582 2.61 P1C3A2 66 1512250 5382259 3870008 2.56 P1C3A3 98 1512283 6293059 4780775 3.16 P1C3A4 131 1512316 6386985 4874669 3.22 P1C4A1 44 1512229 3080212 1567983 1.04 P1C4A2 87 1512272 3335426 1823153 1.21 P1C4A3 131 1512316 3975263 2462946 1.63 P1C4A4 175 1512360 3443393 1931033 1.28 P2C1A1 6 1512191 2943023 1430831 0.95 P2C1A2 12 1512197 3207724 1695527 1.12 P2C1A3 18 1512203 3557813 2045609 1.35 P2C1A4 25 1512209 4064445 2552236 1.69 P2C2A1 12 1512197 4098600 2586403 1.71 P2C2A2 25 1512209 4512255 3000046 1.98 P2C2A3 37 1512222 4732365 3220143 2.13 P2C2A4 49 1512234 4499921 2987687 1.98 P2C3A1 18 1512203 5165944 3653740 2.42 P2C3A2 37 1512222 5612805 4100583 2.71 P2C3A3 55 1512240 6147900 4635660 3.07 P2C3A4 74 1512258 5840505 4328247 2.86 P2C4A1 25 1512209 3441116 1928907 1.28 P2C4A2 49 1512234 3375653 1863419 1.23 P2C4A3 74 1512258 3256110 1743852 1.15 P2C4A4 98 1512283 3109054 1596771 1.06 Control 0 1512185 1532231 20046 0.01 164 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” references Abdel-Mawgoud, A.M.R, Tantawy, A.S., El-Nemr, M.A., Sassine, Y.N., 2010.Growth and yield responses of strawberry plants to chitosan application. European J. Sci. Res. 1450-216X 39(1), 161-168. Chandrkrachang, S., Sompongchaikul, P., Sangtain, S., 2005. Profitable spin off from using chitosan in orchid farming in Thailand.J. of Metals, Materials and Minerals. 15, 45-48. Chibu, H., Shibayama, H., 2001. Effects of chitosan applications on the growth of several crops, in: Uragami, T., Kurita, K., Fukamizo, T., (Eds.), Chitin and Chitosan in Life Science, Yamaguchi, pp. 235–239. Delphine, V., Catherine, L., Brigitte, P., Gabriel C., Luc, N., and Michel, Z. 2005.Water Deficits Affect Caffeate O-Methyltransferase, Lignification, and Related Enzymes in Maize Leaves.A Proteomic Investigation.Plant Physiology, 137: 949-960. Griesbach, R. J., 2002. Development of Phalaenopsis Orchids for the Mass-Market. In: Janick, J., Whipkey, A., (eds.), Trends in new crops and new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA. pp. 458–465. Nagare, V. S. and Pal, R., 2008. Cultivating potted orchids fetches more. Indian Hort., 24-26. Tantasawat, P., Wannajindaporn, A., Chantawaree, C., Wangpunga, C., Poomsom, K., Sorntip, A., 2010. Chitosan Stimulates Growth of Micro propagated Plantlets.ActaHorti.No.: 878. Uthairatanakij, A., Jaime, A., Teixeira da Silva, Kullanart O., 2007. Chitosan for Improving Orchid Production and Quality. Orchid Sci. Biotec. 1(1), 1-5. Walker, R., Morris, S., Brown, P. and Gracie, A. 2004.Evaluation of potential for chitosan to enhance plant defense. Publication No. 04.of Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. Australia. 55. Wanichpongpan, P., Suriyachan, K., Chandrkrachang, S., 2001. Effect of chito- san on the growth of Gerbera flower plant (Gerbera jamesonii).Chitin and chitosan: Chitin and Chitosan in Life Science, Yamaguchi, Japan, pp.198-201. 165 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XIII effeCt of miCroBiAL inoCuLAtion in PotAto (sOlAnum tuBerOsum L.) on soiL miCrofLorA d s Khurana, madhu gangwar, sakshi verma, Kulbir singh and hira singh Department of Vegetable Science, PAU Ludhiana-141 004 Abstract The present investigation was undertaken on three kinds of inoculants namely Azospirillum, Azotobactor and phosphorous solublising bacteria (PSB). The potato tubers were pretreated with these biofertilizer cultures each at the rate of 250g/acre. The potato crop was planted on ridges maintaining a distance of 60 x 20 cm. Microbial counts in the rhizhosphere of potato was recorded at the time of planting, 15 days after planting, 45 days after sowing and at the time of harvesting. It was evident from the study that microbial densities of the Azotobactor, Azospirillum and phosphorous solublising bacteria (PSB) reached their maximum level after 45 days of planting of potato which is the peak period of growth. These distinguished increases in count through these stages indicated that bacterial counts were positively influenced by the plant root exudates and surplus of nutrients. Afterwards, the population of bacteria tended to decrease to maturity stage. The plots without inoculation of any bacteria and application of chemical fertilizer did not differ significantly than inoculated ones initially at the time of planting, but during rest of the stages they recorded minimum bacterial count as compared to inoculated thus signifying the role of biofertilizers in improved soil fertility in terms of living matter. introduction The use of biofertilizers like Azospirillum and Azotobacter, Phosphorus solubilizers improve soil fertility and these are cost effective, eco-friendly and renewable source of plant nutrients to supplement the chemical fertilizers. These are low cost inputs and are known to increase the efficiency of nutrients in the soil (Indiresh et al 2003). Biofertilizers are coming up as an alternative for sustainable production of crops. Many of such organisms fix nitrogen and reduce the quantity of nitrogenous fertilizers to be used for raising good crops.The beneficial effects of biofertilizers are related not only to their nitrogen fixing efficiency but they also produce antibiotics for biological control of soil borne diseases resulting in improved germination and seedling growth. They also increase the tolerance in plants against different kinds of biotic and aboitic stresses. Integrated application of half of the recommended dose of fertilizer + biofertilizers (Azotobacter, Azospirillum and Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria) could produce more or less the same economic yields besides a saving half of the recommended dose of N and P (Kumar and Shivay 2010). Biofertilizers act as complementary to fertilizer and their use is an economic proposition. There is need to study the interaction between mineral fertilizers, organic manures and biofertilizers in the nutrient cycling processes and to optimize the use of all sources. The literature pertaining to the use of biofertilizers in vegetable crops particularly in potato is meager. This study reveals the impact of the biofertilizers on the fertility status of soil with the inoculation of potato with cultures of Azotobacter, Azospirillum and Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria (PSB). material and methods The experiment was carried out in the Department of Vegetable Science and Department of Microbiology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The study was conducted in randomized complete block design replicated thrice. The cultures of various biofertilizers were synthesized in the laboratories of the Department of Microbiology, The seed tubers of Kufri Chandramukhi treated with various biofertilizers were sown in 2nd fortnight of October. The required quantities of the cultures of Azospirillum, Azotobacter and PSB were dissolved in a small quantity of 10% jiggery and seed tubers were dipped for one hour. The tubers were sown in the field in the 2nd fortnight of October. The treatments include Azospirillum+75% N,P,K, Azospirillum+ N,P,K, Azotobacter+75% N,P,K, Azotobacter+N,P,K, PSB+75% N,P,K, PSB+ N,P,K and un-inoculated (only FYM ). There were twenty seven plots and dimensions of each plot were 8m X 5m = 40 m2. All the agronomic practices and plant protection measures were taken as per Package and Practices for Cultivation of Vegetables, PAU Ludhiana, to 166 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” raise the crop. The soil samples were taken three times from all the experimental plots in order to analyze the microbial population i.e. at the time of sowing, 45 DAS and at the time of harvesting. The soil samples were collected from near the plant roots at a depth of 0-15 cm. The data was subjected to the statistical analysis by the method of analysis of variance. results and discussions The data show periodical changes of Azotobacter, Azospirillum and phosphate dissolving bacteria with rhizosphere of potato plants. Microbial densities of pre-mentioned bacterial group gradually increased with the increasing growth period to reach their maximum values at 45 days, which is the active period of plant growth. These distinguished increases in count through these stages indicated that the bacterial counts were positively influenced by the plant root exudates and surplus of nutrients. Afterwards, the population tended to decrease to reach maturity stage. The trend recorded in all the treatments was uniform. The plots without inoculation of any bacteria and application of chemical fertilizer did not differ so much than inoculated ones initially at time of sowing but during remaining stages of plant growth; they gave minimum bacterial count for the bacterial group compared to inoculated ones. The rhizosphere of potato plants inoculated with Azospirillum and Azotobacter and receiving 75% nitrogen gave bacterial densities of Azospirillum and Azotobacter with an average count of 1.70 X 103and 1.55 X 103cfu/g respectively at 15 days after sowing. It gradually gave higher densities of both the bacteria during the stage of earthen up and harvesting with average counts of 4.42 X 104 and 4.90 X 104 cfu/g of Azospirillum and Azotobacter, respectively, which was recorded higher in bacterial count than the plants where applied recommended dose of fertilizers along with bacterial inoculation. It is well known that Azospirillum and Azotobacter not only provide nitrogen but also produce a variety of growth promoting substances. These substances stimulate at least to some degree, the production of root exudates which in turn affect their numbers. The results may indicate that the introduced inoculum has the ability to survive and colonize the root zone of potato plants. Similar results were obtained by Abdel Ali et al (1996) and Saleh et al (1998) who recorded similar trends of bacterial growth in potato at different stages of growth. On further perusal of data, it was noticed that bacterial densities of phosphorus solubilizing bacteria in the rhizosphere of potato plants receiving 75% phosphorus was recorded as 4.87 X 105 at the 15 days after sowing. This count gradually increased to 6.25 X 106 at the time of earthing up and 6.25 X 106 and 5.88 X 106 at the time of harvesting. This bacterial count was recorded to be higher as compared to the inoculated plants applied with recommended dose of fertilizer. Regarding the densities of phosphate dissolving bacteria, as well known it have the capacity to bring insoluble phosphorus in soil into soluble form by producing organic acids. The obtained data show that rhizosphere of potato plants receiving inoculation with phosphate solubilizing bacteria along with 75% phosphorus gave higher densities throughout all the stages of plant growth as compared to plants amended with recommended phosphorus along with bacterial inoculation. However, lowest densities were obtained in the rhizosphere of plants where no bacterial inoculation was received by the plants and no chemical fertilizer was applied to the plants. This may be due to the preinoculation of potato tubers with phosphate solubilizing bacteria before planting. These results are in accordance with Abdel Magid et al (1996) who recorded similar trends of bacterial growth in sandy soils. It is noteworthy to mention that rhizosphere of potato plants inoculated with phosphate solubilizing bacteria for any applied treatment led to higher densities of studied bacteria as compared to the un-inoculated treatments. Mahmoud (2006) and Bakry et al (2009) reported similar results in their study where they find that pre-inoculation of bacteria encourage proliferation of soil micro organisms. These results assured the vital role of relationship between both of phosphate solubilizing bacteria and nitrogen fixing bacteria used in this study. Conclusion The findings revealed that microbial densities of the Azospirillum, Azotobacter and PSB increased gradually with the increasing growth period to reach their maximum values at 45 days interval after sowing. The rhizosphere of potato plants inoculated with mentioned bacteria either reduced nitrogen and phosphorus or recommended nitrogen and phosphorus gave higher densities over un-inoculated potato plants. Thus, results indicate that inoculum has the ability to survive and colonize in the root zone of potato plants. In addition to this they also increased the availability of nitrogen and potassium in plant rhizosphere. 167 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1: soil bacteria count at the time of sowing in the rhizosphere of potato Treatments Bacterial count (cfu/g) 2010 2011 Pooled mean Azospirillum + 75% N + Recommended P and K (T1) 1.00 X 10 3 Azospirillum + Recommended N, P, K (T2) 1.00 X 10 3 Uninoculated (only FYM) 1.06 X 103 1.21 X 103 1.14 X 103 Azotobacter + 75% N + Recommended P and K (T3) 2.09 X 10 2.18 X 10 3 2.14 X 103 Azotobacter + Recommended N, P, K (T4) 2.15 X 103 2.23 X 103 2.19 X 103 Uninoculated (only FYM) 2.17 X 103 2.25 X 103 2.21 X 103 PSB + 75% P + Recommended Nand K ( T5) 4.23 X 10 4.34 X 10 5 4.29 X 105 PSB + Recommended N, P, K (T6) 4.20 X 105 4.30 X 105 4.25 X 105 Uninoculated (only FYM) 4.25 X 10 4.28 X 10 4.27 X 105 3 5 5 1.17 X 10 3 1.09 X 103 1.22 X 10 3 1.11 X 103 5 table 2: soil bacteria count at 15 days after sowing in the rhizosphere of potato treatments 2010 1.63 X 103 1.47 X 103 1.10 X 103 2.50 X 103 2.37 X 103 2.17 X 103 4.77 X 105 4.53 X 105 4.28 X 105 Azospirillum + 75% N + Recommended P and K (T1) Azospirillum + Recommended N, P, K (T2) Uninoculated (only FYM) Azotobacter + 75% N + Recommended P and K (T3) Azotobacter + Recommended N, P, K (T4) Uninoculated (only FYM) PSB + 75% P + Recommended Nand K ( T5) PSB + Recommended N, P, K (T6) Uninoculated (only FYM) Bacterial count (cfu/g) 2011 Pooled mean 3 1.77 X 10 1.70 X 103 1.64 X 103 1.55 X 103 1.24 X 103 1.17 X 103 3 2.68 X 10 2.59 X 103 2.48 X 103 2.43 X 103 2.29 X 103 2.23 X 103 4.96 X 105 4.87 X 105 5 4.71 X 10 4.62 X 105 4.39 X 105 4.34 X 105 table 3: soil bacteria count after 45 days of sowing in the rhizosphere of potato treatments 2010 4.37 X 104 3.56 X 104 2.80 X 104 4.83 X 104 3.64 X 104 2.79 X 104 6.19 X 106 5.54 X 106 4.84 X 106 Azospirillum + 75% N + Recommended P and K (T1) Azospirillum + Recommended N, P, K (T2) Uninoculated (only FYM) Azotobacter + 75% N + Recommended P and K (T3) Azotobacter + Recommended N, P, K (T4) Uninoculated (only FYM) PSB + 75% P + Recommended Nand K ( T5) PSB + Recommended N, P, K (T6) Uninoculated (only FYM) 168 Bacterial count (cfu/g) 2011 4.46 X 104 3.67 X 104 2.92 X 104 4.96 X 104 3.73 X 104 2.95 X 104 6.30 X 106 5.66 X 106 4.99 X 106 Pooled mean 4.42 X 104 3.62 X 104 2.86 X 104 4.90 X 104 3.69 X 104 2.87 X 104 6.25 X 106 5.60 X 106 4.92 X 106 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 4: soil bacteria count after harvesting in the rhizosphere of potato Treatments Bacterial count (cfu/g) 2010 2011 Azospirillum + 75% N + Recommended P and K (T1) 2.81 X 104 2.92 X 104 2.87 X 104 Azospirillum + Recommended N, P, K (T2) 1.75 X 10 1.87 X 10 4 1.81 X 104 Uninoculated (only FYM) 1.33 X 104 1.40 X 104 1.37 X 104 Azotobacter + 75% N + Recommended P and K (T3) 2.88 X 10 2.97 X 10 4 2.93 X 104 Azotobacter + Recommended N, P, K (T4) 1.95 X 104 2.08 X 104 2.02 X 104 Uninoculated (only FYM) 1.45 X 10 1.58 X 10 4 1.52 X 104 PSB + 75% P + Recommended Nand K ( T5) 5.82 X 106 5.94 X 106 5.88 X 106 PSB + Recommended N, P, K (T6) 5.05 X 106 5.17 X 106 5.11 X 106 Uninoculated (only FYM) 4.43 X 10 4.57 X 10 4.50 X 106 4 4 4 6 Pooled mean 6 references Abdel-Ali Y Y, Hammad A M and Ali M Z H (1996) Nitrogen fixing and phosphate dissolving bacteria as biofertilizers for potato plants under Minia conditions. 1st Egyptian Hungarian Horticultural Conf. 15-17 Sept, 1996. pp. 25-34. Kafr El-Sheikh, Egypt. Abdel Magid H M, Rabie R K, Sabrah R E A and Abdel-Ali I (1996) The interrelationship between microbial numbers, application rate and biodegradation in a sandy soil. Arab Gulf J Sci Res 14(3): 614-57. Bakry M A, Paras M M and Abass M M (2009) Effect of organic and inorganic soil amendments combined with mineral fertilizers on the fertility of calcareous soil and its productivity. Minufia J Agric Res 34(6): 2243-60. Indiresh K M, Sreeramulu K R, Venkatesh S V and Pandey S K (2003) Response of potato to biofertilizers at graded levels of chemical fertilizers. J Indian Potato Assoc 30: 79-80. Kumar V and Shivay Y S (2010) Integrated Nutrient Management: an ideal approach for enhancing agricultural production and productivity. Indian J Fert 6: 41-53. Mahmoud M R (2006) Residual effect of compost and biofertilizers on maize yield and some soil chemical properties. Assiut J Agric Sci. 37(2): 87-200 Saleh E A, Nokhal T H, El-Borollosy M A, Fendrik I, Sharaf M S and Sawy M (1998) Effectiveness of dual inoculation with diazotrophs and vesicular arbusuclar mycorrhizae on growth and medicinal compounds of Datura stramonium. Arab J Agric Sci 6(2):343-55. 169 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XIV effeCt of inorgAniC fertiLizer, orgAniC mAnure And Bio-fertiLizer on groWth, yieLd And QuALity of PLum Cv. sAntA rosA Archana Chauhan and neena Chauhan Department of Fruit Science, Dr. Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan. HP Abstract An experiment was conducted to study the effect of integrated nutrient management in plum (Prunus salicina Lindl.) cv. Santa Rosa. In this experiment there were 19 treatments, including recommended dose of fertilizer as control and 18 treatment combinations of fertilizer (3 doses: 80%, 60% and 40% recommended dose of fertilizer), vermicompost (3 doses: 10 kg, 15 kg and 20 kg tree-1) and bio-fertilizer (2 doses: 40 g and 60 g tree-1). Results revealed that Trunk girth (69.60 cm and 70.00 cm during 2006 and 2007, respectively), shoot extension growth (35.00 cm in 2006 and 38.45 cm in 2007), increased appreciably with the combined application of 80% recommended dose of fertilizer, 20 kg vermicompost and 60 g bio-fertilizer as compared to control. Fruit yield and quality were recorded with the combined application of 80% recommended dose of fertilizer, 20 kg vermicompost and 60 g bio-fertilizer (F1V3B3 treatment) during both the years of study. Bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes population in plum orchard soil was significantly improved by the combined application of fertilizer, vermicompost and bio-fertilizer. Thus an integrated application of organic manures along with bio-fertilizers and chemical fertilizers better option for enhancing the yield of quality fruits in plum besides maintaining the soil health. Key words: Biofertilizer, vermicompost, plum, fruit quality, soil microflora Plum (Prunus salicina Lindl.) is an important fruit crop of temperate regions of world. During the last few years, production of quality plum has declined due to various reasons viz., depletion of soil fertility, drought and climatic variation, etc. Growth of trees and production of fruits depletes the soil of its macro and micronutrients reserve resulting in reduction of native fertility. Increasing cost of chemical fertilizers and widening gap between demand and supply, degradation in soil health, lack of sustainability and pollution have led to renewed interest in the use of organic manures and bio-fertilizers along with chemical fertilizers which regulate the nutrient uptake, improve crop yield and physical status of soil. Use of bio-fertilizers in enhancing plant growth and yield has gained momentum in recent years. Azotobacter and arbuscular mycorrhizae fungi have been found to enhance growth and production of various fruit plants significantly (Khanizadeh et al., 1995 and Dibut et al., 1996) beside, improving the microbiological activity in the rhizosphere (Camprubi et al., 1995). VAM fungi have been proposed as a low input solution, because they are able to increase fertilizers use efficiency. Vermicompost is a rich source of macro and micronutrients, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics, growth hormones and immobilized microflora. This generally improves the soil physical, chemical and biological properties along with conserving and improving the moisture holding capacity of the soil. Use of chemical fertilizers must be integrated through more economic and ecofriendly organic manure and bio-fertilizers to achieve substantial productivity with minimum deleterious effect of chemical fertilizers on soil health and environment. Therefore, integrated management of nutrients will be helpful for sustaining the plum cultivation over a longer period of time. material and methods A field experiment on Integrated Nutrient Management in Plum (Prunus salicina Lindl.) cv. Santa Rosa was conducted in the Experiment Orchard of the Department of Pomology, Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan during 2006–07. The soil was clay loam with pH 6.65, organic carbon 1.34%. Soil were having biological properities viz; Bacteria 14.45 (x107 CFU/g), Fungi 7.56 (x104 CFU/g), Actinoncycetes 12.50 (x104 CFU/g) Azotobacter 6.55 (x106CFU/g) and Mycorrhizae spore population were 75per 50 g soil. Different treatments were viz; T1 Recommended dose of fertilizer-control, T2 Inorganic fertilizers, 3viz; f1-80 per cent of recommended dose f2 -60 per cent of recommended dose f3 - 40 per cent of recommended dose, T3 Vermicompost, 3 viz; v1-10 kg tree -1 v2-15 kg tree -1 v3-20 kg tree -1 and T4 Bio-fertilizers (VAM+ Azotobacter), 2 viz; B1 -40 g tree -1 B2 -60 g tree -1 . Total numbers of treatments were 19 with 18 treatment combination. Vesicular Arbuscular mycrorrhizae (VAM) and Azotobacter were procured from Division of 170 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Microbiology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. Vermicompost was prepared at experimental farm of Department of Pomology, Dr. Y.S. Parmer, University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, H.P by using Eisenia foetida (Red worm) species of earthworm. Vermicompost was applied in the last week of February in the tree basin. Biofertilizers (VAM + Azotobacter) were applied in equal proportion during March through band application at 15 cm depth, after complete mixing with 4-5 kg of FYM followed by light irrigation. Varying proportion of inorganic fertilizers was applied in different treatments, while full dose of recommended fertilizers were applied only in control trees. Full dose of FYM, P and K were applied during December, half N during spring before flowering and remaining half dose was applied one month after first application. Fertilizers were broadcasted under the spread of trees, 30cm away from trunk and mixed with soil. The growth parameters like trunk girth and annual shoot growth were recorded at the end of growing season (December). After harvest fruit yield and physic chemical analysis of fruits were done with the standard procedure of AOAC (1990). The soil samples were collected during the month of June from 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm depth under the drip line of each experimental tree with the help of screw type auger for estimating the soil microflora. The population of AM fungi was determined by spore isolation through wet sieving and decanting method (Gerdemann and Nicolson, 1963). The isolated spores were examined under stereoscopic microscope for counting the number of AM spores. result and discussion tree growth The tree growth significantly increased with the combined application of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer. Highest trunk girth (69.60 cm and 70.00 cm during 2006, 2007) and shoot extension growth (35.00cm and 38.45 cm during 2006, 2007) was observed in F1V3B2 treatment during both the years of study. The increase in plant growth with fertilizer, vermicompost and bio-fertilizer might be due to increased uptake of nutrients, availability of ideal soil moisture as well as increased release of growth factors in the root zone. Increased up-take of N and increase in the release of growth factors like auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins in the root zone has been reported by different workers (Awasthi et al., 1998, ElMaksoud, 1988 and Gonolez et al., 1997). The balanced application of vermicompost, Azotobacter and inorganic fertilizers has been reported to maintain soil aeration, regulate temperature, moisture, macro and micronutrients status of the soil (Acevedo and Pire, 2004) and this result in improved growth of papaya plants. fruit yield and Quality Fruit yield increased markedly with the integrated application of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer. Maximum yield (25.17 and 28.00 kg/tree) was observed in F1V3B2 treatment during the period of study. The higher yield with different combinations of organic and inorganic sources might be attributed to sustained availability of major as well as minor elements which is evident from higher accumulation of nutrient elements in plum leaves and more balanced C/N ratio (Rathi and Bisth, 2004). The application of higher dose of vermicompost (V3 20 kg tree -1) significantly increased the fruit yield. Vermicompost serve as base for establishment and multiplication of beneficial symbiotic microbes which helps in fixing nitrogen in soil, besides enhancing the availability of phosphate and nitrogen and uptake of phosphate by plants (Sinha et al., 2005). Fruit yield increased significantly with the application of bio-fertilizer @ 60 g tree-1. The results are in agreement with those of Sharma et al. (1998 and 2005) in apple. The highest increase in quality parameters viz; fruit weight (42.14g and 46.88 g during 2006, 2007), fruit length (41.32 mm and 43.16 during 2006, 2007), fruit diameter (41.33mm and 42.54mm during 2006, 2007), TSS (15.87 and 16.70 %) and acidity (0.92 and 0.92 %) was observed in F1V3B2 treatment combinations. The improvement in fruit quality might be due to improvement in physical properties of soil and increased growth of soil microorganisms (Chattopadhyay, 1994). Rana and Chandel (2003) also reported increase in TSS and total sugars content with Azotobacter + 80 kg N/ha in strawberry. Fruit weight, volume, size, sugars, TSS, ascorbic acid and lowest acidity were significantly influenced by the application of higher doses of vermicompost (20 kg tree-1). The increase in fruit size and weight could be attributed to improvement in nutrient availability (Sudhakar et al., 2002), soil physical condition (Maheswarappa et al., 1999b) and enzymatic activity (Marinari et al., 2000). Pereira and Mitra (1999) also reported that fruit quality (TSS, vitamin C and TSS/acid ratio) being superior with organic manure applied alone as compared to inorganic fertilizer which corroborates the present findings. Maximum fruit size and weight were observed with higher dose of biofertilizer (B2 60 g tree -1). Different workers have reported higher fruit weight with VAM and Azotobacter inoculation in fruit crops (Ram and Rajput, 2000, Manjunatha et al., 2002, Osman, 2003 and Dey et al., 2005). The increase in fruit size, fruit weight and volume might be due to the increased accumulation of dry matter and efficient partitioning of photo assimilates toward the sink by bio-fertilizer 171 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” inoculum (Rana and Chandel, 2003). TSS content of fruits was significantly improved by bio-fertilizer application @ 60g tree-1 Ram and Rajput (2000), Balakrishnan et al. (2001), Rathi and Bist (2004) and Dey et al. (2005) also observed higher TSS content of fruits with the inoculation of different strains of VAM and Azotobacter. soil Biological Properties In the present investigation, higher soil microbial population was recorded with application of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer treatment combinations. The highest bacterial, actinomycetes, VAM spore populations were observed in F1V3B2 treatment, while fungal population was highest under F1V3B1 treatment during both the years of study. Highest Azotobacter count were recorded in F1V3B2 treatment in 2006 and in 2007, it was higher in F1V3B1 treatment. Yadav and Chaudhary (1999) recorded significant increase in microbial population with addition of organic manures. Organic amendments produced more microbial biomass than inorganic fertilizers because they increase the proportion of labile carbon and nitrogen, directly stimulating the activity of microorganisms. Similar results were reported earlier by Godara (1993), Rathore and Singh (1995) and Tiwari et al. (1999), who reported increased microbial population in soil with biofertilizers and graded doses of inorganic fertilizers. table 1. effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and bio-fertilizer on trunk girth (cm) of plum cv. santa rosa a) Comparison between treatment group and control 2006 2007 Treatment group 61.93 62.61 Control 59.20 59.62 CD0.05 0.85 0.64 b) fxv and fxB interactions Treatment 2006 2007 V1 V2 V3 B1 B2 Mean F1 F2 F3 mean 64.81 59.12 55.26 59.73 67.42 62.99 57.02 62.48 69.12 63.96 57.65 63.58 66.27 61.36 56.04 61.22 67.97 62.69 57.25 62.64 67.12 65.43 67.92 62.03 60.26 63.60 56.64 56.10 57.67 60.60 63.06 CD0.05 F V B 0.45 0.46 0.37 FxV FxB 0.78 0.64 V1 F V B V2 V3 B1 B2 69.51 64.68 58.35 64.18 66.72 62.37 56.90 62.00 68.52 63.33 57.84 63.23 FxV FxB 0.59 0.48 0.34 0.34 0.28 mean 67.62 62.85 57.37 c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 B1 2007 B1 B2 B2 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 F1 64.42 65.75 68.65 65.20 69.10 69.60 64.87 66.27 69.03 65.99 69.58 70.00 F2 58.10 62.57 63.40 60.15 63.41 64.53 59.43 63.17 64.51 61.09 64.03 64.86 F3 mean 55.27 59.26 55.85 61.39 57.00 63.02 55.26 60.20 58.18 63.56 58.30 64.14 56.17 60.16 56.50 61.98 58.03 63.85 56.02 61.03 58.84 64.15 58.67 64.51 CD0.05 VxB FxVxB 0.64 1.11 VxB FxVxB 0.48 0.83 172 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 2: effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer on shoot extension growth (cm) of plum cv. santa rosa a) Comparison between treatment group and control Treatment group Control CD0.05 2006 2007 27.54 24.00 0.31 29.97 26.20 0.27 b) fxv and fxB interactions Treatment f1 f2 f3 mean CD0.05 2006 V1 29.00 27.17 22.57 26.25 V2 31.42 27.56 23.99 27.66 F V B 0.16 0.16 0.13 V3 34.25 27.52 24.33 28.70 B1 B2 31.17 27.36 23.53 27.35 31.95 27.48 23.73 27.72 FxV FxB 0.28 0.23 mean 31.56 27.42 23.63 2007 v1 v2 v3 B1 B2 31.52 27.18 24.88 28.53 33.72 30.02 25.96 29.90 37.65 29.81 26.95 31.47 33.93 29.82 25.78 29.84 34.66 29.53 26.08 30.09 F V B 0.15 0.15 0.12 FxV FxB 0.25 0.21 mean 34.30 29.67 25.93 c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 B1 2007 B2 B1 B2 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 f1 29.00 31.00 f2 f3 mean 26.35 22.30 25.88 27.23 23.95 27.39 33.50 28.50 24.34 28.78 29.00 28.00 22.85 26.62 31.85 27.89 24.03 27.92 35.00 26.55 24.32 28.62 31.50 27.95 24.76 28.07 33.45 30.00 25.42 29.62 36.85 31.50 27.15 31.83 31.55 30.42 25.00 28.99 33.98 30.05 26.50 30.18 38.45 28.13 26.75 31.11 Cd0.05 VxB FxVxB 0.23 0.40 VxB FxVxB 0.21 0.36 B2 26.78 23.58 20.68 23.68 mean 26.67 23.58 20.94 table 3. effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer on yield (Kg/tree) of plum cv. santa rosa a) Comparison between treatment group and control Treatment group Control CD0.05 2006 2007 22.27 19.79 0.27 23.73 22.73 0.20 b) fxv and fxB interactions Treatment 2006 v1 f1 22.37 f2 19.67 f3 16.94 mean 19.66 v2 23.21 20.95 17.84 20.67 v3 24.58 21.31 18.48 21.46 B1 23.08 20.26 17.47 20.27 B2 23.69 21.03 18.03 20.92 mean 23.39 20.65 17.75 173 2007 v1 25.54 23.07 20.27 v2 26.60 23.22 21.03 22.96 23.61 v3 27.87 24.46 21.54 24.62 B1 26.56 23.59 21.21 23.79 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cd0.05 F V 0.14 0.14 B 0.12 FxV FxB 0.25 0.20 F V B 0.11 0.11 0.09 FxV 0.19 FxB 0.15 c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 2007 B1 B2 B1 B2 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 f1 f2 f3 mean 22.19 18.65 16.39 19.07 23.06 20.91 17.62 20.53 24.00 21.22 18.40 21.21 22.55 20.70 17.49 20.24 23.36 21.00 18.06 20.81 25.17 21.40 18.55 21.71 25.58 22.75 19.54 22.62 26.36 23.85 21.87 24.03 27.75 24.17 22.24 24.72 25.50 23.40 21.00 23.30 26.83 22.58 20.19 23.20 28.00 24.75 20.83 24.53 Cd0.05 VxB 0.20 FxVxB 0.35 VxB FxVxB 0.15 0.26 table 4. effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer on fruit weight (g) of plum cv. santa rosa a) Comparison between treatment group and control Treatment group 2006 2007 37.58 41.91 Control 35.60 40.40 CD0.05 1.05 1.34 b) fxv and fxB interactions Treatment 2006 2007 v1 v2 v3 B1 B2 mean v1 v2 v3 B1 B2 mean f1 39.64 40.41 41.48 40.27 40.74 40.51 43.84 44.18 46.01 44.30 45.06 44.68 f2 36.13 37.93 39.23 37.14 38.40 37.77 41.08 41.23 42.70 41.60 41.74 41.67 f3 32.22 35.98 35.20 33.19 35.74 34.47 38.87 39.38 39.85 38.54 40.19 39.37 mean 36.00 38.11 38.64 36.87 38.30 41.27 41.60 42.85 41.48 42.33 Cd0.05 F 0.56 FxV 0.97 F 0.72 FxV NS V 0.56 FxB 0.79 V 0.72 FxB NS B 0.46 B 0.58 c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 2007 B1 F1 B2 B1 B2 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 39.68 40.33 40.81 39.60 40.49 42.14 43.77 44.00 45.13 43.92 44.37 46.88 F2 35.30 36.97 39.13 36.97 38.90 39.33 40.97 41.23 42.60 41.20 41.23 42.80 F3 31.24 33.18 35.15 33.20 38.78 35.25 36.87 38.50 40.27 40.88 40.27 39.43 Mean 35.41 36.83 38.36 36.59 39.39 38.91 40.53 41.24 42.67 42.00 41.96 43.04 174 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CD0.05 VxB 0.79 VxB NS FxVxB 1.37 FxVxB 1.75 table 5. effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer on fruit length (mm) of plum cv. santa rosa a) Comparison between treatment group and control Treatment group Control CD0.05 2006 2007 38.31 37.00 0.43 41.77 40.50 0.42 b) fxv and fxB interactions Treatment f1 f2 f3 Mean Cd0.05 2006 V1 39.92 37.51 36.02 37.81 V2 40.17 37.97 36.70 38.28 F V 0.23 0.23 B 0.19 V3 41.05 38.38 37.05 38.83 B1 40.15 37.71 36.53 38.13 B2 40.61 38.20 36.66 38.49 FxV FxB NS NS Mean 40.38 37.95 36.59 2007 V1 42.75 41.65 39.55 41.32 V2 42.86 41.92 40.56 41.78 F V B 0.22 0.22 0.18 V3 43.54 41.44 41.64 42.21 B1 43.16 41.39 40.55 41.70 B2 FxV FxB 0.38 0.31 42.93 41.95 40.62 41.84 mean 43.05 41.67 40.58 c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 B1 V1 f1 2007 B1 B2 B2 V2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 39.90 39.98 40.58 39.93 40.37 41.52 42.65 42.92 43.92 f2 f3 mean 37.25 36.19 37.38 37.81 36.35 38.05 38.07 37.04 38.56 37.77 35.85 37.85 38.13 37.06 38.52 38.70 41.56 37.07 39.00 39.10 41.07 41.84 40.59 41.78 40.77 42.05 42.25 42.84 41.74 40.10 41.56 42.80 42.00 40.54 41.78 43.16 42.11 41.23 42.17 Cd0.05 VxB FxVxB NS NS mean 41.84 40.81 VxB FxVxB 0.31 0.54 table 6. effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer on fruit diameter (mm) of plum cv. santa rosa a) Comparison between treatment group and control Treatment group Control CD0.05 2006 2007 39.11 38.15 0.31 40.69 39.50 0.47 b) fxv and fxB interactions Treatment f1 f2 2006 V1 40.61 38.13 V2 41.11 38.57 V3 41.27 39.92 B1 40.86 38.72 B2 41.14 39.03 Mean 41.00 38.87 175 2007 V1 41.15 40.47 v2 v3 B1 B2 41.84 40.81 42.53 41.15 41.85 40.73 41.84 40.88 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” f3 mean 36.75 38.50 37.64 39.11 Cd0.05 F V B 0.16 0.16 0.13 37.95 39.71 37.26 38.95 37.63 39.27 FxV FxB NS NS 37.45 38.65 40.09 39.49 40.71 F V B 0.25 0.25 0.21 40.14 41.27 39.30 40.63 39.55 40.76 FxV NS FxB NS 39.43 c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 B1 2007 B1 B2 B2 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 f1 40.41 40.96 41.22 40.81 41.27 41.33 f2 f3 mean 38.06 36.41 38.29 38.45 37.45 38.95 39.65 37.93 39.60 38.20 37.09 38.70 38.70 37.83 39.27 40.20 37.97 39.83 41.16 40.32 38.51 40.00 41.84 40.71 39.29 40.61 42.53 41.17 40.11 41.27 41.15 40.62 38.80 40.19 41.85 40.91 39.68 40.81 42.54 41.12 40.18 41.28 Cd0.05 VxB FxVxB NS NS VxB FxVxB NS NS table 7. effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer on tss (%) of plum cv. santa rosa a) Comparison between treatment group and control Treatment group Control CD0.05 2006 2007 15.12 14.76 0.25 15.22 14.78 0.05 b) fxv and fxB interactions Treatment f1 f2 f3 mean Cd0.05 2006 V1 15.39 14.91 14.59 14.96 V2 15.56 15.11 14.74 15.14 F V B 0.13 0.13 0.11 V3 15.80 15.24 14.74 15.26 B1 15.53 15.06 14.65 15.08 15.64 15.12 14.74 15.17 FxV FxB NS NS B2 mean 15.58 15.09 14.69 2007 v1 v2 v3 B1 B2 15.44 14.96 14.61 15.01 15.81 15.28 14.79 15.29 16.17 15.18 14.75 15.37 15.58 15.12 14.68 15.13 16.04 15.16 14.77 15.32 F 0.03 V 0.03 FxV FxB 0.05 0.04 B 0.03 mean 15.81 15.14 14.72 c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 B1 2007 B2 B1 B2 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 f1 15.35 15.50 15.74 f2 f3 14.89 14.56 15.08 14.70 15.20 14.69 15.43 14.94 14.62 15.62 15.13 14.79 15.87 15.28 14.80 15.39 14.93 14.58 15.64 15.18 14.73 15.70 15.26 14.72 15.50 15.00 14.65 15.92 15.30 14.87 16.70 15.18 14.78 176 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” mean 14.93 15.09 Cd0.05 VxB FxVxB NS NS 15.21 15.18 15.00 15.32 14.97 15.18 VxB 0.04 FxVxB 0.07 15.23 15.05 15.36 15.55 table 8. effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer on fruit acidity (%) of plum cv. santa rosa a) Comparison between treatment group and control Treatment group Control CD0.05 2006 2007 1.20 1.43 0.06 1.18 1.35 0.02 b) fxv and fxB interactions Treatment 2006 V1 v2 v3 B1 B2 mean 2007 v1 v2 v3 B1 B2 mean f1 1.05 0.96 0.95 1.02 0.96 0.99 1.16 1.01 f2 f3 mean 1.28 1.41 1.25 1.23 1.38 1.19 1.17 1.34 1.15 1.23 1.38 1.21 1.23 1.37 1.19 1.23 1.38 1.25 1.31 1.20 1.29 0.94 1.12 1.28 1.17 1.11 1.07 1.17 1.29 1.28 1.04 1.19 1.29 1.24 1.00 1.20 1.30 1.17 Cd0.05 F V B 0.03 0.03 NS F V B 0.01 0.01 NS FxV FxB 0.02 0.02 FxV NS FxB NS c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 B1 2007 B2 B1 B2 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 f2 f3 mean 1.11 1.29 1.42 1.27 0.96 1.21 1.39 1.18 0.98 1.19 1.35 1.17 1.00 1.28 1.40 1.23 0.96 1.25 1.38 1.19 0.92 1.16 1.33 1.14 1.05 1.25 1.33 1.21 1.00 1.22 1.30 1.17 0.96 1.15 1.28 1.13 1.28 1.24 1.31 1.28 1.02 1.19 1.29 1.16 0.92 1.09 1.28 1.09 Cd0.05 VxB NS FxVxB NS VxB FxVxB 0.02 0.03 F1 table 9. effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer on bacterial population (x107 Cfu/g soil) in rhizosphere of plum a) Comparison between treatment group and control Treatment group Control CD0.05 2006 2007 50.05 18.75 0.01 53.27 20.05 0.02 177 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” b) fxv and fxB interactions Treatment f1 f2 f3 mean 2006 v1 40.67 34.23 26.62 33.84 v2 57.74 52.49 46.02 52.09 Cd0.05 F 0.01 V 0.01 B 0.005 v3 66.75 64.19 61.68 64.21 B1 53.73 49.41 43.78 48.97 B2 56.38 51.20 45.78 51.12 FxV FxB 0.01 0.01 mean 55.05 50.31 44.78 2007 v1 43.07 36.54 28.82 36.15 v2 58.66 54.54 49.53 54.25 F V B 0.01 0.01 0.01 v3 74.07 69.50 64.68 69.42 B1 57.44 52.09 46.06 51.86 B2 59.76 54.97 49.30 54.68 FxV FxB 0.02 0.01 mean 58.60 53.53 47.68 c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 2007 B1 B2 B1 B2 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V1 V2 V3 V1 f1 f2 39.11 33.45 57.02 50.84 65.05 63.95 42.23 35.01 58.46 68.45 41.17 58.00 73.15 44.97 v2 59.32 v3 75.00 54.15 64.44 35.07 53.14 68.06 38.02 55.95 70.95 f3 25.25 45.00 61.08 28.00 47.05 62.28 27.15 47.81 63.21 30.50 51.26 mean 32.60 50.95 63.36 35.08 53.22 65.06 34.46 52.98 68.14 37.83 55.51 66.15 70.70 Cd0.05 VxB FxVxB 0.01 0.01 VxB 0.01 FxVxB 0.02 table 10. effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer on actinomycetes population (x104 Cfu/g soil) in rhizosphere of plum a) Comparison between treatment group and control Treatment group Control CD0.05 2006 2007 31.65 16.50 0.03 32.97 17.25 0.05 b) fxv and fxB interactions treatment f1 f2 f3 mean Cd0.05 2006 v1 24.32 21.95 19.10 21.79 v2 35.26 31.05 28.01 31.44 F V B 0.02 0.02 0.01 v3 45.10 41.79 38.26 41.72 B1 34.15 30.77 27.76 30.89 B2 35.64 32.34 29.16 32.41 FxV FxB 0.03 0.02 mean 34.90 31.60 28.46 178 2007 v1 25.93 23.14 19.71 22.93 v2 36.13 32.61 30.49 33.08 F V B 0.03 0.03 0.02 v3 46.20 42.57 39.91 42.89 B1 35.04 31.97 29.23 32.08 B2 37.14 33.58 30.85 33.86 FxV 0.05 FxB 0.04 mean 36.09 32.78 30.04 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 B1 V1 V2 F1 23.34 F2 21.15 F3 V3 2007 B1 V1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 35.85 45.76 25.01 35.11 45.00 26.86 37.16 47.40 32.11 42.44 22.17 31.75 42.00 24.11 33.48 43.15 19.46 28.95 39.07 19.43 29.17 22.51 32.30 42.42 22.20 32.01 39.08 42.03 20.00 23.66 31.81 34.15 40.74 43.76 VxB FxVxB 0.04 0.07 V3 B2 V1 V2 34.67 44.45 25.31 30.00 41.15 22.75 18.75 27.08 37.46 mean 21.08 30.58 41.02 Cd0.05 VxB 0.02 FxVxB 0.04 B2 table 11. effect of fertilizer, vermicompost and biofertilizer on fungal population (x104 Cfu/g soil) in rhizosphere of plum cv. santa rosa orchard a) Comparison between treatment group and control 2006 2007 Treatment group 21.36 23.08 Control 9.76 10.11 CD0.05 0.07 0.01 b) fxv and fxB interactions Treatment 2006 V1 f1 14.75 f2 13.87 f3 12.65 mean 13.76 Cd0.05 F V B V2 21.55 19.70 16.26 19.17 V3 34.37 31.38 27.66 31.14 0.04 0.04 0.03 B1 23.81 20.95 18.33 21.03 B2 23.31 22.35 19.39 21.68 FxV FxB 0.07 0.05 Mean 23.56 21.65 18.86 2007 V1 15.76 14.57 13.68 14.67 V2 23.80 21.38 17.60 20.93 F 0.01 V B 0.01 0.004 V3 37.10 32.37 29.45 32.97 B1 25.71 22.08 19.59 22.46 B2 25.40 23.48 20.90 23.26 FxV FxB 0.01 0.01 Mean 25.55 22.78 20.24 c) vxB and fxvxB interactions Treatment 2006 B1 2007 B1 B2 B2 V1 V2 V3 V1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 v1 v2 v3 f1 14.44 22.00 35.00 15.07 21.11 33.75 15.52 24.15 37.45 16.00 23.46 f2 f3 mean 13.75 12.00 13.40 18.46 15.98 18.81 30.65 27.01 30.89 14.00 13.30 14.12 20.95 16.55 19.54 32.11 14.08 28.32 13.25 31.39 14.28 20.41 16.76 20.44 31.75 28.75 32.65 15.07 14.11 15.06 22.36 18.45 21.42 36.75 33.00 30.15 33.30 Cd0.05 VxB 0.05 FxVxB 0.09 VxB FxVxB 179 0.01 0.01 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Treatment with higher dose of vermicompost (V3) resulted in increased microbial population in soil. Tandon (1992) and Subba Rao (1993) also reported significant increase in microbial population by addition of organic manures. The increased microbial population might be due to the fact that organic manure provided food and micro environment for their multiplication and growth (Kumari and Kumari, 2002). Maheshwarappa et al. (1999b) reported higher population of fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes under FYM and vermicompost treated plots as compared to control. Soil microbial population in plum rhizosphere was significantly increased by application of biofertilizer @ 60 g tree-1. Inoculation of soil with Azotobacter increased microflora population whereas addition of VAM inoculums had synergistic effect on Azotobacter. The synergistic host response could mainly be due to the production of phytohormones or growth regulators produce by these microbes. references Acevedo I C and Pire R. 2004. Effect of worm cast added to a substrate on growth of pawpaw (Carica papaya L.) Interciencia 29(5): 274-279. AOAC.1980. Official methods of analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 13th edition, W. Horowitz (ed.) Benjamin Franklin Station, Washington, D C 101p. Awasthi R P, Godara R K and Kaith N S. 1998. Interaction effect of VA-mycorrhizae and Azotobacter inoculation on micronutrient uptake by peach seedlings. Horticultural Journal 11(2): 1-5. Balaksishnan S, Selvarajan M and Siddeswaran K. 2001. Effect of biofertilzers in custard apple. South Indian Horticulture 49: 185-186. Camprubi A, Cavet C and Estaun V. 1995. Growth enhancement of Citrus reshmi after inoculation with Glomus intraradices and Trichoderma aureoviride and associated effects on microbial population and enzyme activity in potting mixes. Plant and Soil 173: 223-238. Dey P, Mathura Rai, Kumar S, Vishal N, Bikash D and Reddy N N. 2005. Effect of biofertilizer on physico-chemical characteristics of guava (Psidium guajava) fruit. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 75(2): 95-96 Dibut A B, Rodriguez N A, Parez A and Martinez V R. 1996. The effect of Azotoryza’s double function in banana (Musa sp.), Experimental condition. Infomusa 5: 20-23. El-Maksoud H K A,Boutros B N and Lofty A A.1988. Growth response of sour orange to mycorrhizal inoculation and super phosphate fertilization in sandy and calcerious soils. Egyptian Journal of soil Science 28: 385-395. Gonzolez R R, Dominguez M Q, Exposito G L A, Genzalez O J L, Martinez R T and Hidalgo S M. 1997. Effectiveness of 8 strains of Azotobacter on the adaptation of tissue cultured plants of pineapple cv. Smooth Cyanne. Acta Horticulturae 425: 277-284. Gerdemann J W and Nicolson T H. 1963. Spores of mycorrizal Endogone species extracted from soil by wet sieving and decanting. Transactions of British Mycological Society 46: 235-244. Godara R K. 1993. Performance of peach seedling in the association of VA-mycorrhizae and Azotobacter. Ph.D. Thesis, Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, India, 145p . Khanizadeh S, Hamel C, Kainmehr H, Buszard D and Smith D L. 1995. Effect of three vesicular arbuscular species and phosphorus on productivity and vegetative growth of three strawberry varieties. Journal of Plant Nutrition 18: 1073-1079. Kumari S M S and Kumari U K. 2002. Effect of vermicompost enriched with rock phosphate on growth and yield of cow pea (Vigna unguiculata L.). Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 50(2): 223-224. Maheswarapa H P, Nanjappa H V and Hegde M R. 1999b. Influence of organic manures on yield of arrowroot, soil physicochemical and biological properties when grown as inter crop in coconut garden. Annals of Agricultural Research 20(3): 318-323. Manjunatha V G, Chaya P, Swamy G S K and Patil P B. 2002. Effect on different VAM fungi and phosphorus levels on yield and yield component of papaya. Karnatka Journal of Agricultral Science 15: 336-342. Marinari S, Masciandaro G, Ceccanti B and Grego S. 2000. Influence of organic and mineral fertilizers on soil biological and physical properties. Bioresource Technology 72(1): 9-17. Osman S M. 2003. Effect of biofertilizer on fruit physical and chemical properties of Zaghlool date palm. Annals of Agricultural Science, Cario 48(1): 297-305. Pereira L S and Mitra S K. 1999. Studies on organic along with inorganic nutrition in guava. Indian Agriculturist 43: 155160. Rana R K and Chandel J S. 2003. Effect of biofertilizers and nitrogen on growth, yield and quality of strawberry. Progressive Horticulture 35(1): 25-30 Rathore V P and Singh H P. 1995. Influence of vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal fungai and phosphate on maize. Journal 180 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” of the Indian Society of Soil Science 43: (2): 207-210. Ram R A and Rajput M S. 2000. Role of biofertilizers and manure in production of guava cv. Allahabad Safeda. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Science 29(3/4): 193-194. Rathi D S, and Bist L D. 2004. Inorganic fertilization through the use of organic supplements in low chill pear cv. Pant Pear-18. Indian Journal of Horticulture 61(3): 223-225. Sudhakar G, Christopher A L and Rangaswamy A. 2002. Effect of vermicompost application on the soil properties, nutrient availability, uptake and yield of rice-a review. Agriculture Review 23(2): 127-133. Sharma S D, Bhutani V P and Dohroo N P. 1998. Occurance of VAM fungi under old apple orchards. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science 46(1): 143-144. Sinha P S, Nagina Ram, Singh B D, Griyaghey U P, Saratchandra B and Sinha BRRP. 2005. Studies on vermiculture technique and efficacy of vermicompost in substituting NPK and FYM requirements of Morus alba L. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research 39(4): 235-241. Subha Rao N S. 1993. Biofertilizers in agriculture and forestry. 3rd revised edition. Oxford publishing Co Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi. 72-73. Tandon H L S. 1992. Fertilizers and their interpretation with organic and biofertiluzers. in: Fertilizer, organic manure recyclable waste and biofertilizers, H L S Tandon (ed.) FDCO, New Delhi, 12-35. Tiwari D K, Hasan M A and Chattopadhyay P K. 1999. Effect of biofertilizers on soil nutrient status and microbial population in banana (Musa AAA subgroup Cavendish cv. Giant Governer) plantation. Environment and Ecology 17(2): 338-341. Yadav A K and Chaudhary S R. 1999. Exploiting biofertilizers in North Eastern Region. pp 26-58. 181 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XV Wedge grAfting A neW method of mAngo ProPAgAtion neena Chauhan and v K Joshi Regional Horticultural Research and Training Station Dr Y S Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan Abstract An experiment was conducted to standardize a method of vegetative propagation (wedge grafting) of mango during the year 2012. A novel technique (wedge grafting) with high success rate has been devised for mango propagation. In this experiment five treatments were performed during mid August replicated four times in a randomized block in nursery bed and in poly bags. The results revealed that wedge grafting gave maximum bud take success (84.00 %) and proportion of saleable plants (92.45%) with T5 (Wedge grafting with retaining 3-4 leaves in poly bags. Minimum bud-take success and proportion of saleable plants was observed with veneer grafting. Better success with wedge grafting was observed in poly bags rather than it was directly done in nursery beds. Key words: Wedge grafting, bud take success, mango introduction Propagation of mango through seed is an age-old technique but seed propagation does not ensure true to type plants moreover they also entail considerably longer period to attain bearing age. Some races of mango are poly embryonic in nature which can be used with advantages but most commercial varieties in India are highly heterozygous and mono embryonic which take more time to bear fruit with very less probability of getting plants with good quality fruits. Presently mango plants are propagated by veneer grafting which has replaced inarching in several part of the country. Grafting methods in which the mango scion is detached from the parent tree include veneer grafting, Wedge grafting and budding (Hartman and Kester, 1983; Ram, 1993 & 1997; Sid Ahmed, 1992, Reddy and Melanta, 1988). Recently a new technique wedge grafting, with high success rate has been devised for mango propagation by CISH, Lucknow. Wedge grafting is relatively an easy method of propagation than veneer grafting. This technique can be employed using rootstock of greater diameter and can also be used for top working where normally more than one scion is inserted. But recently modification has been made where younger rootstock (Six months to one year old) and one scion can be used for mango propagation ((Kanwar and Bhajwa 1974; Azouz et al. 1984; Bajpaj et al. 1989; Nunez et al. 1996). It has been reported that cleft grafting is easier to use (Kulwal and Tayde 1989) and more successful than other methods of grafting (Amin 1978; Panickar and Deasi 1989; Ram 1997). material and methods An experiment was conducted to study a new method of vegetative propagation of mango in the experimental field of Regional Horticultural Research and Training Station, Dhaulakaun during the year 2012. Rootstock used for grafting was grown from stones of seedling trees. One year old, uniform and healthy root stock seedlings were taken for grafting. Rootstocks were grown in poly bags of size 20 x 10 cm and in nursery beds. Rootstocks were either completely defoliated or left with 3-4 leaves. Pre defoliated healthy, 3-4 months old and vigorous scion sticks were selected. Five treatments viz., veneer grafting, Wedge grafting with complete defoliation in nursery bed, Wedge grafting with retaining 3-4 leaves in nursery bed, Wedge grafting with complete defoliation in poly bags and Wedge grafting with retaining 3-4 leaves in poly bags during was done in mid August. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design. Twenty plants were used as a unit, which was replicated four times. The data on bud take success was recorded after two month of grating and data for proportion of saleable plants was recorded during the month of June. result and discussions Bud-take success and proportion of saleable plants Different methods had a significant effect on bud take success in mango (Table 1). Among the different methods the highest bud-take success (84.00%) was recorded with T5 (Wedge grafting with retaining 3-4 leaves in poly bags), which was significantly higher than the veneer grafting. The lowest percentage of bud take success (73.00) was recorded with T2 (Wedge grafting with complete defoliation in nursery bed), which was significantly on par with T1 (veneer grafting). Singh, et al. 2007 also tried wedge method of grafting in guava (Psidium guajava L.) under greenhouse (GH) as well as in 182 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” open field conditions (OFC) for 3 consecutive years (2003-2005). The grafting operation performed in greenhouse gave significantly higher success of grafts (64.56-94.33%) as compared to open field conditions (51.30-78.63%). Gurjar and Singh 2013 reported maximum graft survival with wedge grafting in the month of March in poly house (98.30%) and open field condition (76%). Proportion of saleable plants was also significantly affected by different treatments. Maximum proportion of saleable plants (92.45 %) was recorded in wedge grafting with retaining 3-4 leaves in poly bags, which was significantly higher than all other treatments. Whereas, the minimum (79.67%) proportion of saleable plants was recorded with veneer grafting. However, T2, T3 and T4 recorded 84% of saleable plants. table-1: effect of different grafting methods on percent bud-take success and proportion of saleable plants. Treatments Per cent Bud take success Proportion of saleable plants (%) t1 veneer grafting 73.50 79.67 T2 Wedge grafting with complete defoliation in nursery bed 73.00 83.00 T3 Wedge grafting with retaining 3-4 leaves in nursery bed 77.25 83.00 T4 Wedge grafting with complete defoliation in poly bags 83.78 84.70 T5Wedge grafting with retaining 3-4 leaves in poly bags 84.00 92.45 CD0.05 2.70 2.50 Wedge Grafting in Mango Different growth stages of grafts in wedge grafting in mango references Amin, R.S. (1978). In situ soft wood grafting in mango. Indian Horticulture 23, 7-10. Azouz, S.M.; Tadros, R. and Khalifa, A. S. (1984). A new technique for mango propagation. Agricultural Research Review 62 (3), 213-218. Hartmann, H.T. and Kester, D.E. (1983). Plant Propagation Pirnciples and Practices Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, Massachussets, U.S.A Gurjar, P. S.; Rajesh Singh. 2012. Performance of wedge grafting in aonla at poly house and open field conditions. Environment and Ecology Vol. 30 No. 3 pp. 531-536 Kanwar, J.S. and Bhajwa, M.S. (1974). Propagation of mango by side grafting. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 44, 270-272. 183 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Kulwal, L.V. and Tayde, G.S. (1989). Studies on propagation of mango varieties by soft wood grafting under Akola conditions. Acta Horticulturae 231, 256-258. Nunez, E.R.; Davenport, T.L. and Galdeira, M.L. (1996). Control of bud morphogenesis in mango by girdling, defoliation and temperature modification. Journal of Horticultural Science 71, 25-40. Panickar, P. and Deasi, A.B. (1989). Effect of age of scion mother tree, different flushes of rootstock and in situ grafting on the success and growth of soft wood grafts of Alphonse mango. Progressive Horticulture 21, 141-144. Ram, S. (1993). Factors affecting mango tree architecture. Acta Horticulturae 235, 177-191. Ram, S. 1997. Propagation, pp 328-363. In: R.E. Litz (ed). The Mango: Botany, Production and Uses. Cambridge University Press, U.K. Reddy, C.V. and Melanta, K.R. (1988). Effect of age of rootstocks on the success of soft wood grafting of mango. South Indian Horticulture 36, 143-145. Sidahmed, A.I. (1992). Investigations of Some Techniques Involved in Mango Propagation. M.Sc. Thesis. University of Gezira, Wad Medani, Sudan. Singh, G., Gupta, S., Mishra, R. and Singh, A. 2007. Technique for rapid multiplication of guava (psidium guajaval.). Acta Hort. (ISHS) 735:177-183 184 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XVI CArnAtion Cv. ‘mAster’ resPonse to fertiLizAtion Arvinder singh, nomita Laishram, B.P. sharma, y.C. gupta, B.s. dilta and s.K. Bhardwaj Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh - 173 230. E-mail: arvindersingh4601@yahoo.com Abstract Sixteen different fertilizer treatments viz., viz., T1(Recommended practice i.e. basal doses of NPK @10g/m2 each plus bio fertilizer mixture (VAM+ Azospirillum +PSM) @5g/plant applied at the time of planting. In addition to this, 100 ppm N (60 ppm through Multi-K and calcium nitrate, rest 40 ppm ammonical nitrogen in the form of urea) and 140 ppm K (through Multi –K) twice a week after 40 days of planting ), T2 (75 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week), T3 (150 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week), T4 (300 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week), T5 (100 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week), T6 (200 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week), T7 (400 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week, T8 (125 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week), T9 (250 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week), T10 (500 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week), T11 (150 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 150 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week), T12 (200 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 200 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week), T13 (250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week), T14 (150 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 150 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly), T15 (200 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 200 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly), T16 (250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly) were accessed in a completely randomized block design for their effects on foliar nutrient content and media physico-chemical properties in carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) cv. ‘Master’ plants grown under greenhouse conditions at the Research Farm of Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, India during 2010 and 2011. Carnation cultivar Master plants fertilized with treatment comprising of 250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week (T13) showed significant increase in foliar nutrient contents as well as available NPK content in the media in comparison to the recommended practices. Key words: Carnation, NPK, Flower grades, Physico-chemical properties Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus Linn.) is one of the most important cut flower crop ranking among the top-10 in the global florist trade which may be attributed to its excellent keeping quality, wide range of available colours and ability to withstand long distance transportation. The sustainability of any production system warrants for the optimum utilization of resources like soil, water and nutrients in available form. Apart from economic considerations, it is well known fact that the injudicious use of water and fertilizers can also lead to far reaching implications on the environment. The crop response to fertilizer applications is expected to vary markedly with the type of fertilizer used. In general, balanced nutrition is very essential for obtaining optimum plant growth and higher yield of good quality flowers. The deficiency of any one or more of the major nutrients can drastically limit the growth of the plants leading to reduction in productivity and quality of the flowers produced. Over feeding of the plants, on the other hand, results in the accumulation of salts in the soils which prevents the uptake of water and sometimes cause wilting of them. Being a greenhouse crop, fertilizer applications play a key role in increasing quality and quantity of carnation. It is well established fact that carnation plants make a good reserve of N at tufting stage which is utilized during flowering (Arora and Gill 1995). Keeping in view the need and importance of this crop, the present investigation was carried out with the objective to optimize the dose of Sujala fertilizer as fertigation and foliar application on growth and flowering of carnation grown under greenhouses in mid-hill conditions of Himachal Pradesh. material and methods A completely randomized block design was used to evaluate the effect of sixteen different treatments viz., T1(Recommended practice i.e. basal doses of NPK @10g/m2 each plus bio fertilizer mixture (VAM+ Azospirillum +PSM) @5g/plant applied at the time of planting. In addition to this, 100 ppm N (60 ppm through Multi-K and calcium nitrate, rest 40 ppm ammonical nitrogen in the form of urea) and 140 ppm K (through Multi –K) twice a week after 40 days of planting ), T2 (75 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week), T3 (150 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week), T4 (300 ppm NPK 185 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” fertigation through Sujala once a week), T5 (100 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week), T6 (200 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week), T7 (400 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week, T8 (125 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week), T9 (250 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week), T10 (500 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week), T11 (150 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 150 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week), T12 (200 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 200 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week), T13 (250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week), T14 (150 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 150 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly), T15 (200 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 200 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly), T16 (250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly) on cut flower grades, media physico-chemical properties and foliar nutrient content of carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) cultivar ‘Master’. Master is a red colour standard cultivar of carnation and has been recommended by the University for commercial cultivation in the mid- hill zones of Himachal Pradesh. Comparatively, this cultivar is preferred by the consumers and its growers fetches better remunerative in the market. As it has been recommended by the University for Commercial Cultivation in the midhill zones of Himachal Pradesh. Hence, it necessiciated for the standardization of the nutritional schedule for its commercial cultivation so that growers can obtain good yields and fetches better prices. Rooted cuttings were planted in a sterilized growing medium consisting of soil: FYM: coco peat (2:1:1, v/v) at a spacing of 20x20 cm. Plots size of one square meter accommodating 25 plants per plot were used for allocation of treatments. The crop was raised following all the standard cultural practices like irrigation, pinching, staking, disbudding, deshooting, weeding, hoeing and plant protection measures as well. After one month of planting when the plants attained a height of 8-12 cm, pinching was performed manually. Single pinch method of pinching was adopted. The experimental treatments were started after 40 days of planting. The samples of the growing media were collected following the standard procedure initially at the time of bed preparation and after the termination of every flush. The initial physico-chemical properties of the medium cleared that it contains 340.48 kg N/ha, 28.6 kg P/ha and 242.2 kg K/ha respectively. The electrical conductivity was 0.46 dSm-1 with organic carbon content of 0.5% and a pH of 6.7. Available N was determined by alkaline potassium permanganate method (Subbiah and Asija 1956), Phosphorous by Olsen method (Olsen et al 1954) and Pottassium by Neutral ammonium acetate method (Merwin and Peach 1951).Organic carbon was determined by Chromic acid titration method (Walkley and Black method 1934). Leaf analysis for N, P and K was done at flower harvesting stage. The leaves at fifth and sixth node from the apex were collected and brought to the laboratory in paper bags. N was determined by Micro Kjeldahl method (Jackson 1973), Potassium by flame-photometry and phosphorous was determined by Vanado-molybdate yellow colour method (Jackson 1973). The data relating to each parameter was statistically analyzed by applying the technique of analysis of variance using Completely Randomized Design separately for each flower flush (Gomez and Gomez 1984). Pooled analysis of variance was performed to test the significant differences of different treatments, for all the characters under study. The data regarding percent values was subjected to square root transformation. results and discussion media physico-chemical properties In the present investigations, a residual effect of various nutritional treatments on the physico-chemical properties of the growing medium was also studied. Macro-nutrients like N, P and K were quantified to assess the nutritional build up in the medium profile. Results revealed that after termination of the experiment, treatment T13 comprising 250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week recorded significantly the highest available N, P and K (371.03, 37.09 and 276.87 kg/ha) build-up in the growing medium. The increase in the available N, P and K under this combination might be ascribed to the high application rates which after meeting out the plant requirements have contributed to the build up of the available N, P and K in the medium. The results are in conformity with the findings of Bhan (2002) who reported significant increase in the available N, P and K content in the soil after harvest of potato with the subsequent increase in the dose of N, P and K. Singh (1995) observed that with higher application of P and K, there was an increase in the availability of P and K in the soil after harvest of the bean crop. Thakur (1996) reported that the highest levels of NPK applied enhanced the status of the available nutrients in the soil after harvest in tomato. Similar findings have been reported by Bhalla et al. (2007) in carnation. Treatment T13 exhibited highest organic carbon content (0.764%) and lowest (0.652%) was recorded in T1 (recommended practice). Higher content of organic carbon may be attributed to the fact the plants treated with the foliar application of nutrients along with fertigation have added more biomass to the growing media. The subsequent decay of the plant biomass with time might have resulted in the more organic matter content as has been noticed in the present studies. 186 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1: media physico-chemical properties of carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) cultivar ‘Master’ as influenced by different doses and methods of application of Sujala (19:19:19 NPK) fertilizer (Data are the pooled means of three flower flushes) Treatment Foliar N, P and K content (%) Leaf N Leaf P Leaf K T1 Recommended practice 1.819 0.186 2.141 T2 75 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week 1.767 0.207 2.183 T3 150 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week 1.803 0.211 2.253 T4 300 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week 1.901 0.200 2.292 T5 100 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week 1.929 0.194 2.338 T6 200 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week 1.986 0.196 2.400 T7 400 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week 2.153 0.218 2.542 T8 125 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week 2.306 0.193 2.621 T9 250 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week 2.531 0.207 2.816 T10 500 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week 2.619 0.212 2.988 T11 150 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 150 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week 2.766 0.292 3.690 T12 200 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 200 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week 2.812 0.331 3.907 T13 250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week 2.867 0.364 3.954 T14 150 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 150 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly 2.667 0.241 3.700 T15 200 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 200 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly 2.660 0.257 3.734 T16 250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly 2.726 0.273 3.779 CD (0.05) Foliar n, p and K content (%) Foliar nitrogen content was recorded maximum (2.867%) with the treatment T13 comprising 250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week and minimum (1.767%) with treatment T2(Fig 2). These results further reflect the positive relationship between the concentration of foliar fertilizers and the mineral content of the leaves. The high leaf N under fertigation may be due to increased uptake, owing to precise, frequent and direct application of water soluble fertilizers in the root zone which led to minimum leaching losses. This could also be attributed to rapid absorption of these elements by the plant surface, especially the leaves and their translocation within the plant. Nitrogen is highly mobile element in the plant tissues, its efficient translocation under abundant moisture and nutrient supply from root to leaves could have added to its enhanced accumulation in the leaves (Smith, 1962). A close correlation between leaf nitrogen and photosynthetic rate has also been suggested (Lambers, 1987). A comparison of data among different treatments indicates that the leaf N content increased proportionately with the increasing fertilizer doses. Similar findings have also been reported by El-Naggar (2009) who reported increased foliar N content with the application of higher dose of water soluble fertilizer Sangral (1.0%) in carnation cv. ‘Red Sim’. Dufault et al. (1990) reported increased foliar N content with the increased dose of nitrogen from 55-220 kg/ha in gerbera. The observations are also in close agreement with the findings of Nielson et al. (2002). They also observed a positive relationship between N content in the soil and apple leaves. The phosphorous content was recorded maximum (0.364%) with T13 comprising 250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week and minimum (0.186) with T1 (Recommended practices). Phosphorous content of the leaves was found to be related to nitrogen content. It might be due to the fact that at higher nitrogen content, there was more vegetative growth and better quality flowers which resulted in more uptake and utilization of phosphorous. Our results are in consonance with the findings of Verma, (2001) who reported maximum phosphorous content of carnation cv. ‘Impala’ leaves with the foliar application of 1500 ppm N. Simlar findings have been reported by 187 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Verma et al. (2003), El-Naggar (2009), Qasim et al (2008) and Dufault et al (1990). Foliar potassium content was recorded maximum (3.954%) with treatment T13 comprising 250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 25ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week and minimum (2.141%) was recorded with treatment T1. It might also be due to non-antagonistic effect of phosphorous and potash or the increase in K-content can be attributed to positive response of phosphorous application. These results get support from the findings of Verma (2001) who also reported increase in the K content of the leaves by the application of 1500 ppm N and minimum under control. Similar results were also reported by Ram and Bose (1994), Thombesi et al. (1962), Verma et al. (2003), Qasim et al. (2008) and El-Naggar (2009). table 2: media physico-chemical properties of carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) cultivar ‘Master’ as influenced by different doses and methods of application of Sujala (19:19:19 NPK) fertilizer (Data are the pooled means of three flower flushes) Treatment Media physico-chemical properties Available Available Available pH nitrogen(kg/ phosphorous potassium (kg/ ha) (kg/ha) ha) Electrical Conductivity (dSm-1) Organic Carbon (%) T1 Recommended practice 357.50 23.88 267.10 7.03 0.58 0.652 t2 75 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week 354.70 29.16 251.00 7.00 0.60 0.673 t3 150 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week 353.60 29.24 256.80 7.12 0.59 0.704 t4 300 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week 354.00 32.97 260.10 7.20 0.53 0.702 t5 100 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week 355.50 33.44 258.90 7.29 0.64 0.678 t6 200 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week 358.10 34.89 266.30 7.15 0.54 0.691 t7 400 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week 359.90 35.93 264.30 7.20 0.47 0.693 t8 125 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala on alternate days in a week 360.20 36.43 265.80 7.23 0.60 0.669 t9 250 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala twice a week 365.80 34.86 271.87 7.27 0.57 0.703 t10 500 ppm NPK fertigation through Sujala once a week 366.23 34.01 269.80 7.27 0.62 0.708 t11 150 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 150 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week 356.90 32.38 261.00 7.22 0.56 0.700 t12 200 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 200 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week 361.70 33.79 262.30 7.34 0.69 0.735 t13 250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala once a week 371.03 37.09 276.87 7.31 0.86 0.764 t14 150 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 150 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly 351.80 33.21 258.80 7.25 0.75 0.688 t15 200 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 200 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly 360.70 35.27 260.20 7.17 0.66 0.699 t16 250 ppm N and K fertigation through Urea and MOP + 250 ppm NPK foliar spray through Sujala fortnightly 366.50 35.44 269.90 7.18 0.67 0.728 0.32 2.26 0.33 NS NS 0.016 Cd (0.05) 188 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” references Arora JS and Gill APS. 1995. Cultural requirements of carnation. in: Advances in Horticulture-Ornamental Plants (Eds. Chadha KL and Bhattacharjee SK), Vol-12, Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi. 715p. Bhan N. 2002. Response of NPK and spacings on potato cultivars. M.Sc. Thesis submitted to Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh(H.P.). Dufault RJ, Phillips TL and Kelly JW. 1990. Nitrogen and potassium fertility and plant populations influence field production of gerbera. Hort Science 25(12):1599-1602. El-Naggar A.H. 2009. Response of Dianthus caryophyllus L. plants to foliar nutrition. World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 5(5):622-630. Gomez LA and Gomez AA. 1984. Statistical procedure for agricultural research (2nd ed.) John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NewYork.680p. Jackson ML. 1973. Soil chemical analysis. Prentice Hall of India. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. pp.498 Lambers H. 1987. Does variation in photosynthetic rate explain variation in growth rate and yield. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Sciences 35:505-519. Merwin HD and Peech M. 1951. Exchangeable of sodium potassium in the sand, silt and clay fractions, as influenced by the nature of the complimentary exchangeable cations. American Proceedings of Soil Science. 15:125-128. Nielson D, Neilson GH, Gauk S, Parchomchuk P and Hogue EJ. 2002. Management of water and nitrogen in high density apple orchards. The Compact Fruit Tree 35(3):92-96. Olsen SR., Cole CV, Watanabe FS and Dean LA. 1954. Estimation of available phosphorous by extraction with sodium bicarbonate. U.S.D.A. Circular 939:19. Qasim M, Ahmad I and Ahmad T. 2008. Optimizing fertigation frequency for Rosa hybrid. Pakistan Journal of Botany 40(2): 533-545 Ram RA and Bose TK. 1994. Effect of foliar spray of urea and zinc on growth and flowering of mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata Blanco). Indian Journal of Horticulture 51(3):266-271. Smith CB. 1962. Mineral analysis of plant tissues. Annual Rev. Plant Physiology 13:81-108. Subbiah BV and Asija GL. 1956. A rapid procedure for the estimation of the available nitrogen in soils. Current Science 25:259-260. Thakur SS. 1996. Response of NPK combinations on some tomato hybrids. M.Sc. Thesis submitted to Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh (H.P.). Thombesi LMT, Cale PB and Florelli E. 1962. Studies on the foliar diagnosis in the mineral nutrition of citrus. Progressive Agriculture- Bolonga. 8:1210-1225. Walkley AE and Black JA. 1934. An examination of the Degtiga vet. method for determining oil organic matter and proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science. 37:29-3 189 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XVII PersistenCe And metABoLiC degrAdAtion of imidACLoPrid in sAndy LoAm soiL romila Akoijam and Balwinder singh Pesticide Residue Analysis Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, Punjab, India e-mail : romi.ak9@gmail.com Abstract The persistence and metabolic degradation of imidacloprid in sandy loam soil were studied following application of imidacloprid @ 100 mg kg-1. The soil was autoclaved at 120°C at 15 psi for 15 mins to destroy the microbes responsible for the degradation of pesticides before initiating the experiment. The soil was fortified at imidacloprid i.e. 100 mg kg-1. The whole experiment was conducted at 25 ± 2°C under laboratory condition. The residues of imidacloprid and its metabolites were determined by High Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC). The limit of quantification for the analysis of imidacloprid and its metabolites was worked out to be 0.01 mg kg-1. The initial deposit of imidacloprid in sandy loam soil after 0 day of its application @ 100 mg kg-1 was found to be 81.05 mg kg-1. Imidacloprid residues were degraded to urea, olefine, 6-chloronicotinic acid, 5-hydroxy, nitrosimine and nitroguanidine. Nitroguanidine metabolite was found to be very less as compared to other metabolites. Total imidacloprid residues was found to follow the first order kinetics. Half-life (T1/2) of total imidacloprid was observed to be 16.72 days following application of the imidacloprid. Keywords: Imidacloprid, soil, metabolites, HPLC introduction Imidacloprid (1[(6 chloro 3 pyridinyl) methyl] N nitro 2 imidazolidinimine), is a systemic broad-spectrum insecticide and acts as a contact and stomach poison against sucking and some biting insects (Leicht 1993). The high insecticidal activity of imidacloprid works by binding to the nicotinergic acetylcholine receptor in the insect nervous system (Abhink 1991). It can be applied by soil injection, tree injection, topical application of animal, broadcast, foliar, ground application as a granular or liquid formulation, or as a pesticide-coated seed treatment (Schmuck 2003). The primary breakdown products of imidacloprid in soil are urea and 6-chloronicotinic acid (Rouchaud et al. 1996). The metabolites like urea and olefine were observed after 30 days of application of imidacloprid (Sarkar et al. 2001). The majority of toxicity studies have been focused on the parent compound, imidacloprid. Since, information on the metabolic degradation of imidacloprid in soil is not available under Indian conditions, therefore the present study was planned to know the persistence and metabolic degradation of imidacloprid in sandy loam soil under laboratory condition. methodology Application of the insecticide and collection of samples Soil sample was collected from Entomological Farm, PAU, Ludhiana. The soil was autoclaved and fortified with Imidacloprid (Confidor 17.8 SL) at 100mg kg-1. The whole experiment was conducted at 25 ± 2°C under laboratory condition. The soil sample was sampled at 0, 7, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120 days after fortification. Extraction and clean up 15 g soil sample was taken into a 50 ml centrifuge tube with 30 ml acetonitrile. The samples were well shaken and then homogenized @ 15,000 rpm for 2-3 minutes. Ten gram sodium chloride was added and centrifuged for 3 min @ 2,500 rpm. From each tube, 15 ml of the top organic layer was decanted into 50 ml centrifuge tube containing 10 g of activated sodium sulfate and was shaken using a rotospin for 2-3 minutes. 6 ml of the sample extract was transferred to centrifuge tube containing Primary secondary amine (PSA) sorbent (0.15 g), activated anhydrous magnesium sulfate (0.9 g) and graphitic carbon black (0.05 g). The tube was tightly capped and vortexed and centrifuged for 1 minute @ 2,500 rpm. 4 ml of the top extract was transferred into a test tube and concentrated to 2 ml for determination by HPLC equipped with reverse phase (RP) C18 column and photo diode array (PDA) detector. results and discussion Efficiency of the method To evaluate the efficacies of extraction and cleanup, the recovery experiments were performed. Samples of soil were spiked 190 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” at levels of 0.01, 0.05 and 0.10 mg kg-1. These were extracted, cleaned up and analyzed following the method already described. The mean per cent recoveries of imidacloprid and its metabolites from soil samples at the fortification level of 0.01 to 0.10 mg kg-1 ranged from 81.20 to 99.02 per cent. The limit of quantification (LOQ) was found to be 0.01 mg kg-1 and limit of detection (LOD) being 0.003 mg kg-1. table 1. residues of imidacloprid and its metabolites (mg kg -1) in sandy loam soil following application @ 100 mg kg-1 Soil type DAT a81.05±2.74 0 Sandy loam a Imidacloprid Metabolites 6-Chloronicotinic Acid Nitroguanidine Olefine Nitrosimine Urea Percent 5-hydroxy Total resid- dissipation ues BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL BDL 81.05±2.74 7 55.07±3.56 0.21±0.09 0.02±0.00 0.34±0.12 0.11±0.06 0.37±0.41 0.13±0.06 56.25±3.65 30.59 15 39.88±1.17 0.17±0.10 0.03±0.01 0.23±0.15 0.07±0.18 0.29±0.15 0.10±0.03 40.77±1.35 49.69 30 17.33±2.06 0.11±0.04 0.01±0.00 0.12±0.09 0.06±0.59 0.16±0.15 0.07±0.04 17.86±2.10 77.96 45 9.67±1.30 0.09±0.03 cBDL 0.09±0.03 0.04±0.01 0.11±0.08 0.05±0.02 10.05±1.69 87.60 60 6.23±1.04 0.06±0.01 BDL 0.07±0.00 0.03±0.00 0.09±0.02 0.03±0.01 6.51±1.27 91.96 90 3.56±0.92 0.04±0.00 BDL 0.05±0.01 BDL 0.07±0.08 BDL 3.72±0.94 95.41 120 1.94±0.41 0.02±0.00 BDL 0.03±0.00 BDL 0.03±0.02 BDL 2.02±0.50 97.50 Mean standard deviation based on three replications. BDL = below determination limit of 0.001 mg kg . c -1 fig. 1. Semi-logarithm graph showing dissipation kinetics of total imidacloprid residues on sandy loam soil 191 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” persistence and metabolism of imidacloprid in soil The initial deposit of imidacloprid applied at 100 mg kg-1 was found to be 81.05 mg kg-1 in the soil. After 7 days of application, the total imidacloprid was found to be 56.25 mg kg-1 and the residues decline to 40.77, 17.86, 10.05, 6.51, 3.72 and 2.02 mg kg-1 at 15, 30, 45, 60, 90 and 120 days, respectively (Table 1). The parent compound, imidacloprid was only detected at 0 day of application. Among metabolites, urea and olefine were found to be the maximum followed by 6- chloronicotinic acid, 5-hydroxy, nitrosimine and nitroguanidine. The parent compound, imidacloprid and metabolites urea and olefine were detected till 120 days but the metabolites 5-hydroxy and nitrosimine were found to be below determination limit level at 90 days and that of nitroguanidine was found at 45 days. As with the other insecticides, the residues of imidacloprid on soil declined with time and fairly high rate of dissipation was observed. Sarkar et al. (2001) also observed the formation of metabolites like urea and olefine on 30 days of applications of imidacloprid (Confidor 200g l-1 SL and Gaucho 700g kg-1 WS) on soils. Half-life (T1/2) of total imidacloprid was worked out to be 16.72 days following application of the imidacloprid (Fig. 1). Conclusions In soil, the residue of degradation metabolic products of imidacloprid like urea and olefine were found to be the maximum, followed by 6- chloronicotinic acid, 5-hydroxy, nitrosimine and nitroguanidine. The parent compound imidacloprid was the only detected at 0 day of the application. references Abbink, J. (1991). The biochemistry of imidacloprid; Pflanzenschutz-Nachrichten Bayer. 44, 183-195. Leicht, W. (1993). Imidacloprid—a chloronicotinyl insecticide. Pesticide Outlook, 4, 17-21. Rouchaud, J., Gustin, F. & Wauters, A. (1996). Imidacloprid insecticide soil metabolism in sugar beet field crops. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 56, 29–36. Sarkar, M., Roy, S., Kole, R. & Chowdhury, A. (2001). Persistence and metabolism of imidacloprid in different soils of West Bengal. Pest Management Science, 57, 598-602. 192 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XVIII effeCt of different sourCes And LeveLs of PhosPhorus With And Without PsB on yieLd And eConomiCs of isABgoL v.B. mor1, J.J. Patel2, A.m. Patel3, K.g.vyas4, P.K. Bhatt5, C.h. raval6 and B.L. yadav7 Ph.D Scholar & SRF (Agronomy), 3Associate Director of Research, 6Research Associate (Agronomy), S.D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat)2Former Prof. (Agronomy), AAU, Anand (Gujarat) Email: vinu.pln18@gmail.com B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand-388110 (Gujarat) 1,4,5&7 Abstract A field experiment was conducted during rabi 2010-11 at Agronomy Instructional Farm, B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat on Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk) known as Psyllium. The soil was loamy sand in texture, low in available nitrogen and phosphorus and high in potash. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with factorial concept replicated quartile. Eighteen treatment combinations consisted of three different sources (Diammonium phosphate, single super phosphate, di-calcium phosphate), three levels (Control, 15 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 30 kg P2O5 ha-1) of phosphorus and two levels of PSB (Un-inoculated and inoculated). Application of 30 kg P2O5 ha-1 from single super phosphate with phosphate solubilizing bacteria was most effective for securing higher number of tillers per plant, total number of spikes per plant, number of effective spikes per plant, length of spike (cm), seed and straw yield (kg/ha) as compared to rest of the treatments. Further, net return and cost benefit ratio were obtained higher with the application of 30 kg P2O5 ha-1 from single super phosphate with PSB. Key Words: Isabgol, Phosphorus, Biofertilizer (PSB), Seed Yield, Economics introduction Isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk) is an important medicinal crop of Gujarat. The husk of isabgol seed has medicinal value as it has the property of absorbing and retaining water and therefore it works as an antidiarrthoeal drug. It is also beneficial to cure inflammation of the mucous membrane of gastro intestinal and genitor urinary tracts, dueodenal ulcers, genorrhoea and piles, treating intestinal disorders and promoting regular bowel movement. Isabgol is an important commercial rabi season crop if Gujarat state and India is the largest producer and exporter of isabgol. Gujarat commands near monopoly in the production and export of isabgol seed and seed husk to the world market. It is cultivated in India about 1.3 lakh ha with production of 77000 MT seed. (Desai and Devra, 2008). Earning about 130 crores rupees from the isabgol seed and 150 crores rupees from husk were exported valued together Rs. 280 crores. While in Gujarat, isabgol cultivation in 10,200 ha Area and 6,600 M.T. production where, average productivity 647 kg ha-1. Phosphorus plays beneficial role in the root development, nodulation and stimulation of the symbiotic nitrogen fixation. In presence of phosphorus, bacterial cell become mobile, which is a pre requisite for migration of bacteria to root hair for nodulation. Phosphorus Solubilising Bacteria (PSB). Phosphate solubilising microorganisms, particularly the soil bacteria belonging to the genera Pseudomonas and Bacillus, possess ability to transform insoluble phosphates into soluble form. Number of workers reported the sources, level of phosphorus and biofertilizer on growth, yield attributes and yield of isabgol (Parihar and Singh, 1995; Jadav et al., 2000; Singh et al., 2003; Utgikar et al., 2003; Whankhade et al., 2005). For further export promotion there is a need to increase the production per unit area. However, very little information available on the nutrient requirement of this crop grown in Gujarat and therefore the present investigation was undertaken. materials and methods A field experiment was conducted during rabi seasons of the year 2010-11 at College Agronomy Farm, B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat. The soil was loamy sand in texture. The soil was low in available nitrogen and phosphorus and high in potash. The experiment was laid out in Factorial Randomized Block Design (FRBD) with four replications. The treatments consisted of three sources of phosphorus and three different levels of phosphorus and two levels of biofertilizer (PSB) viz., S1: (Di ammonium phosphate, DAP), S2: (Single Super Phosphate, SSP), S3: (Di-calcium Phosphate, DCP) and levels phosphorus viz., P0: Control; P1: 15 kg P2O5 ha-1, P2: 30 kg P2O5 ha-1 and two levels of biofertilizer (PSB) viz., I1: Uninoculated, I2: Inoculated. In all, there were eighteen treatment combinations. Isabgol variety GI 2 was sown in line sowing at 30 cm distance on November 26th during the year 2010-11 and fertilized with 30kg N ha-1 as a common basal application from Urea. 193 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” resuLts And disCussion effect of sources and levels of phosphorus and biofertilizer (psB) The effect of phosphorus sources was significant influenced on the yield attributes viz; total number of spike per plant and number of effective spike per plant but does not exert significant effect on number of tillers per plant and length of spike. Significantly the highest seed yield (1023 kg/ha) was registered under the treatment S2 (SSP), (Table-1). The magnitude of increased in the seed yield under S2 was at the extent of 11.80 and 8.25 percent over the treatments S3 (Dicalcium phosphate) and S1 (DAP), respectively, But in case of straw yield, the effect was non-significant. The reason might be that the phosphorus application in the soil which in turn resulted in to higher photosynthesis, protein synthesis, increased the root growth, drought resistant and reduced the lodging of the plants, water loss and wilting consequently increased the dry matter production and ultimately increased the seed yield. The seed yield displayed on increasing trend with the different levels of phosphorus. The treatment P2 (30 kg P2O5 ha-1) recorded significantly the highest seed yield (1030 kg ha-1) and straw yield (6451 kg ha-1). The magnitude of increase in seed yield was at the extent of 15.99 and 8.67 percent over the treatments P0 (control) and P1 (15 kg P2O5 ha-1), respectively. Significantly highest average number of tiller per plant (13.57), total number of spikes per plant (56.25), effective spikes per plant (54.25), length of spike (5.71), seed yield (1010 kg ha-1), straw yield (6105 kg ha-1) were recorded due to seed inoculated with PSB strain Bacillus coagulans @ 20 ml ha-1 as a seed treatment over no seed inoculation. The increased seed yield due to levels of P2O5 might be due to favourable influence of P on growth and yield attributes contributed towards the highest seed and straw yield over control. The second reason might be that the grater response to single super phosphate (SSP) might be ascribed to increased availability of S in soil which was deficient in it. The third reason might be due to its key role in root development, energy translocation and metabolic process of plant (Bhunia et al., 2006). These results are in agreement with the results of Utgikar et al. (2003), Jadav et al. (2000) and Parihar and Singh (1995) in isabgol. Table:1 Influence of different sources and levels of phosphorus on growth, yield attributes and yield of isabgol Treatments Av. No. of tillers Total No. of per plant spikes per plant Av. No. of effective spikes per plant Av. Length of spike Seed yield (kg/ha) Straw yield (kg/ha) S1 = DAP 11.94 51.92 50.16 5.34 945 5968 S2 = SSP 12.44 54.23 52.20 5.55 1023 6024 Sources of phosphorus (S) S3 = Di-calcium phosphate 11.84 51.44 49.55 5.27 915 5724 S.Em± 0.31 0.65 0.73 0.10 19.87 124.44 C.D. at 5% NS 1.84 2.06 NS 56.41 NS Levels of phosphorus (P) P0 = control 11.13 49.44 47.04 5.21 888 5383 P1 = 15 kg K2O/ha 11.82 53.07 50.97 5.30 965 5882 P2 = 30 kg K2O/ha 13.29 55.07 53.89 5.65 1030 6451 S.Em± 0.31 0.65 0.73 0.10 19.87 124.44 C.D. at 5% 0.87 1.84 2.06 0.27 56.41 353.29 Biofertilizer Inoculation (PSB) (I) I1 = Uninoculated 10.58 48.81 47.02 5.06 913 5705 I2 = Inoculated (PSB) 13.57 56.25 54.25 5.71 1010 6105 SEm± 0.25 0.53 0.59 0.08 16.22 101.60 C. D. at 5% 0.71 1.50 1.68 0.22 46.06 288.46 C.V. (%) 12.29 6.04 7.03 8.80 10.13 10.32 194 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Table 2 Seed and straw yield, gross realization, net realization and cost benefit ratio (CBR) as influenced by different treatment combination in isabgol Sr. No Treatment Seed yield (kg ha-1) Straw yield (kg ha-1) Gross realization (` ha-1) Total cost (` ha-1) Net realization (` ha-1) CBR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 S1P0I1 843 5236 44773 7855 36918 1:5.70 2 S1P0I2 884 5653 47006 7985 39021 1:5.89 3 S1P1I1 876 6104 46857 8295 38562 1:5.65 4 S1P1I2 996 5792 52707 8425 44282 1:6.26 5 S1P2I1 977 6399 52033 8635 43398 1:6.03 6 S1P2I2 1097 6625 58160 8765 49395 1:6.64 7 S2P0I1 828 5097 43951 7855 36096 1:5.60 8 S2P0I2 951 5520 50329 7985 42344 1:6.30 9 S2P1I1 1023 5722 54012 8424 45588 1:6.41 10 S2P1I2 1092 6590 57873 8554 49319 1:6.77 11 S2P2I1 1079 6208 57068 8893 48175 1:6.42 12 S2P2I2 1165 7007 61775 9023 52752 1:6.85 13 S3P0I1 918 5172 48501 7855 40646 1:6.17 14 S3P0I2 903 5618 47948 7985 39963 1:6.00 15 S3P1I1 804 5514 42973 9421 33552 1:4.56 16 S3P1I2 1001 5570 52854 9551 43303 1:5.53 17 S3P2I1 864 5896 46153 10887 35266 1:4.24 18 S3P2I2 1000 6573 53309 11017 42292 1:4.84 selling Price : Seeds @ ` 50.00 kg-1 and Straw @ ` 0.5 kg-1 The economical aspect of crop production is the major consideration for the farmers while making a decision on the adoption of a new technology. Among the different treatment combinations, treatment combination S2P2I2 (SSP with 30 kg P2O5 ha1 and biofertilizer (PSB strain Bacillus Coagulans @ 20 ml ha-1 as a seed treatment) had registered highest net realization and CBR (Rs. 52752 ha-1 and 1:6.85), respectively followed by treatment combination S1P2I2 (DAP with application of 30 kg P2O5 ha-1 and Biofertilizer (PSB)) with net realization (Rs. 49395 ha-1) and CBR (1:6.64). The treatment combination S3P1I1 (Dicalcium phosphate with application of 15 kg P2O5 ha-1) registered lowest net realization (Rs. 33552 ha-1), while S3P2I1 (Dicalcium phosphate with application of 30 kg P2O5 ha-1) recorded lowest CBR (1:3.24), respectively. In the light of the results obtained from present investigation, it can be concluded that for securining higher seed yield and net realization of isabgol, crop should be fertilized with common basal application of 30 kg N and 30 kg P2O5 ha-1 from Urea (65 kg ha-1) and single super phosphate (SSP, 188 kg ha-1), respectively with biofertilizer (PSB strain Bacillus Coagulans @ 20 ml ha-1 as a seed treatment) on loamy sand soil under middle Gujarat conditions. referenCes Bhunia, S. R., Chauhan, R. P. S., Yadav, B. S. and Bhati, A.S. 2006. Effect of phosphorus, irrigation and Rhizobium on productivity, water use and nutrient uptake in fenugreek. Indian J. Agron., 51(3): 239-241. Desai, N. N. and Devra, B. S. 2008. Processing and Value edition in Isabgol., Krushivighyan (Jan. 2008). Pp : 17-19. Jadav, C. N., Sukhadiya, N. M. and Ramani, B. B. 2000. The effect of Sowing dates, nitrogen and phosphorus on growth 195 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” and yield of Isabgol (Plantago Ovata, Forsk.). GAU Res. J., 25(2): 84-87. Parihar, G. N. and Singh, R. 1995. Response of psyllium (Plantago vate, Forsk.) to nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization. Indian J. Agron., 40(3): 529-531. Singh, D., Sukhmat, C., Anwar, M. and Patra, D. D. 2003. Effect of organic and inorganic amendments on growth and nutrient accumulation by isabgol (Plantago ovata Forsk.) in sodic soil under greenhouse conditions. Jounal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences, 21 : 650-653. Utgikar, S., Sadawarte, K. T. and Wankhede, S. G. 2003. The growth and yield of Isabgol (Plantago vate, Forsk.) as influenced by nitrogen and phosphorus levels. Agric. Sci. Digest, 23(1): 77-78. Whankhade, S. G., Khode, P. P., Wanjari, S. S., Paturde, J. T. and Kale, M. R. 2005. Response of Isabgol (Plantago Ovata, Forsk.) to nitrogen and phosphorus. Agric. Sci. Digest. 25(2): 121-123. 196 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XIX storAge root numBer And nitrogen fertigAtion enhAnCes CLonAL muLtiPLiCAtion of ALstroemeriA Cv. ‘PLuto’ 1 Arvinder singh, 2i.t. nazki and 3z.A. Qadri Division of Floriculture, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (Kashmir), Shalimar, Srinagar-191121, Jammu and Kashmir Twelve different treatment combinations were accessed in a completely randomized block design with factorial concept for their effects on various vegetative and rhizome development parameters in Alstroemeria cv. ‘Pluto’ at the Floriculture Research Farm of Division of Floriculture, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Shalimar, Srinagar. Rhizomes of Alstroemeria cv.Pluto were planted under shade nets to study the effect of storage root number and nitrogen fertigation levels on growth and rhizome production parameters. Experimental treatments comprised of three levels of storage roots (S0= no storage roots, S 1=1-2 storage roots, S2 =2-4 storage roots) and four levels of nitrogen (N1=50 ppm N, N2=100 ppm N, N3=150 ppm N and N4=200 ppm N, respectively). The results revealed that maximum values in terms of percent established plants (61.39%), number of vegetative shoots (4.78), weight of the rhizome cluster (13.11g), number of rhizomes developed (2.38), length of the longest rhizome (5.50cm), number of new storage roots as well as fibrous roots (5.57 and 6.31, respectively) and the propagation coefficient (31.18) were recorded with the highest level (2-4) of storage roots (S2) tested in the study. Among the nitrogen levels, N4 (200 ppm N) recorded highest values in terms of percent established plants (63.34%), number of vegetative shoots (4.45), weight of the rhizome cluster (11.61g), number of rhizomes developed (2.00), length of the longest rhizome (5.66cm), number of new storage roots (4.82) as well as fibrous roots (6.14) and the propagation coefficient (24.32) over lower levels of nitrogen tested in the study. Key Words: Alstroemeria, storage roots, nitrogen, rhizome production, clonal multiplication Alstroemeria (Alstroemeria spp.) is a recent introduction into the world’s floriculture scene and has become a major cut flower in the global trade. High consumer interest, excellent vase life, high productivity in green house and good economic return has made alstroemeria an important greenhouse flower crop (Healy and Wilkins 1982; Blom and Piott 1990). The increasing popularity of alstroemeria is due to its wide range of flower colours available and its diversified use as a cut flower, potted flowering plant and herbaceous landscape plant. The genus is a rhizomatous monocot and belongs to the Alstroemeriaceae family. With the development of new hybrids, it has attained the status of one of the 10 most important cut flowers in the world. Alstroemerias grow from seeds with ease (King and Bridgen 1990) although plants are generally multiplied by division of rhizomes. Propagation by seed is generally avoided due to genetic variability and occasional difficulties in seed germination (Bridgen 1993). Alstroemeria being a newly introduced crop in the Kashmir valley, no systematic research has been done till date. However, the high cost of planting material is a major limitation in alstroemeria cultivation. Therefore the present investigation was carried out with the objective to ascertain the effect of storage root number and nitrogen fertigation on clonal multiplication of Alstroemeria cv. ‘Pluto’ and to find out an effective way of multiplication of the crop thus lowering the cost of planting material so as to popularize it as a cut flower in the region. materials and methods The present investigation was carried out during 2006-07 at the Floriculture Research Farm of Division of Floriculture, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Shalimar, Srinagar. Experiment was laid out in completely randomized design with factorial concept. There were 12 treatment combinations with three levels of storage roots (S0 = no storage roots, S1 =1-2 storage roots, S2= 2-4 storage roots) and four levels of nitrogen fertigation doses (N1 = 50 ppm N, N2 = 100 ppm N, N3 = 150 ppm N and N4 = 200 ppm N). The plants were fertigated with different concentrations of nitrogen at fortnightly interval from urea (Urea is a water soluble fertilizer containing 46%N) starting after one month of planting. Planting was done in poly bags filled with soil with eight poly bags per treatment per replication. The experiment was conducted under 35 percent shade nets. The mean monthly meteorological data during the course of the present studies is embodied in Fig 4. All the cultural operations were adopted uniformly. Observations on various growth and rhizome production parameters were recorded; data were analyzed statistically and presented in Table 1 and 2. 197 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” results and discussion effect of storage root number A gradual increase in all the parameters recorded was observed with an increase in the storage root number (Table 1). Rhizome sections with the highest number of storage roots (S2) recorded the highest percent established plants (61.39%) as compared to control (S0). More number of storage roots means more endogenous food material available during the initial growth which helps the plant to get established. Lower percent establishment in rhizome sections without storage roots could be ascribed to the absence of stored food material. These findings are in close agreement with Bond and Alderson (1993) who reported the importance of original root system for the propagule and reported rootless rhizome splits of alstroemeria failed to establish in the glasshouse. The number of vegetative shoots at 60, 90 and 120 days after planting also showed an increasing trend recording maximum values (2.15, 3.30 and 4.78, respectively) with the highest level of storage roots (S2) as depicted in Figure 1. This might be attributed to the presence of extra growing points in the rhizomes which results in the production of new shoots and further enhanced by the capacity of storage roots to sustain development and growth of more shoots. Highest storage root number (S2) significantly improved all rhizome production parameters viz; weight of the rhizome cluster (g), number of rhizomes developed, length of the longest rhizome (cm), number of new storage roots, number of fibrous roots and propagation coefficient as shown in Table 1. The presence of more storage roots on the rhizome sections at the time of planting might be the reason for higher weight of the harvested rhizome as compared to those without storage roots. Presence of storage roots improved the vegetative growth due to the availability of metabolites which in turn increase the photosynthetic area of the plant and hence more photosynthates are translocated to the underground rhizomes thereby increasing the above mentioned rhizome production parameters. Improved propagation coefficient could be attributed to the positive effects of various treatments on plant parameters such as weight of rhizome cluster, number of rhizomes developed, length as well as number of new storage roots. effect of nitrogen Nitrogen levels significantly improved all the parameters recorded (Table 1). Higher nitrogen level improved the percentage of established plants with 200 ppm (N4) recording (63.34%) as compared to lower levels. Nitrogen stimulates root growth and development as well as uptake of other nutrients. Increase in nitrogen levels allows the plant to utilize other nutrients optimally and thus put on vegetative growth which in turn improves plant establishment. Similar findings have been reported by Sehrawat et al., 2000; Sharma and Singh, 2001; Kumar and Mishra, 2003 and Kumar et al. 2003 in gladiolus. Table 1 and Figure 1 reveals that with the increase in the nitrogen level, vegetative shoots increase in number, 200 ppm N (N4) recorded significantly maximum number of vegetative shoots (1.95,3.03 and 4.45, respectively) at 60,90 and 120 days after planting as compared to lower levels. Nitrogen is known to stimulate the manufacture of carbohydrates and proteins which in turn enhances cell division and hence improve the vegetative growth of the plant. Nitrogen fertilization increases the availability of cytokinins to shoot resulting in enhanced bud and shoot development and hence more vegetative shoots. The production of cytokinins decline under nitrogen stress (Sattelmacher and Marashner, 1998; Goodwin and Erwee, 1983). These results get support from the work of Janna et al 1974, Baweja 2003;Ashok et al 1999 ; Sarkar and Roychoudhary 2003; Qasim et al 2008 and Patel and Arora 1983. Examination of table 1 reveals that there was a significant improvement in the rhizome production parameters with the application of nitrogen. The highest weight of the rhizome cluster (11.61g), length of the longest rhizome (5.66cm), number of fibrous roots (6.14) and propagation coefficient (24.32, Figure 1) were recorded with the highest dose of nitrogen (N4). Treatment N3 was found to be statistically at par with N4 in certain parameters like maximum number of rhizomes developed (2.00) and number of new storage roots (4.82) per plant. Nitrogen increases vegetative growth of the plant, increases dry matter accumulation and its subsequent mobilization to the tubers which ultimately helps in the enlargement of the tuber size and finally increases the weight of the cluster (Potti and Arora, 1986; Morton and Watson, 1948). Hence, larger the shoot area, bigger the underground rhizome which gives rise to more storage and fibrous roots as has been observed in the foregoing investigation. These results are supported by the findings of Bhattacharya, 1981; Singh, 1998 and Baboo and Singh, 2006 who also reported increased corm weight with the highest dose of nitrogen in gladiolus. interaction effect The interaction effect of storage root number and nitrogen levels showed significant effect in terms of number of vegetative shoots at 60 days after planting, 90 days after planting and the propagation coefficient. Highest number of vegetative shoots at 60 and 90 days after planting and the propagation coefficient (2.47, 5.27 and 40.91, respectively) were recorded with the treatment combination S2N4 whereas lowest was recorded with S0N1. However all the other parameters recorded remain statistically non significant (Table 2). 198 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1: experiment treatment details Nitrogen fertigation ( 04 levels) 50 ppm N (N50) 100 ppm N(N100) 150 ppm N(N150) 200 ppm N(N200) storage root number (03 levels) No storage roots (S0) 1-2 storage roots (S1) 2-4 storage roots (S2) Treatment combinations T1 S0N1 No storage roots (S0) +50 ppm N (N50) T2 S0N2 No storage roots (S0) +100 ppm N (N100) T3 S0N3 No storage roots (S0) +150 ppm N (N150) T4 S0N4 No storage roots (S0) +200 ppm N (N200) T5 S1N1 1-2 storage roots (S1) +50 ppm N (N50) T6 S1N2 1-2 storage roots (S1) +100 ppm N (N100) T7 S1N3 1-2 storage roots (S1) +150 ppm N (N150) T8 S1N4 1-2 storage roots (S1) +200 ppm N (N200) T9 S2N1 2-4 storage roots (S2) +50 ppm N (N50) T10 S2N2 2-4 storage roots (S2) +100 ppm N (N100) T11 S2N3 2-4 storage roots (S2) +150 ppm N (N150) T12 S2N4 2-4 storage roots (S2) +200 ppm N (N200) table 2. effect of storage root number and nitrogen fertigation on growth and rhizome production parameters in Alstroemeria cv. ‘Pluto’ Treatments Percent established plants Number of vegetative shoots Number of rhizomes developed per plant Length of longest rhizome (cm) Number of new storage roots developed per plant Number of fibrous roots per plant Propagation coefficient 60 90 DAP DAP Weight of 120 rhizome DAP cluster per plant (g) 0 (S0) 68.33* (55.82) 1.29 2.20 3.22 7.68 1.19 4.57 2.98 4.75 9.23 1-2 (S1) 71.33 *(57.89) 1.76 2.91 4.09 10.42 1.63 5.00 4.49 5.65 17.07 Storage roots (S) 2-4 (S2) 71.96*(61.39) 2.15 3.30 4.78 13.11 2.38 5.50 5.57 6.31 31.18 C.D. (P=0.05) 4.16 0.11 0.80 0.17 1.58 0.21 0.29 0.25 0.53 2.21 50 (N1) 69.27 *(56.76) 1.58 2.51 3.50 9.01 1.46 4.48 3.76 5.32 13.85 100 (N2) 69.08 *(56.28) 1.66 2.79 4.03 10.04 1.69 4.83 4.26 5.38 17.84 150 (N3) 70.28*(57.10) 1.75 2.88 4.15 10.95 1.79 5.13 4.55 5.44 20.62 200 (N4) 79.22 *(63.34) 1.95 3.03 4.45 11.61 2.00 5.66 4.82 6.14 24.32 C.D. (P=0.05) 4.80 0.13 0.21 0.20 1.82 0.25 0.35 0.29 0.62 0.25 Nitrogen levels (N) (ppm) *figures in parenthesis are arc sine transformation of the percent values 199 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 3. interaction effect of sxn on growth and rhizome production parameters in Alstroemeria cv. ‘Pluto’ Treatment Percent Number of vegetative combination established shoots plants 60 90 120 DAP DAP DPA Weight of rhizome cluster per plant (g) Number of rhizomes developed per plant Length of longest rhizome (cm) Number of new storage roots developed per plant Number Propagation of coefficient fibrous roots per plant S0N1 63.83 *(53.04) 1.07 1.79 2.00 6.35 1.11 4.05 2.33 4.83 7.07 S0N2 70.50 *(57.17) 1.16 2.22 3.38 7.13 1.23 4.45 2.80 4.58 8.69 S0N3 67.16 *(55.07) 1.33 2.26 3.58 7.88 1.18 4.76 3.25 4.66 9.20 S0N4 71.83 *(57.99) 1.61 2.55 3.92 9.35 1.27 5.03 3.55 4.91 11.96 S1N1 67.16 *(55.06) 1.69 2.60 4.00 9.10 1.44 4.55 3.99 5.13 13.06 S1N2 70.00 *(56.83) 1.83 2.88 4.16 10.19 1.61 5.03 4.58 5.58 16.25 S1N3 69.66 *(56.88) 1.75 3.03 4.05 11.05 1.70 4.71 4.66 5.48 18.81 S1N4 78.50* (62.80) 1.77 3.12 4.16 11.31 1.79 5.71 4.75 6.41 20.15 S2N1 76.83 *(62.16) 1.97 3.14 4.50 11.57 1.84 4.82 4.96 6.00 21.42 S2N2 66.76 *(54.84) 2.00 3.28 4.55 12.82 2.25 5.03 5.40 6.00 28.58 S2N3 74.00 *(59.36) 2.16 3.35 4.81 13.91 2.50 5.93 5.75 6.16 33.83 S2N4 87.33 *(69.22) 2.47 3.43 5.27 14.16 2.95 6.25 6.16 7.08 40.91 CD (P=0.05) NS 0.23 NS 0.35 NS NS NS NS NS 4.44 * figures in parenthesis are arc sine transformations of the percent values fig 1: rhizome portions used for propagation of Alstroemeria cv. ‘Pluto’ Rhizome sections without storage roots (S0) Rhizome sections with 1-2 storage roots (S1) Rhizome sections with 2-4 storage roots (S2) 200 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” figure 2: effect of storage root number and nitrogen fertigation levels on the number of vegetative shoots at 60, 90 and 120 dAP in alstroemeria cv. ‘Pluto’. Figure 3: Effect of storage root number and nitrogen fertigation levels on the propagation coefficient in alstroemeria cv. ‘Pluto’ 201 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Fig 4: Meteorological data (Temperature maximum and minimum oC) recorded during the crop period references Baboo, R. and Singh, R.D. 2006. Response of nitrogen, phosphorus and corm size on flowering and corm production in gladiolus. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 9(1): 66-68. Baweja, H.S. 2003. Effect of corm size and nitrogen levels on growth and flowering of gladiolus under mid hill conditions of Himachal Pradesh. Scientific Horticulture, 8: 187-189. Bhattacharya, S.K. 1981. Influence of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash fertilization on flowering and corm production in gladiolus. Singapore Journal of Primary Industries, 9(1):23-27. Bond, S. and Alderson, P.G. 1993. Establishment and growth of the rhizome of Alstromeria as affected by temperature and the root system. Journal of Horticulture Science, 68(6): 847-853. Goodwin, P.B. and Erwee, M.G. 1983. Hormonal influence on leaf growth in: The growth and functioning of leaves. pp. 207-203. (Eds. J.E. Dale and F.L. Mithorpe) Janna, B.K., Roy, S. and Bose, T.K. 1974. Studies on the nutrition of ornamental plants III. Effect of nutrition on growth and flowering of dahlia and tuberose. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 31(2): 182-185. Kumar, P.; Chaturvedi, O.P. and Misra, R.L. 2003. Effect of N and P on growth and flowering of gladiolus. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 6(2): 100-103. Kumar, R. and Misra, R.L. 2003. Response of gladiolus to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium fertilization. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 6(2): 95-99. Morton, A.B. and Watson, D.J. 1948. A physiological study of leaf growth. Annals of Botany, 12: 281. Potti, S.K. and Arora, J.S. 1986. Nutritional studies in gladiolus cv. Sylvia. I. Effect of N, P and K on growth, flowering, corm and cormel production. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 26(1-4): 125-128. Sattelamacher, B. and Marashner, H. 1978. Nitrogen nutrition and cytokinin activity in Solanum tuberosum. Plant Physiology, 42: 185-189. Sehrawat, A., Ahlawat, V.P. and Gupta, A.K. 2000. Influence of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium application on growth, flowering and corm production in gladiolus. Haryana Journal of Horticultural Sciences, 29(1-2): 71-72. Sharma, S. and Singh, D.B. 2001. Response of nitrogen fertilization on gladiolus. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture, 4(2): 128-129. Singh, K.P. 1998. Response of graded levels and split doses of nitrogen application on multiplication of gladiolus corms through cormels. Advances in Plant Sciences, 11(2): 305-307. Blom TJ, Piott (1990) Constant soil temperature influences flowering of Alstroemeria. Hortscience 25, 189-191 King JJ, Bridgen MP (1990) Environmental and genotypic regulation of Alstroemeria seed germination. HortScience 25(12), 1607-1609 Bridgen MP (1993) Alstroemeria In: De Hertogh, Marcel Lenard (Eds) The physiology of flower bulbs, Elsevier Science Publishing, The Netherlands, pp 201-209 202 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XX soiL BACteriA As ProteAse ProduCer And genomiC LiBrAry ConstruCtion of ProteAse gene Amandeep Kaur 1, seema Ahuja2 * and geetika sharma3 Department of Biopharma, Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Mohali, Punjab, India. 2 Departments of Agriculture, Baba Farid College, Deon, Bathinda- 151001, Punjab, India 1, 3 Abstract Six soil samples were collected from various areas of Chandigarh and Kharar, out of which 3 were waste soil samples and 3 garden soil samples. In all, 16 isolates from the garden soil and the waste soils were processed for the isolation of bacterial species. Bacillus was selected as the major producer of proteases. The optimum temperature and pH for the growth of this genera was found to be 45ºC and 7 respectively by Well Assay Method. Gram staining and microbial study of microorganisms was done to determine the species. The screened microbial colonies revealed the protease producing species of Bacillus. A genomic DNA library was constructed and screened to obtain the corresponding protease gene. It is revealed from the present study that this protease shows high activity on skimmed milk plates by generating a clear zone of hydrolysis. Keywords: Bacillus, Genomic library, Protease gene, Isolation. introduction Proteases are hydrolytic enzymes that hydrolyze proteins by adding water across peptide bonds and break them in smaller peptides in organic solvents1. The proteases play a critical role in many physiological and pathological processes such as protein catabolism, blood coagulation, cell growth and migration, tissue arrangement, morphogenesis in development, inflammation, and tumor growth, activation of zymogens and transport of secretary proteins across the membranes2. Around 30% to 40% of the cost of enzyme depends upon the cost of the medium3. The enzymatic yield obtained from fermentation, cost of their production and downstream processing cost determines the final cost of the enzyme produced4. For industrial usage proteases can be obtained by fermentation from animal tissues, plant cells and microbial cells5. The major objectives of the present study were isolation of protease producing bacteria, optimization of bacteria and gene cloning. Proteases are one of the standard ingredients of all kinds of detergents ranging from those used for household laundering to reagents used for cleaning contact lenses or dentures. The use of enzymes has also proved successful in improving leather quality, in reducing environmental pollution6,for cheese making, baking, preparation of soya hydrolyses, meat tenderization and the oral administration of proteases as a digestive aid to correct certain lytic enzyme deficiency syndromes7. materials and methods Soil samples were collected in small polythene bags from different areas of Chandigarh and Kharar, for the isolation of protease producing bacteria. The soil samples were taken to Laboratory of Biopharma Department, Chandigarh Group of Colleges, Gharuan (Mohali). media Preparation, isolation, screening and streaking of protease producing microorganism: The sample collected from different location was subjected to serial dilutions for the isolation of micro-organism. Three dilutions i.e.10-3 , 10-5 and 10-7 were selected for further analysis .Screening and streaking of protease producing microorganism was done on nutrient agar plates containing skim milk as substrate. The gram staining was done using different dyes. Then optimization of temperature and pH was done. dnA isolation: Genomic DNA was isolated using Tris-HCl, EDTA, Glucose, Proteinase K, SDS, autoclaved water, Phenol, Chloroform, Isoamylalcohol, TE Buffer in various concentrations using standard procedure. Then agarose gel electrophoresis was done. Spectrophometric analysis was done to visualize DNA bands. Competent cell preparation was done by CaCl2 method. Transformation was done using pUC19 as vector. Further plasmid DNA was isolated using TrisHCl, EDTA, Glucose, potassium acetate, NaOH, SDS, Glacialacetic acid, phenol, Chloroform, Isoamylalcoholusing standard procedure, agarose gel electrophoresis and spectrophometric analysis . digestion, Ligation and transformation: A restriction digestion was done using Eco R1, Eco R1 buffer, DNA template, a procedure used in molecular biology to prepare DNA for analysis, genomic library construction (fig.4). The restriction 203 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” enzyme Eco R1 was used to cleave DNA molecules. Then ligation was done using T4DNA ligase, T4 DNA ligase buffer, restricted DNA, restricted pUC 19 and sterilized water.The ligated samples were used to transform E.coli 5 α competent cells by using heat shock method (fig .5).Further,the positive colonies were picked up and streaked on LB ampicillin plates and preserved as a reference for genomic library.Thus a genomic library was constructed and screened to obtain the corresponding protease gene. results and discussion The colonial growth was observed on the nutrient agar media after incubating it at 37°C for 24 hrs. Screening of protease producing microorganisms done using skim milk as substrate revealed the clear zones around the colonies (fig.1). This indicated that the strain had the potential to hydrolyze the skim milk present in the medium. Further, from the staining and morphological characters it was observed that the bacterium was Bacillus sp. as mostly observed stains were purple or blue in color, rod shaped and gram positive. Protease producing bacteria showed maximum growth at around pH 7 (fig.2) and maximum zone of hydrolysis at temperature 45°C (fig.3). fig. 1: zone of hydrolysis produced by protease producing microorganism fig. 2: hydrolysis zone at ph 7 fig. 3: hydrolysis at temperature 45°C fig.4: Gel image showing plasmid DNA bands fig. 5: Petriplate showing transformed colonies 204 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ligated product was used to transform the cloning host (E.coli DH5α competent cells). Further, the positive colonies picked up and streaked on LB ampicillin plates were preserved as a reference for genomic library. Thus a genomic library was constructed and screened to obtain the corresponding protease gene. references Al-Shehri, L., M. Abdul- Rahman and S. Yasser, Production and some properties of protease produced by Bacillus licheniformis isolated from Tihamet aseer, Saudi Arabia. Pak. J. Bio. Sci.2004, 7:1631-1635. A.J.Barett, Proteolytic enzymes: aspartic and metallopeptidases. Methods Enzymol.1995, 248:183. J.L.Galazzo and J.E.Bailey, Growing Sacchromycescerevisae in calcium alginate beads induces cell alterations that accelerate glucose conversion to ethanol. Biotech Bioeng.1990, 36:417-426. R.Gupta, Q.K. Beg and P.Lorenz, Bacterial alkaline proteases: molecular approaches and industrial applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol.2002b, 59:15-32. H.S.Joo and C.S.Chang, Production of protease from a new alkalophilc Bacillus sp. I-312 grown on soyabean meal. Process biochem.2005, 40:1263-1270. A.D.Neklyudov, A.N. Ivankin and A.V.Berdutina, Properties and uses of protein hydrolyzates (review). Appl Biochem Microbiol.2000, 36: 452-459. F.M.Olajuyigbe, J.O. Ajele. Production dynamics of extracellular protease from Bacillus species. Afr J Biotechnol.2005, 4:776-9. 205 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XXI enhAnCement of indoor environment through interiorsCAPing B. s. dilta, suman thapa, B. P. sharma and narender negi balbirsinghdilta@gmail.com, sumannthapa@gmail.com Department of Floriculture & Landscaping, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan-173230 introduction Interiorscaping is the art and science of growing and arranging plants indoors. It involves the selection, placing and maintenance of plants to improve and enhance the appearance of the indoor environment. Using plants indoors or interiorscaping is not a new concept, plants have been used indoors ever since people moved indoors. The Scandinavians and the Americans are considered to be the pioneers in indoor gardening. In ancient civilizations of Egypt, India and Rome it was common to bring pot grown plants for indoor decorations. Plants in the past were used mainly for their aesthetic purpose, as a hobby or for fashion (Salaria and Salaria, 2010). Today, plants apart from their aesthetic benefits are used for economic, architectural, engineering and most recently for health benefits. need for enhancement of indoor environment increasing urbanization and the way we live- As a result of urbanization, people come to live in urban areas. Urban dwellers spend about 90% of their time indoors (at home, school or office) (Cavallo, 1997). Urban air pollution is a worldwide health concern and it is estimated to cause some 1400 death per year in Metropolitan cities like Sydney (NSW EPA, 2006). Typically urban air contains in the order of thousands of chemicals, approximately 10% of them are classified as carcinogenic. our innate need for links with nature- Our response to nature and our surroundings are influenced by both innate and learned components, that is genotype and phenotype (Miyazaki and Tsunetsugu, 2005). Researchers have now found that nearly two million years of development in natural environment has left its mark on modern humans in the form of a partly biological or genetic predisposition to respond positively to nature (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989). indoor air quality- Good indoor air quality is essential for the health and well-being of building/ house occupants. A building’s/house’s air quality is therefore a major indoor environment issue. Indoor air pollution is typically even higher then outdoors. Indoor air can often contain 5 to 7 times the contaminant concentrations of outdoor city air (Brown, 1997). Researchers have pointed out that indoor air of good quality offers indoor occupants substantial benefits (Fanger,2006) while poor quality air causes adverse effects such as asthma, dizziness, physical fatigue and some allergic diseases in the eyes, nose and throat (Seo et al., 2006). Benefits of Interiorscaping For centuries it has been assumed, both in Western and Eastern Urban civilizations, that visual contact with plants or natural elements might stimulate psychological well-being and have beneficial effects on man (Ulrich and Parsons, 1992). But in the past, plants were known and used only for aesthetic, emotional and spiritual benefits. Only recently researches have been carried out to test the effect of plants on human well-being and convincing evidences have been brought forward to prove plants effect human health and well-being positively. Interiorscaping today includes economic, architectural and health benefits. health The effects of having plants in one’s immediate surroundings have been promoted for centuries, and now researches have documented that the benefits are not just a placebo effect. The benefits areImproves well-being and reduces stress by maintaining blood pressure and reducing muscle tension (Relf, 2008). Stress reducing responses also occur when people are in a room with a few containerized plants, even when their attention is not drawn to the plants (Lohr and Pearson-Mims, 1996). Decreases perception of pain- People recovered more quickly if they had a view of trees from their hospital room rather than a wall (Ulrich, 1984). Pain tolerance is also increased in the presence of interior plants among people who are not in acute pain (Lohr and Pearson-Mims, 2000; 2008). 206 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Reduces noise levels – Plants can reflect or diffract sounds depending upon the frequency of noise. Plants reduce noise under certain conditions and this response was affected by many variables including sound frequency, plant placement and the specific room. Generally it was found that plants worked best at reducing high frequency sounds in rooms with harsh surfaces (Freeman, 2003). Cleans the air- Influence of interior plants on dust accumulation has also been explored (Lohr and Pearson-Mims, 1996). Studies have been carried out to know how people feel in the presence and absence of plants and these studies have proved that numbers of positive feelings are associated with plants. These feelings include being happier, content, attentiveness, carefree, playful and friendly. The productivity and mental concentration was found to be increased by 12 % (Lohr and Pearson-Mims, 1996). Mental fatigue has also seen to be reduced by plants (Tennessen and Cimprich, 1995). AesthetiC: Tok Furuta, 1983 explained the aesthetic importance of plants which add warmth, colour and charm to the architectural beauty of the house. It can be used to decorate walls, as sculpture and for line calligraphy. Plants soften harsh architectural surfaces and compliments the interior settings and draw away attention from unwanted areas. eConomiC: Plants are inexpensive alternative for home decoration and never go out of fashion. It reduces energy consumption through heat reduction and wind modification. These are portable, adaptive, self-regulating, beautiful and sustainable. They are adaptive to our environments and work well both in AC and non-AC conditions. Foliage plants can raise the relative humidity to healthier and more comfortable levels in interior spaces (Lohr, 1992). And thus, lowers the use of mechanical operators which consume electricity such as air conditioners, fans etc. ArChiteCturAL: Tok Furuta, 1983 explained the importance of plants which may fully or partially control glare from lights or windows. They control privacy by screening the place from unwanted/ undesirable viewing. Plants help in progressive realization of views by partially screening desirable views to entice and enhance the enjoyment of seeing the view. These can be used for dividing space, guiding traffic and screening of unpleasant views. indoor environments and sources of indoor Air Pollution Eleishi, 2009 divided Indoor environments into two parts i.e.,home and work place. Sources of air pollution at home includes, poor ventilation, furniture and building materials, lead paints, heaters and fireplaces, sewer gases, detergents and soaps, deodorizers and incense, air conditioning systems, dry cleaning fluids, air fresheners and pesticides. Sources of air pollution at workplace includes copiers and printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy paper, graphics and craft materials like glues and adhesives, permanent markers, photographic solutions, electrical and telephone cables, air conditioners, cleaning and disinfectant agents, chalk dust and overcrowding. indoor Air Pollutants Air pollutants are the substances that are present in concentrations exceeding the normal range in the atmosphere and that are not part of the fresh air content. The main pollutants are Benzene, Trichloroethylene, Formaldehyde and Carbon monoxide. Wolverton et al., in 1989 describe the different sources of pollution and the effects of pollutants on human health. environmental conditions for plant growth indoors Environmental conditions indoors are various on the basis of temperature, humidity and light. Although plants adapt to various conditions but different plants require different conditions for their optimum growth and development. It requires various combinations of light, temperature and humidity with the intensity of low (L), medium (M) and high (H). Following are the plants suitable for the different conditions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Low Light, Low temperature and Low humidity Aspidistra elatior, Aucuba japonica Low Light, Low temperature and medium humidity Aspisdistra elegans Low Light, Low temperature and high humidity Selaginella martensii Low Light, medium temperature and Low humidity Spathiphyllum floribundum, Cissus antartica Low Light, medium temperature and medium humidity Philodendron scandens, Syngonium podophyllum, Aglonema modestum Low Light, medium temperature and high humidity Fittonia verchaffeltii, Chamaedorea elegans, Monstera deliciosa, Asplenium nidus 207 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Low Light, high temperature and Low humidity Peperomia prostrata Low Light, high temperature and medium humidity Dracaena fragrans Low Light, high temperature and high humidity Crytomium falcatum, Dieffenbachia amoena medium Light, Low temperature and Low humidity Primula vulgaris medium Light, Low temperature and medium humidity Clivia miniata, Hyacinthus orientalis medium Light, Low temperature and high humidity Paphiopedilum, Begonia Lorraine, Cyperus alternifolius medium Light, medium temperature and Low humidity Aleo arborescens, Crassula arborescens medium Light, medium temperature and medium humidity Chlorophytum comosum, Philodendron scandens, Kalanchoe blossfeldiana, Saxifraga stolonifera medium Light, medium temperature and high humidity Jacobinia carnea, Dizygotheca veitchi medium Light, high temperature and Low humidity Cissus rhombifolia medium Light, high temperature and medium humidity Neoregelia medium Light, high temperature and high humidity Cordyline terminalis, Cattleya sp. high Light, Low temperature and Low humidity Parodia, Pittosporum tobira high Light, Low temperature and medium humidity Azaleas, Cymbidium,Hydrangea high Light, Low temperature and high humidity Calceolaria spp. high Light, medium temperature and Low humidity Echinocactus grusonii, Cereus peruvianus, Senecio rowleyanus, Beaucarnea recurvata High Light, Medium Temperature and Medium Humidity Coleus, Sansevieria, Aloe barbadensis High Light, Medium Temperature and High Humidity Begonia samperflorence, Begonia metallica, Dendrobium nobile High Light, High Temperature and Low Humidity Haworthia, Yucca aloifolia High Light, High Temperature and Medium Humidity Brassia actinophylla High Light, High Temperature and High Humidity Ficus lyrata, Pandanus sanderi indoors Consists mainly of four Areas service Area (mhh, mmm, mmh) Service area such as kitchen is a place where temperature and humidity varies greatly when used and not used. Temperature and humidity is likely to increase when in use and decreases when it is not being used. Although various plants can be used, as it is one of the places where care can be taken the most, big and tall plants might be inconvenient for such a place. Plants which are functional and appropriate can be grown in this place, such as Mint, Parsley, Celery and Thyme. Private Area (mmh, Lmh, LLh, mmL, Lmm, mmm, hmm) Private areas include bath room and bed room. Bath room (mmH, lmH, llH, lmm) Bath room is an area where humidity is maximum when in use, light is mainly low and temperature is medium to low. Plants which can tolerate in high humidity and low light can be placed in this area such as: Nephrolepsis sp., Asplenium nidus (bird nest fern), Philodendrons scandens, Cissus repens, Scindapsus aureus(pothos) and Philodendron scandens Bed room (mmm, mml, Hml) Bed room is a private area where light is medium to high, temperature is always optimum or medium and humidity is medium to low. Plants like Chlorophytum can be used for its ability to remove pollutant like formaldehyde from cloths, and which in turn cleans the air. Plants that come under this category are: Cyclamen persicum, Chlorophytum comosum, Clivia miniata and Spathiphyllum ‘Mauna Loa Public area (mmm, Hmm, mml) Public area is a place where the public or guests spend time with the family, where showy, large or colourful plants can be used. This area usually has high to medium light, medium temperature and medium to low humidity. Various plants can be used under this condition such as: Spathiphyllum ‘Mauna Loa’ (Peace Lily), Hedera helix (English ivy), Scindapsus aureus (pothos), Begonia semperflorence, Ficus elasticus and Ficus pandurata 208 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” family living area (mmm, Hml, mml) Family living area is an area where all the family members meet and spend time together. This area usually has medium to high light, medium temperature and low to medium humidity, and plants that can be used are: Chamaedorea seifritzii (Bamboo palm), Chlorophytum (Spider Plant), Philodendron scandens and Spathiphyllum sp. (Peace Lily) references Brown S K. 1997. Volatile organic compounds in indoor air: sources and control. Chemistry in Australia. Pp. 10-13 Cavallo D. 1997. Exposure to air pollution in homes of subjects living in Milan. Proceedings of healthy buildings. 3: 141145 Elieshi H H. 2009. Nineteen causes of indoor air pollution. Indoor Air. http://www.isiaq.org/ Fanger P O. 2006. What is IAQ?. Indoor Air. 16: 328-334 Freeman k. 2003. Plants and their acoustic benefits. http://www.plants-in-buildings.com/acoustic.php Furuta Tok.1983. Interior Landscaping. Reston Publishing Company, Virginia. p. 177 Kaplan R and Kaplan S. 1989. The experience of nature: a psychological perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Ledger L. 2003. Health and nature- new challenges for health promotion. in: Health promotion international. 18: 3, 265272 Lohr V I.1992. The contribution of interior plants to relative humidity in an office. in: Relf D ed. The role of horticulture human well-being and social development. Timber Press, Oregon, USA. Pp. 117-119 Lohr V I and Pearson-Mims C H. 1996. Particulate matter accumulation on horizontal surface in interiors: influence of foliage plants. Atmospheric Environment. 30: 2565-2568 Lohr V I and Pearson-Mims C H. 2000. Physical discomfort maybe reduced in the presence of interior plants. Hort. Technol. 10: 53-58 Lohr V I and Pearson-Mims C H. 2008. People’s response to discomfort in the presence of interior plants or art. Acta Horticulture. 790: 173-178 Miyazaki Y and Tsunetsugu Y. 2005. Tentative proposal on physiological polymorphism and its experimental approaches. Journal of Physiological and Anthropological Application in Human Science. 24: 297-300 NSW Environment Protection Agency.2006. Cited in The Daily Telegraph, 24/02/2006. Relf P D. 2008. Renewing the relationship between people and plants in 21st century. Acta Horticulture. 790: 45- 52 Salaria A S and Salaria B S. 2010. Horticulture at a glance. Volume III. Pp. 488-504 Seo B R, Jung M H, Jeon J M and Shin H S. 2006. The characteristics of aldehyde emission in new apartment houses. J. Kor. Soc. 3: 158-169 Tennessen C M and Cimprich B.1995. View to nature: effects on attention. J. Environ. Psychol. 15:77-85 Ulrich R S. 1984. View through a window may influence recovery from surgery. Science 224: 420-421 Ulrich R S and Parsons R. 1992. Influence of passive experiences with plants on individual well-being and health. in: Relf D. ed. Human benefits of plants. Portland, Oregon. Pp. 93-105 Wolverton B C, Johnson A and Bounds k. 1989. Interior landscape plants for indoor air pollution abatement, final report. Stennis Space Center, NASA, Mississippi. 209 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XXII reLAtionshiP to fLuoride Content With vArious PArAmeters of ground WAters in nAWAn tehsiL (nAgAur) rAJAsthAn r. Anwala1, v. Bhunwal2, i.J. gulati3 M.Sc.(Ag) Department of Soil Science College of Agriculture, Bikaner Rajasthan, India Email: rajveeranwala@gmail.com 2M.Sc.(Ag)Department of Soil Science and agriculture chemistry Chimanbhai Patel College of Agriculture Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University Sardarkrushinagar - 385 506 3Professor and Dean, College of Agriculture, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner – 334 006 1 Abstract An investigation was carried out to assess the status of fluoride in the ground irrigation waters Nawan tehsil. From 50 villages of Nawan tehsil, 100 ground water, samples were collected and analysed for various chemical constituents. The results indicated that only 29 per cent water samples were found to have fluoride content less than 1.5 ppm i.e fluoride content within permissible limit for drinking purpose as per W.H.O. and also safe for irrigation purpose. EC, RSC, Adj. SAR, Sodium and magnesium cations and chloride and carbonate + bicarbonate of water had shown marked effect on fluoride content of ground water as evidently indicated by a highly significant positive correlation coefficient between fluoride and EC, RSC and Adj. SAR of ground water. Key Words: fluoride, chemical constituents, cations, W.H.O. introduction Chemical composition of ground water is one of the prime factors on which the suitability of water for domestic, industrial and agriculture purpose depends. Among the water quality parameters, fluoride ion exhibits unique properties as its concentration in optimum dose in drinking water is advantageous to health but if concentration exceeds the limit then affects the health. Recently fluoride ion has also being incriminated as carcinogen and mutagen though this aspect is not universally accepted (Grandjean et al., 1992) The occurrence and development of endemic fluorosis is related to fluoride content in various component of environment, viz. air, soil and water. The problem of excessive fluoride in ground water in India was first reported in 1937 in the state of Andhra Pradesh (Short et.al.,1937). Rajasthan ranks second amongst the most endemic areas of country and shares approximately 10 per cent of world fluorosis problems. Ozha and Golani (2005) reported that in nine district of Rajasthan>50% villages are affected by fluoride toxicity. Amongst the most severely affected areas of Rajasthan Nagaur, Jodhpur, Bikaner, Pali, and Sirohi, possess supra optimum fluoride concentration. material methods An inventory survey of the area was done, where in from 50 villages of Nawan tehsil, 100 ground water samples from wells/ tube wells were collected. The water samples were collected in one hundred poly thin bottles of 500 ml capacity with all necessary precautions. The bottles were carefully corked, properly labeled and brought to the laboratory for further analysis work. result and discussin In order to study the possible relation between the fluoride and some of the chemical parameters studied of ground water, correlation and regression studies were performed and the results so obtained are presented and discussed in preceding paragraphs. ph : A perusal of data given in Table 4.4 on distribution of fluoride content in different range of pH of irrigation water indicated that water 8, 10, 2 and 14 per cent water samples had fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5, respectively at pH range below 8.0, whereas, 11, 8, 5 and 12 per cent water samples had fluoride content between below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5, respectively at pH range of 8.0 – 8.2,. Similarly, 10, 6, 3 and 11 water samples having pH of below 8.2 had fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5, respectively. A critical examination of data presented in Table 4.4 and Fig. 4.1a evidently show that a positive but non-significant (r=0.174) relationship existed between fluoride content and pH of ground water, even when this relationship was factored further at smaller interval of pH ranges, it remained non-significant at all the ranges (Fig. 4.2a), however, weakest relationship was noticed at pH range 210 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 8.0 – 8.2. The present results are in the line with the findings of Paliwal et al. (1969) and Chhabra et al. (1980). eC : It is clearly seen from the data presented in Table 4.4 on fluoride content in different range of EC of irrigation water that samples having EC below 2.0 dS m-1, 23, 13, 5 and 18 per cent water samples showed fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively, whereas, in EC range of 2 – 4 dS m-1, 3, 5, 3 and 4 per cent samples had fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5, respectively. Further in the EC range above 4.0 dS m-1, 3, 6, 2 and 15 per cent water samples had fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. EC of water had shown marked effect on fluoride content of ground water (Fig. 4.1b) as evidently indicated by a highly significant positive correlation coefficient (r=0.304**) between fluoride and EC of ground water. When this relationship was factored further at smaller intervals of EC ranges, some interesting facts emerged (Fig. 4.2b). The Fig. 4.2b showed that water samples having EC below 2 dS m-1 had positive significant correlation (r= 0.402**) with fluoride content of irrigation water, whereas, it had negative and significant correlation (r = -0.537*) with water samples having EC between 2.0 – 4.0 dS m-1. Water samples having EC above 4.0 exhibited positive but non-significant correlation (r = 0.134) with fluoride content of irrigation water. Similar type of finding was also reported by Singh and Sinsinwar (1975). rsC: The data presented in Table 4.4 regarding distribution of fluoride content in different range of RSC of irrigation water showed that below 1.5 me L-1 RSC, 25, 18, 9 and 19 per cent water samples observed in fluoride categories below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively, whereas, in range of 1.5 – 3.0 me L-1 of RSC, only 4, 5, 1 and 12 per cent samples were recorded in fluoride categories below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Water samples having RSC content above 3.0 me L-1, 7 per cent samples were observed out of which 6 per cent samples were in fluoride category 1.5 – 3.0 ppm and only 1 sample was in category above 4.5 ppm. RSC of water had shown marked effect on fluoride content of ground water (Fig. 4.1c) as evidently indicated by a highly significant positive correlation coefficient (r=0.461**) between fluoride and RSC of ground water. When this relationship was factored further at smaller intervals of RSC ranges, some interesting facts emerged (Fig. 4.2c). Water samples having RSC in between 1.5 – 3.0 me L-1 had positive significant correlation (r= 0.436*) with fluoride content of irrigation water, whereas, it had positive and nonsignificant correlation (r = 0.176 and 0.203) with water samples having RSC below 1.5 and above 3.0 meL-1 (Fig. 4.2c). phc : Data on distribution of F content under different ranges of pHc of water (Table 4.4) indicated that 5, 5, 3 and 9 per cent water samples fall in fluoride category below1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively in the pHc range less than 7.2 (Table 4.4), whereas, in pHc range of 7.2 – 7.6, 15, 12, 5 and 15 per cent water samples had fluoride content between below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Further in pHc range of above 7.6, 9, 7, 2 and 13 per cent water samples had fluoride in the range of below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. A critical examination of data presented in Table 4.4 and Fig. 4.1d evidently show that a negative but non-significant (r=-0.012) relationship existed between fluoride content and pHc of ground water, even when this relationship was factored further at smaller interval of pHc ranges, it remained non-significant at all the ranges (Fig. 4.2d), however, weakest relationship was noticed at pHc range 7.2 – 7.6 (Fig. 4.2d). Adj. sAr : In Adj. SAR (Table 4.4) range below 25, 22, 12, 4 and 14 per cent water samples and in range of 25 – 50 of Adj. SAR 2, 5, 4 and 7 per cent samples showed fluoride below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively, Whereas, waters having Adj. SAR concentration above 50, 5, 7, 2 and 16 water samples showed fluoride in range of below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Adj. SAR of water had shown marked effect on fluoride content of ground water (Fig. 4.1e) as evidently indicated by a highly significant positive correlation coefficient (r=0.336**) between fluoride and Adj. SAR of ground water. When this relationship was factored further at smaller intervals of Adj. SAR, very interesting facts were observed (Fig. 4.2e). Water samples having Adj. SAR in below 25 had positive significant correlation (r= 0.373**) with fluoride content of irrigation water, whereas, it had positive and non-significant correlation (r = 0.438) with water samples having Adj. SAR above 50. While, Adj. SAR between 25 – 50 had negative and significant correlation (r= -0.252*) with fluoride content of irrigation water (Fig. 4.2e). na+ : The data regarding distribution of fluoride content in different range of Na+ are presented in Table 4.5. An examination of data in table indicate that in category Na+ below 20 me L-1, 24, 14, 7 and 21 per cent water samples showed fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively, whereas, in Na+ 20 - 40 me L-1, 2, 5, 1 and 2 per cent samples had fluoride content between below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Further in the Na+ above 40 me L-1, 3, 5, 2 and 14 per cent water samples had fluoride content between below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Na+ cation of water had shown marked effect on fluoride content of ground water (Fig. 4.3a) as evidently indicated by a highly significant positive correlation coefficient (r=0.307**) between fluoride and Na+ cation of ground water. When this relationship was factored further at smaller intervals of Na+ cation ranges, some interesting facts emerged (Fig. 4.4a). Water samples having Na+ below 20 me L-1 had positive and significant correlation (r= 0.426**) 211 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” with fluoride content of irrigation water, whereas, it had positive and non-significant correlation (r = 0.103) with water samples having Na+ cation above 40.0 me L-1. Sodium cation having in between 20 – 40 me L-1 had negative and nonsignificant correlation (r=-0.212) with fluoride content (Fig. 4.4a). These findings are in line with the observation reported by Das et al. (2003). A high Na+ in alkaline environment is likely to enhance solubilization of the fluoride bearing minerals. K+ : The data presented in Table 4.5 regarding distribution of fluoride content in different range of RSC of irrigation water showed that below 0.25 me L-1 K+, 6, 5, 2 and 8 per cent water samples observed in fluoride categories below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively, whereas, in range of 0.25 – 0.50 me L-1, 17, 11, 8 and 14 per cent samples were recorded in fluoride categories below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Water samples having K+ content above 0.50 me L-1, 6, 8 and 15 per cent water samples had fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. A critical examination of data presented in Table 4.5 and Fig. 4.3b evidently show that a negative but nonsignificant (r=-0.023) relationship existed between fluoride content and K+ cation of ground water. When this relationship was factored further at smaller intervals of K+ cation ranges, some interesting facts emerged (Fig. 4.4b). Water samples having K+ below 0.25 had negative and significant correlation coefficient (r=-0.641**) with fluoride content of irrigation waters, while K+ 0.25 – 0.50 and above 0.50 me L-1 had negative and non-significant correlation(r = -0.030 and -0.099) with fluoride content (Fig. 4.4b). Ca2+ : A perusal of data given in Table 4.5 on distribution of fluoride content in different range of Ca2+ of irrigation water indicated that water samples having Ca2+ below 2 me L-1, 13, 10, 2 and 11 per cent water samples had fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5, respectively, whereas, Ca2+ of 2.0 – 4.0 me L-1, 16, 8, 7 and 21 per cent water samples had fluoride content between below1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5, respectively. Similarly, 6, 1 and 5 per cent water samples having Ca2+ of above 4 me L-1 had fluoride content between 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5, respectively. A critical examination of data presented in Table 4.5 and Fig. 4.3c evidently show that a positive but non-significant (r=0.138) relationship existed between fluoride content and Ca++ cation of ground water, even when this relationship was factored further at smaller interval of Ca++ ranges, it remained non-significant at all the ranges (Fig. 4.4c), however, weakest relationship was noticed at Ca++ cation range 2.0 – 2.4. mg2+ : It is clearly seen from the data presented in Table 4.5 on fluoride content in different range of Mg2+ of irrigation water that out of 100 water samples having Mg2+ below 1.0 me L-1, 19, 10, 3 and 13 per cent water samples showed fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively, whereas, in Mg2+ range of 1.0 – 2.0 me L-1, 10, 8, 6 and 12 per cent samples had fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5, respectively. Further in the Mg2+ range above 2.0 me L-1, 6, 1 and 12 per cent water samples had fluoride content between 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Mg2+ cation of water had shown marked effect on fluoride content of ground water (Fig. 4.3d) as evidently indicated by a highly significant positive correlation coefficient (r=0.281**) between fluoride and Mg2+ cation of ground water. When this relationship was factored further at smaller interval of Mg2+ ranges, it remained non-significant at all the ranges (Fig. 4.4d), however, weakest relationship was noticed at Mg2+ cation range 1.0 – 2.0 me L-1. Cl- : A perusal of data given in Table 4.6 on fluoride content in different range of chloride anion of irrigation water indicated that water samples having chloride of below 10 me L-1, 23, 13, 5 and 17 per cent water samples showed fluoride content between below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively, whereas, in Cl- 10 - 30 me L-1, 4, 5, 3 and 6 per cent samples had fluoride content between below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Further in the Cl- above 30 me L-1, 2, 6, 2 and 14 per cent water samples had fluoride content below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Cl- anion of water had shown marked effect on fluoride content of ground water (Fig. 4.5a) as evidently indicated by a highly significant positive correlation coefficient (r=0.294**) between fluoride and Cl- anion of ground water. When this relationship was factored further at smaller intervals of Cl- anion ranges, some interesting facts emerged (Fig. 4.6a). Water samples having Cl- below 10 had positive and significant correlation coefficient (r=0.401**) with fluoride content of irrigation waters, while Cl- 10 – 30 me L-1 had negative and significant correlation (r = -0.526**) with fluoride content. Chloride anion having more than above40 me L-1 had positive and non-significant correlation (r=0.021) with fluoride content (Fig. 4.6a). Co32- + hCo3-: Data given in Table 4.6 on distribution of fluoride in different range of carbonate + bicarbonate anion of irrigation water indicated that water samples having carbonate + bicarbonate range of below 4.0 me L-1, about 12, 9, 3 and 8 per cent water samples showed fluoride below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively, whereas, in carbonate + bicarbonate range of 4.0 – 8.0 me L-1, 17, 9, 7 and 18 per cent water samples had fluoride content between below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Further 6 and 11 per cent water samples having CO32- + HCO3- in between 1.5 – 3.0 and above 8.0 me L-1 had fluoride between 1.5 – 3.0 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. CO32- + HCO3- anion of water had shown marked effect on fluoride content of ground water (Fig. 4.5b) as evidently indicated by a 212 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” highly significant positive correlation coefficient (r=0.332**) between fluoride and CO32- + HCO3- anion of ground water. When this relationship was factored further at smaller intervals of CO32- + HCO3- anion ranges, some interesting facts emerged (Fig. 4.6b). Water samples having CO32-+HCO3- below 4 me L-1 had positive and significant correlation coefficient (r=0.363*) with fluoride content of irrigation waters, while CO32-+HCO3- anion between 4 – 8 me L-1 had positive and non-significant correlation (r = 0.141) with fluoride content (Fig. 4.6b). Carbonate + bicarbonate anion having above 8 me L-1 had negative and non-significant correlation (r=-0.008) with fluoride content. Handa (1983) also reported that fluoride waters are usually associated with Cl-HNO3 types waters. Such waters are normally super-saturated with respect to calcite and dolomite. the critical limits of groundwater for irrigation as follows: S.No. Parameters Critical limites 1. pH 6.5 – 8.4 2. EC (dS m-1) 3. SAR (me L ) < 10.0 4. Adj. SAR (me L-1) < 3.0 5. RSC (me L-1) < 1.25 6. Bicarbonate (me L-1) < 1.5 7. Chloride (me L-1) < 4.0 8. Fluoride (me L-1) < 1.0 9. Sodium (me L-1) < 3.0 10. Magnesium (me L-1) < 0.2 11. Calcium (me L-1) < 0.15 < 2.0 -1 Source : Ayer and Westcort (1976) table 4.4 : fluoride in water and its relation with ph, eC, rsC, phc and Adj. sAr of ground water Chemical characteristics Fluoride (ppm) “r” < 1.5 1.5 – 3.0 3.0 – 4.5 > 4.5 pH < 8.0 8 10 2 14 8.0 – 8.2 11 8 5 12 > 8.2 10 6 3 11 <2.0 23 13 5 18 2.0– 4.0 3 5 3 4 > 4.0 3 6 2 15 < 1.5 25 18 9 19 1.5 – 3.0 4 5 1 12 > 3.0 - 1 - 6 < 7.2 5 5 3 9 7.2 – 7.6 15 12 5 15 > 7.6 9 7 2 13 0.174 EC (dS m-1) 0.304** RSC (me L-1) 0.461** pHc -0.012 Adj. SAR < 25 22 12 4 14 25 – 50 2 5 4 7 > 50 5 7 2 16 213 0.336** International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 4.5 : fluoride in water and its relation with cations of ground water Chemical characteristics Fluoride (ppm) “r” < 1.5 1.5 – 3.0 3.0 – 4.5 > 4.5 <20.0 24 14 7 21 20.0 – 40.0 2 5 1 2 > 40.0 3 5 2 14 < 0.25 6 5 2 8 0.25 – 0.5 17 11 8 14 > 0.5 6 8 - 15 < 2.0 13 10 2 11 2.0 – 4.0 16 8 7 21 > 4.0 - 6 1 5 <1.0 19 10 3 13 1.0 – 2.0 10 8 6 12 > 2.0 - 6 1 12 Na+ (me L-1) 0.307** K+ (me L-1) -0.023 Ca++ (me L-1) 0.138 Mg+ (me L-1) 0.281** table 4.6 : fluoride in water and its relation with anions of ground water Chemical characteristics Fluoride (ppm) “r” < 1.5 1.5 – 3.0 3.0 – 4.5 > 4.5 < 10 23 13 5 17 10 – 30 4 5 3 6 > 30 2 6 2 14 < 4.0 12 9 3 8 4.0 – 8.0 17 9 7 18 > 8.0 - 6 - 11 < 2.5 8 6 - 7 2.5 – 5.0 17 8 7 16 > 5.0 4 10 3 14 Cl- (me L-1) 0.294** CO3-- + HCO3- (me L-1) 0.332** SO4-- (me L-1) 0.116 so42- : Data on distribution of F content under different ranges of SO42- of water indicated that 8, 6 and 7 per cent water samples fall in fluoride category below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively in the SO42- range below 2.5 me L-1 (Table 4.6), whereas, in SO42- range of 2.5 – 5.0 meL-1, 17, 8, 7 and 16 per cent water samples had fluoride content between below 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. Further in SO42- range of above 5 me L-1, 4, 10, 3 and 14 per cent water samples had fluoride in the range of upto 1.5, 1.5 – 3.0, 3.0 – 4.5 and above 4.5 ppm, respectively. A critical examination of data presented in Table 4.6 and Fig. 4.5c evidently show that a positive but non-significant (r=0.116) relationship existed between fluoride content and SO42- anion of ground water, even when this relationship was factored further at smaller interval of SO42-ranges, it remained non-significant at all the ranges (Fig. 4.6c), however, weakest relationship was noticed at SO42- anion range 2.5 – 5 me L-1. Similar type of attempts have also been made by Singh and Sinsinwar (1975), Gupta et al. (2006) and Nayak et al. (2009a). 214 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” (a) fluoride and dh Y = 1.408x - 8.0907 9 Y = 0.3128x + 2.5131 9 8 8 7 7 Fluoride (ppm) Fluoride (ppm) (b) fluoride and eC 6 5 4 3 6 5 4 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8.0 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 0.0 9.0 2.0 4.0 pH (d) fluoride and phc Y = -0.0763x + 3.9078 Y = 0.9604x + 2.1405 8 Fluoride (ppm) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 8.0 EC (dS m-1) (c) fluoride and rsC 9 6.0 60 70 80 90 100 RSC pHc (e) fluoride and Adj. sAr Y = 0.0264x + 2.3307 Adj. SAR Fig. 4.1: Relationship between fluoride and pH, EC, RSC, pHc and Adj. SAR of ground water 215 10.0 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” (a) Fluoride and pH 0.60 0.317 0.307 0.402** 0.30 0.40 Correlation coefficient Correlation coefficient 0.35 (b) Fluoride and EC 0.25 0.20 0.215 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 <2.0 <8.0 > 4.0 -0.20 8.0 - 8.2 >8.2 -0.60 pH range 0.50 (d) Fluoride and pHc 0.14 0.436* 0.45 -0.537* EC (dS m -1) range (c) Fluoride and RSC 0.114 0.12 Correlation coefficient 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.203 0.176 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.04 <7.2 7.2-7.6 -0.017 -0.06 0.00 <1.5 1.5- 3.0 -0.052 -0.08 >3.0 pHc range RSC range (e) Fluoride and Adj. SAR 0.50 0.40 Correlation coefficient Correlation coefficient 2.0 - 4.0 -0.40 0.00 0.20 0.134 0.20 0.438 0.373** 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 -0.10 <25 25 - 50 >50 -0.20 -0.252* -0.30 Adj. SAR range Fig. 4.2 Correlation coefficient between fluoride and pH, EC, RSC 216 >7.6 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” (a) Fluoride and Na+ cation y = 0.0346x + 2.5893 R2 = 0.0945** 9 y = -0.2237x + 3.4363 R2 = 0.0005 9 8 8 7 7 6 6 Fluoride (ppm) Fluoride (ppm) (b) Fluoride and K+ cation 5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2 1 1 0 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 0 80.0 0.0 Na + (me L-1) 7 7 Fluoride (ppm) Fluoride (ppm) 1.0 1.2 y = 0.624x + 2.3676 R2 = 0.0789** 9 8 6 5 4 3 2 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 0 0 2+ 0.8 (d) Fluoride and Ca2+ cation 8 5.0 0.6 + y = 0.1832x + 2.824 R2 = 0.0191 0.0 0.4 K (me L-1) (c) Fluoride and Ca2+ cation 9 0.2 0.0 10.0 -1 2.0 Mg2+ (me L-1) Ca (me L ) Fig. 4.3 Relationship between fluoride and cations of irrigation waters 217 4.0 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” (a) Fluoride and Na+ cation 0.50 (b) Fluoride and K+ cation -0.10 Correlation coefficient Correlation coefficient 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.103 0.10 0.00 -0.10 <20 20 - 40 >40 -0.20 -0.212 -0.30 -0.030 0.00 0.426** + <0.25 -0.30 -0.40 -0.50 -0.60 -0.70 -0.641** + -1 (d) Fluoride and Mg2+ cation 0.00 0.06 <1 1.0 - 2.0 >2.0 -0.05 Correlation coefficient Correlation coefficient 0.038 0.02 0.00 <2.0 2.0 - 4.0 > 4.0 -0.016 -0.04 -0.06 -0.08 -0.10 -0.083 -0.10 -0.15 -0.20 -0.231 -0.12 -0.14 -1 K range (me L ) (c) Fluoride and Ca2+ cation -0.02 >0.50 -0.099 -0.20 Na range (me L ) 0.04 0.25 - 0.50 -0.127 -0.229 -0.25 Ca 2+ range (me L-1) Mg2+ range (me L-1) Fig. 4.4 Correlation coefficients between fluoride and cations of irrigation water 218 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” (b) Fluoride and CO32- + HCO3- anion (a) Fluoride and Cl- anion 2 7 Fluoride (ppm) 7 Fluoride (ppm) R2 = 0.1101** 8 R = 0.0865** 8 y = 0.2434x + 1.9706 9 y = 0.037x + 2.7405 9 6 5 4 3 6 5 4 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 0.0 0.0 50.0 5.0 10.0 CO32-+ HCO3- (me L-1) Cl- (me L-1) (c) Fluoride and SO42- anion Fig. 4.5 Relationship between fluoride and anions of irrigation waters 219 15.0 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” (b) Fluoride and CO32- + HCO3- anion (a) Fluoride and Cl- anion 0.40 0.60 0.363* 0.35 0.401** 0.30 Correlation coefficient Correlation coefficient 0.40 0.20 0.021 0.00 <10 10.0 - 30.0 >30.0 -0.20 -0.40 -0.60 0.25 0.20 0.141 0.15 0.10 0.05 -0.008 0.00 -0.05 -0.526* <4 4-8 >8 CO32- + HCO3- range (me L-1) Cl- range (me L-1) (c) Fluoride and SO42- anion Fig. 4.6 Correlation coefficients between fluoride and anions of irrigation waters 220 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Conclussion Flouride content had positive and significant relation with EC, RSC, Adj. SAR, Na+, Mg2+, Cl- and CO32- + HCO3- of ground water and they shown marked effect on fluoride content of ground water. The fluoride content in ground water increased with increasing Adj. SAR and RSC indicating that groundwater with high Na+, Adj. SAR and RSC values i.e. mostly alkali waters are likely to have higher F- content in irrigation water. references Ayers, R.S. and Westcot, D.W. (1976). Water quality for agriculture, irrigation and drainage. Paper 29. FAO, Rome, 97p. Dave, R.S. Acharya, D.G., Vediya, S.D. and Machhar, M.T. (2010) Status of fluoride in ground water of several villages of Modasa Tatuka, Nourth Gujrat for drinking purpose. Der Pharmachica, 2(2): 237-240. Gautam, R. Bhardwaj, N. and Saini,Y. (2011). Study of fluoride content in ground water of Nawa tehsil in Nagour,Rajasthan. Journal of Environment Biology, 32(1): 85-89. Grandjean, P. Olsen, J.H.; Jonsen, O.M. and Juel, K. (1992). Cancer incidence and mortality in workers exposed to fluoride. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 84 : 1903-1909. Gupta, S., Banerjee, S., Saha, R., Datta, J.K. and Mondal, N. (2006). Fluoride geochemistry of groundwater in Nalhati-1 block of the Birbhum district, West Bengal, India. Research report Fluoride, 39(4) :318–320. Handa, B.K. (1983). Hydro geochemical zones of India. Proc. Sem. Groundwater Development – A perspective for 2000 AD. Vol. I, JWRS, Roorkeee Uttrakhand, India. Pp. 439 – 50. Khan S. M. M.N. and Ravikumar, A. (2013). Role of Alkalinity for the Release of Fluoride in the Groundwater of Tiruchengode Taluk, Namakkal District, Tamilnadu, India. Chemical Science Transactions, 2(S1) : S302-S308. Nayak, B., Roy, M.M., Das, B., Pal, A., Sengupta, M.K., De, S.P., Chakraborti, D., (2009ª). Health effects of groundwater fluoride contamination. Clinical Toxicology (Phila), 47: 292–295. Ozha, D.D. and Golani, F.M. (2005). Rajasthan mai Bhu-Jal ka vihangavlokan and Sanrakshan ke prabhavi kadam. Bhagirath, July- Dec.; 30-38. Paliwal, K. V. Mehta K.K. and Gandhi, A.P. (1969). Fluorine in irrigation water of Bhilwara district of Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Agriculture Science.1083-87. Short, H.E. G.A. Mc Robort, T.W. Bernard and Mahnadinayed, A. S. (1937). “Endemic fluorosis in in the medves pousidency.” Indian Journal of medical Research, 25: 553-561. Singh, V. and Sinsinwar, P.S. (1975). Note on the toxicity of fluorine in ground water of Bharatpur District of Rajasthan. Indian Journal of Agriculture Science, 45: 495-497. 221 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XXIII ConCePt of high density PLAnting in fruit CroPs Wineet Chawla, tamasi Koley and s. s .Bal Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid College, Deon, Bathinda E-mail: wineetchawlabfgi@gmail.com Abstract Accommodation of the maximum possible number of the plants per unit area to get the maximum possible profit per unit of the tree volume without impairing the soil fertility status is called High density planting. High density planting were first established in apple in Europe during the 1960s. High density planting may be achieved by different approaches like use of dwarf cultivars, dwarfing rootstocks/ interstocks, use of growth retardants, training/pruning, planting systems and specific management of irrigation. Tree density is one of the most important factors that influence the production of fruit in an orchard particularly in its early years. Many studies with various varieties and rootstocks of fruit crops have shown that increasing tree densities will result in earlier production of fruit crops. At present majority of temperate fruit orchards in Europe, America, Australia, New Zealand, Israel and Japan are under intensive systems of fruit production. In India, HDP technology has been successfully applied in banana, pineapple, papaya and recently in mango, guava and citrus. Presently, the continued decline in the availability of cultivable land, rising energy and land costs together with the mounting demand for horticultural produce, have given thrust to adoption of HDP in horticultural crops. For modelling viable multispecies, high density cropping systems, precise information on root distribution pattern and canopy characteristics such as architecture, vigour, light transmission, shade tolerance as well soil micro flora etc, are needed. Higher values of fruit set was observed in square system whereas fruit drop was more in double hedge row system in guava. Higher fruit yield per plot was recorded in Double hedge row with 20 plants per plots followed by cluster planting (16plants /plot) (Anbu, 2001). An increase in plant density increased the yield per hectare area from 102.4q to 446.5 q/ha in guava (Kundu, 2007).Tatura trellis was found most suitable for rainfed July Elberta peach growing under High density planting systems (Awasthi,2003). introduction Accommodation of the maximum possible number of the plants per unit area to get the maximum possible profit per unit of the tree volume without impairing the soil fertility status is called High density planting (Goswami et al, 2001). High Density planting can be defined as planting fruit trees at a density in excess of that which suffices to give maximum crop yield at maturity if individual tree grows to its full normal size .In other words, it is the planting of more number of plants at a closer spacing to accommodate more number of plants than optimum per unit area. HDP aims to achieve the twin requisites of productivity by maintaining a balance between vegetative and reproductive load without impairing the plant health. The exact limits of plant density to be termed as high density is not yet well defined. It varies with the region, species, variety, rootstock, cost of planting material, labour and the likely return from the orchard, and agro-techniques adopted for a particular crop. Higher density planting system is normally understood as one in which a higher number of plants of the plants of the same fruit species is accommodated within unit land area, in comparison to the conventional planting density. However, it would be more purposeful to orchardists as well as the researchers, if its definition were widened to include the accommodation of even more than one species, so that the maximum potential of a unit land area could be economically utilized for increased production. Thus the high density orchards may be attempted with one species (monospecies, single-tier or single-storied) or with different species (multi-species, multi-tier or multi-storey). Tree density is one of the most important factors that influence the production of fruit in an orchard particularly in its early years. Many studies with various varieties and rootstocks of fruit crops have shown that increasing tree densities will result in earlier production of fruit crops. This is because higher tree densities result in a closed canopy and higher light interception earlier in the life of the orchard when compared with low densities (Kappel and Brownlee 2001, Balkhoven-Baart et al. 2000). Planting densities are classified as follows: viz., Low density, Moderate density, High density or semi intensive system ,Very high density or intensive system, Ultra high density or Super high density planting super intensive system. 222 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1: Comparison between traditional systems & modern systems of fruit growing Attribute Traditional System Modern system Tree number Few large trees/ha (150-200 trees/ha) Many small trees/ha (500-1, 00,000 trees/ha). Bearing Late in bearing, usual time required 6-8 years or more. Precocious in bearing, usual time required 2-3 years. Production Overall production per ha is low. Increased overall production per ha. Management Difficult to manage due to large size of trees. Easy to manage due to small size of trees. Establishment cost Low Cost. Higher Cost. Harvesting Difficult (manual). Easy (machine). table 2: Planting distance and density of various fruit crops Spacing (m) Tree (number/ha) Fruit crops planted 2x2 2500 Dwarf Papaya, Dwarf Banana 3x3 1111 Tall Papaya, Tall Banana 5x5 400 Mango, Sapota, Fig, Pomegranate 6x6 277 Guava, Mulberry 7x7 204 Peach, Plum 8x8 156 Aonla, Ber, Litchi 9x9 121 Sapota 10 x 10 100 Mango, Sapota,Datepalm 12 x 12 68 Sapota, Jamun, Tamarind Advantages The HDP has certain definite advantages compared to the conventional low density planting. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. It facilitates better utilization of incident solar radiation and increase in bearing surface per unit land area. High Density orchards have better amenability to modern, input saving horticultural techniques such as drip irrigation, mechanical harvest etc. The use of dwarf trees and checking of excessive vegetative growth gives higher productivity and harvest index as well as early economic returns, through reduced competition between economic parts and alternate sinks such as supporting structures and through a reduction in the distance the assimilates have to be translocated from source to sink. High Density Planting system is more amenable to horticultural operations such as pruning and plant protection measures, which reduces the labour cost involved in addition to the increased effectiveness of these operations. Easy harvesting of fruits from such trees with lesser injury results in better post-harvest life Better fruit quality due to optimum exposure to sunlight is an added advantage of High Density Planting. Limitations of hdP 1. 2. 3. High Density Planting needs higher establishment cost. Need for a more professional and scientific approach for management, compared to the conventional planting at wider spacing. Crowding in high density plantings can result in restricted access into the orchard, inefficient pest and disease control, increased harvesting costs and loss of production through shading. strategies for high density planting 1. 2. Improved planting systems. Control of tree size. improved planting systems This means that the planting system needs to have a combination of components that ensures optimal light interception and distribution from an early stage. The planting system is the integration of tree arrangement, planting density, support systems and training schemes. There is no one planting system to suit all situations. Factors such as climate, soil, variety, 223 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” rootstock, quality of nursery trees, management regimes and economic conditions will determine the optimal combination for each orchard. The various planting systems adopted in fruit crops are square, triangular, quincunx, rectangular, hexagonal, hedgerow and cluster planting. Out of these, triangular and square systems are followed for HDP of mango, kinnow, banana, papaya and hedge row for apple and pineapple. square system - This system is most common for planting of mango orchards. In this system, the distance from plant to plant and row to row remains the same. The four adjacent plants of two rows form a square. It is easy to layout and permits cross cultivation. The only defect in this system is presence of small vacant space in the centre till the plants grow up sufficiently. For actual layout in the field, one boundary line is chosen and along with this line a base line is fixed. Then first line is made at the half of the proposed distance parallel to the base line. Constructing a right angle triangle in a ratio of 3:4:5 draws a second line. The lines of trees are drawn perpendicular to the base line. It is so fixed that the lines meeting it are parallel to the field. Now the position of trees on base line is marked with pegs. From these pegs perpendicular lines, should be marked with the help of cross bars. The plant positions can best be marked on all the four sides and finally in the field by running strings length and breadth wise and by putting pegs at the crosses. rectangle system - This system is a modification of square system. It is adopted for planting of those fruit trees which require less distance between plant to plant than row to row distance. It has almost all the advantages of square system but cultivation between plant to plant is difficult. In field condition it is drawn in similar fashion as the square system except that the distance between plant to plant is difficult. In field condition it is drawn in similar fashion as the square system except that the distance between plant to plant is less than row to row. Quincunx or diagonal system - This system of planting is exactly similar to the square system except that an additional sapling is planted at the centre of square at intersecting point of the diagonals of the square formed by four adjacent plants. This system accommodates about 10% more plants than the square. The additional plant at centre is temporary and termed as filler. The fillers are precocious and short-lived. They yield some crop before the permanent trees come into bearing. The fillers make cross cultivation difficult. Many times the grower often delays their removal and this adversely affects the performance of permanent plantation. triangular or hexagonal system - This system is based on the principle of equilateral triangle. This layout accommodates approximately 15 per cent more trees per unit area than the square system. It is adopted with the advantage where the maximum use of the land is desired, especially on fertile soils. The cultural operations can be done in three directions in the mango orchards laidout on this system. For actual layout under this system in the field, a base line is fixed in the same way as done in square system. The pegs of the first row are fixed on it at the proposed distance. 224 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” - While making the second row, the first peg on it is so adjusted that it is equidistant from the two pegs of the previous row. After adjusting two such pegs, a straight line is drawn through these and other pegs are fixed at the proposed distance along it. When second row is complete, the third row is drawn in similar fashion as previous one and so on. Six adjacent plants base are connected which form a hexagon and seventh plant is in centre of the hexagon. Contour system - This system of layout is adopted where the mango orchard is established on sloping land of hilly regions. The pegs on each slope are so fixed that each one of them falls in the centre of the slope and makes on a straight line drawn from its bottom to the top. This is easily drawn by putting a string from the highest point to the lowest and locates the positions of the plants along the string. The actual planting is started from lower point towards the upper point. meadow or Bed This system was developed in Israel and tested in Georgia and Florida. Trees are planted at about 45 x 75 cm in the row and 7-9 feet between row resulting in ultra high density plantation of 30,000 to 1, 00,000 trees per hectares. This system is designed to produce fruits on 2-year old plants which are chemically disciplined and regulated to produce a similar and smaller low-height framework rather than the traditional well-branched trees. The meadow orchard system may not be beneficial to those fruits which are difficult to propagate by cuttings because of initial high cost of establishment.In this system, a bed of 10-15 rows is closely planted (30 cm x 45 cm) and separated by alleyways of 2.5 m width between beds. This system is mostly followed in meadow orchards where trees are extremely small-sized. diagonal /Quincunx system This system of planting is similar to square system with the addition of a tree in the centre of each square as filler of intercrop or the same crop. It accommodates about 1.5 to 2 times or (89%) double the number of plants in square system. hexagonal system In hexagonal, triangles are equilateral. Trees are planted at corners of equilateral triangles. Distance from tree to tree in six directions remains the same. It accommodates 15% more trees than square system. triangular system Difficult to layout and not of much practical importance in traditional plantations. It is used in high density planting in Amrapali mango to accommodate 1600 plants per hectare. Contour system Used in hills side plantings, trees are adjusted as per available contour. When slope exceeds 10% terraces are made to plant the tree. hedge-row It is generally followed in high density planting of apple and pineapple. It is followed for mechanized fruit cultivation. Dwarfed fruit trees can be grown in an unsupported hedge-row on semi dwarf or semi-standard rootstocks. The branches touch within a row, presenting a hedge-like appearance. The trees are kept up to 3 metres in height and are sheared in the direction of row on both sides. Number of trees may range from 2,500 to 10,000/ha. Tree walls (row direction) should be north-south so that light is equally available on both sides of the wall. The trees are kept in size by heading back and thinning out branches, but branches are encouraged in the direction of the row, and the hedge or wall of the trees is about 1.25 metres in thickness. So, this system is suitable for mechanized cultivation. Backyard orchard Culture Families today have less space for fruit trees, less time to take care of them and less time to process or preserve large crops than in the past. Accordingly, today’s family orchards should be planned and managed differently. The objective of Backyard Orchard Culture is the prolonged harvest of tree-ripe fruit from a small space. This means planting close together several or many fruit varieties which ripen at different times, and keeping the trees small by summer pruning. 225 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” tree size Control The following methods are applied to control the size of plants in high density planting viz., Use of genetically dwarf scion cultivars, Use of dwarfing rootstocks and interstock,Pruning and training, Use of growth retardants, Induction of viral infection, Regulated deficit irrigation, Controlling root growth for reducing vegetative growth e.g. in peach. use of genetically dwarf Cultivars The genetically dwarf cultivars offer a great scope for close planting. Such varieties are limited in number and available only in few crops as given in table 3 table 3: dwarf cultivars Crops Dwarf Cultivars Mango Amarpali (dwarf and regular hybrid) (majumder et al., 1982) Citrus meyer Lemon, Ponderosa Lemon, Kumquat(Bitters et al,1979) satsuma mandarin (C. unshiu), Kumquat (fortunella spp.), Busy Pummel (C. grandis) or skaggs Bonanza & tulegold navel oranges in israel (golomb, 1988) Kagzi Kalan Lemon (goswami et al,1999) Papaya Pusa Nanha (Bear Regularly), Ranchi Dwarf Other Cultivars-Co-1,Co-2, Pusa Dwarf & Honey Dew-1 Peach Shan i-Punjab ,Red Heaven, July Elberta Litchi Kwai May Pink, Salathiel and Wai Chee (Australia) , Bosworth 3(USA) Banana Pusa Cavendish, Robusta, Sapota Pkm1, Pkm3 Use of Dwarfing Rootstocks and Interstock Dwarfing rootstocks are economical, effective and environmentally safe means controlling tree vigour for High density orchards. Rootstocks for high density planting must control tree size, reduce vigour and induce precocity or early fruiting. Many of the modern tree forms for intensive orchards such as slender spindle and vertical axis described earlier are achievable only with help of dwarfing rootstocks. They are classified as dwarfing, semi-dwarf and standard. Seedlings rootstocks are generally vigorous rootstocks. A dwarfing rootstock generally restricts tree height to less than 3m and takes only 2 to 3 years to bear fruit in most cases as opposed to a standard rootstock on which the tree requires 5 to 7 years. Table 4: Dwarfing rootstocks Crops rootstocks Mango Guava Ber Peach Citrus Vellaikulumban Aneuploid No.82, Chinese guava(P. friedrichsthalianum) Zizyphus rotundifolia GF677 Sour orange , P. trifoliate, hybrid of Ranpur lime and Troyer citrange , Thomasville,Citrangequat etc Pear EM Quince A & C Pruning Pruning refers to the removal of any vegetative plant part to regulate the production and maintain the balance between vegetative and reproductive growth. Two types of pruning are employed in orchards: Heading back and Thinning. Most kinds of deciduous fruit trees require pruning to stimulate new fruiting wood, to remove broken and diseased wood, to space the fruiting wood and to allow good air circulation and sunlight penetration in the canopy. Pruning is most important in the first three years, because this is when the shape and size of a fruit tree is established. It is much easier to keep a small tree small than it is to make a large tree small. Pruning at the same time as thinning the crop is strongly recommended. By pruning when there is fruit on the tree, the kind of wood on which the tree sets fruit (one year old wood, two year old wood, spurs, etc.) is apparent, which helps you make better pruning decisions. 226 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” methods of Pruning Heading back When only one-third to one-half terminal portions of the branches, having their basal portions intact, are removed. Such pruning encourages development of secondary branches, lateral bud growth and destroys apical dominance of twig, shoot or branch. thinning out When the shoots or branches which are considered undesirable are removed entirely from the base or point of attachment with the main trunk or branches without leaving any stub. It encourages longer growth of the remaining terminals and net result in reduction of laterals. Sometimes this practice is used for the rejuvenation of older trees. Dehorning It consists of removal of all the wood after leaving 7-10 cm thick stub all over the tree. Such severe treatmen should normally not be given except when it is the last resort to bring it into control. summer Pruning Program for size Control Characteristics Trees in high-density planting should have maximum number of fruiting branches and minimum number of structural branches. In head and spread system of central leader, training in apple trees are developed with a central leader surrounded by nearly horizontal fruiting branches (Heincke, 1975). These branches should be so arranged and sized that each branch casts a minimum amount of shade on other branches. To develop favourable characteristics, some rules should be followed. These are: - Prevent upright growth of trees. The height should be one-and-a-half times its diameter at the base. Develop horizontal laterals. Space small laterals along the central leader. Develop and maintain fruiting spurs along entire branch as it develops. Develop rigid, strong, self supporting laterals. Maintain fruiting branches in one position. Develop fruiting spurs along the sides rather than top or bottom of lateral branches. Fruiting spurs on top of a branch become too vigorous. In the lower side of a branch they are weak producing small fruits. Those developed from the side of a branch maintain a good level of vigour and are less subject to sun burn yet well exposed to light for colour and size development. training training systems need to be able to accommodate: - high, early fruit production good light penetration to all parts of the tree good control of the height and spread of trees easy access to fruit for harvest many new training systems have been developed for high density planting such as: systems derived from Central leader There are various systems that use the central leader concept. The major differences between these systems include tree density, height, leader management and whether or not permanent scaffold branches are retained. spindle The spindle system (sometimes referred to as the free spindle or bush spindle) is generally suited to densities up to 2000 trees/ha and has a height of 2-3m. The planting distance is usally 3-5m x 1-2m depending on rootstock vigour. Spindle systems are usually planted using well feathered two year old nursery trees. At planting, the leader is not headed and a number of laterals are selected to form part of the permanent scaffolds in the bottom of the tree. Competing laterals that develop on the leader are removed early. As the leader grows more scaffolds are selected and spaced equally. 227 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Leader dominance is important and if lost will result in a reduced tree canopy. If it becomes too strong, lateral growth and development will be reduced. Spindle systems can be free standing, but mostly utilize some form of support (2-3 wire trellis). Vertical Axis The vertical axis is similar to the spindle and it is often hard to distinguish the difference, except that the vertical axis does not have permanent scaffolds. This system suits densities between 1000-2500 trees/ha with a spacing of 4-5m x 1-2m . Height can reach up to 3m. These systems are best planted with well feathered nursery trees. A central leader (axis) is developed with ‘weak’ (small diameter) fruiting branches arising around the leader. The leader is not headed back in the first few years of this system to ensure that weak fruiting branches are developed. These fruiting branches are systematically renewed to prevent them becoming permanent scaffolds. Support of a multi wire trellis is required for these systems. slender spindle The slender spindle system involves more severe pruning than the vertical axis and is suited to densities of 2000-5000 trees/ha. The planting distance is 3.5m x 1-1.5m and tree height is usually restricted to 2-3m. Well feathered nursery trees are preferred for planting the slender spindle system. super spindle The super spindle system is utilized for super high density orchards on weaker rootstocks such as Quince C. These systems have densities of greater than 4000 trees/ha. Planting distance is usually <3m x <0.8m and tree height is 2-3m. The main concept of super spindle orchards is to have closely spaced compact trees with short fruiting wood or spurs evenly spaced along the central leader. These systems require a multi wire support. Double leader systems Double leader systems are trained with the aim of achieving high leader densities whilst keeping tree numbers (and cost) down. Trees are usually planted at approximately 3-4m x 1-1.2m equaling a tree density of around 3000 trees/ha. However, the development of double leaders mean that the leader density is 6000 trees/ha. One such double leader system is the Bibaum® system. This system was developed in Italy and involves planting specially developed nursery trees that have 2 leaders (or axes). Trees are split at 25cm above the ground into two equally strong leaders (Musacchi 2008). This system is usually planted at 3.3m x 1-1.25m in a single row. Leaders are trained parallel to the row and are spaced at 50-60cm apart. Relatively weak fruiting branches are developed on each leader. V systems There are various V or Y shaped orchard systems used in pear production. Y shaped systems have trees with a vertical trunk and two opposing arms of the tree trained to either side of the trellis and are in single rows. V shaped systems have alternating trees leaned to one side of the trellis and can be double or single rows. Two of the main systems used for pear production are the V Hedge and Open Tatura Trellis. V Hedge The V hedge system is widely used in the Netherlands and Belgium and is a variation of a Y shaped system. It is a single row system with a planting distance is 3.5m x 1.25m equalling approximately 2000 trees/ha (Deckers and Schoofs 2004). These systems are planted using well feathered two year old nursery trees. Four feathers are kept as fruiting branches and considered as four central leaders on one stem. Tree height is maintained at 2m with an opening of the V of 1.4m. Often each ‘leader’ is supported by bamboo stakes. Open tatura trellis The Open Tatura trellis is a modification of the original Tatura Trellis developed in Australia. The Open Tatura Trellis consists of two rows of trees (separated by approximately 0.5m) that are planted alternately in a V trellis. It is generally planted 4-4.5m x 0.5-1m to give a density of about 2000-5000 trees/ha. Trees can be trained in a number of different ways in this system. The most common are the - Open Tatura with double leaders which involve training each tree with two leaders (approximately 1m apart). The Open Tatura with single leader which is similar to planting a slender spindle system. The Open Tatura with cordon which allows for a moderatly dense orchard of around 2000 trees/ha with approximately 8000 fruiting units growing up the wires (Van Den Ende 2005). Nursery trees (usually whips) are 228 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” bent over at planting and trained to the horizontal. Fruiting units are encouraged at regular intervals along the trunk and can be renewed regularly. High Density Open Center Or steep leader system A modification of the Open Center system that uses more renewal pruning and allows for higher densities is called the “Steep Leader” system. This system uses weaker benching cuts to spread the tree to fill the available space and is allowed to grow more upright and taller. This system allows for more upright growth but still uses bench cutting to fill the available space. Increasing density and additional canopy volume improves early and mature yields compared to the Open Center. It is difficult to keep sufficient light in the lower portion of trees resulting in increased risk of weak wood, smaller fruit size, and canker development. Generally the following principles are required for this system - Density of 218 trees per acre, spacing 10 X 20 ft Heading height 24 inches above the ground 4 main scaffolds each divided to form 8 secondary scaffolds and 16 tertiary scaffolds Tree height limited by annual benching to side branches 10 feet from the ground More labor intensive since ladders needed for pruning, thinning and picking. fusetto this system has the following principles: - Tree density of 778 trees per acre, spacing 4 X 14 ft. Headed at 40 inches above the ground to produce weaker shoot growth No permanent bottom tier branches and only thinning out pruning resulting in the earliest yields of any system. The high tree numbers combined with early high fruit numbers to produce the best early yield. Smaller fruit size than other systems Cordon Generally it is used for grapes. Cordon are single-stemmed trees. It is mainly used in gardens as a catalogue of varieties. Strong yearling whips are used for planting. The trees are planted at an angle of 45 degree. The trellis is made of 3 wires, spaced on 3-3.5 metre posts which have been fixed about 0.75-1.0 metre in ground. The top wire is few inches below the top of the post, the centre one is 1.5 metre from the ground, and the bottom one is 1 metre from the ground. Cordons must be summer pruned. All mature laterals from the main stem are cut-back to 3 leaves in mid or late July. Any lateral shoot coming out from these laterals is cut back to a single leaf. One upright vigorous shoot is allowed to grow from the scion bud. The emerging shoot forms the tree trunk in due course. The trunk is kept clean up to a height of 30 cm from ground level by removing all branches (Pareek. 1978). Bajwa and Sarowa (1977) and Singh et al. (1973), however, recommended that the tree trunk should be kept clean up to a height of 75 cm from the trunk. 3 or 4 properly spaced and favourably placed branches are allowed to grow. The top of the trunk is headed back during summer (May in India) to encourage growth of these branches. dwarf Pyramid It is essentially a low-headed compact, central leader tree, with lowest branch at 30 to 35 cm from ground and with successive branches radiating at intervals along the main leader, gradually diminishing in length from the bottom to top. This gives a somewhat pyramidal erect. Although used largely in small gardens it has also been practiced commercially in some places. If set at 1 metre x 3 metre, the number of trees per hectare is about 3,300. Pyramids produce on an average 2-4 kg of fruits per tree after the third or fourth year of planting or about 500 boxes per hectare. Mature trees may produce 10 kg of fruits per tree. A good average is 1,200 boxes per hectare. Good production is expected for 20 years. It is especially suited for apple but may also be used for pear, cherry and plum. M9 is primarily used as rootstock for apple, Quince A for pear and St. Julien C for plum. Support is accomplished by running two strands of wires, one above and other down the rows, on posts set 5 metre apart. The lowest wire should be at 45 cm from the ground and the upper wire should be about 90 cm. One, two or three years old nursery stocks may be used for planting. The central leader is cut-back to about 30 cm at planting. The maintenance of leader is a most important requirement of this system. If there are lateral shoots over 15 cm in length, these should be reduced to about 5 good buds. The next winter leader is reduced to about 20 to 25 cm of the last season growth. Laterals are cut back to 15-20 cm of the last. 229 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Summer pruning forms an essential part of dwarf pyramid. It is practiced when most of the shoots are about the size of the lead-pencils and when they are woody and mature along half their length; firm and resistant to bending. Immature shoots are left out. The mature shoots are cut back to 5 to 6 leaves or about 15 cm of new growth by the middle of July. The central leader is left untouched. The process is repeated in late August for immature shoots. The central leader is not allowed to attain a height of more than 2 metres all through the life of the tree. Any blossoms arising on the central leader in early years are removed. In an ideal pyramid, the lower branches should attain a length of about 1 metre, the middle about 60 to 75 cm and the upper branches about 45 cm. spindle Bush The spindle bush has become a feature of Rhineland in Germany. It has spread to the Netherlands and is called free spindle bush. It is really a modification of the dwarf pyramid or it may be considered as an intermediate between a vertical cordon and a bush form. It differs from dwarf pyramid in having no specific arrangement of scaffold branches; it differs from vertical cordon in fruits being borne on short branches rather than directly on the main stem of trunk. However, the most important feature of the spindle bush is its tying down of the lateral shoots in a horizontal position with little or no summer pruning.Trees will bear crops at 2 to 3 years after planting and can be planted at 3 metre in a square or 1,080 trees per hectare. A common spacing is 2 metre x 4 metre, i.e. about 1,000 trees per hectare.One-or 2 year-old trees are planted, headed at about 60 cm, with lowest shoots arising at about 30 cm above ground. The leader is encouraged and maintained. Single stakes 1.5-2 metre long above ground level should be erected near trees. Wire trellis can also be used to steady trees, employing either a single wire at one metre above ground level or 2 wires at 60 cm and 120 cm above ground level. With some varieties, no bracing is required. espaliers Commercial planting of apples, grapes and pears has been successfully done as primitive espaliers forms, which might have been similar to horizontal palmettes or Kniffin system in grapes. The trellis is 1.5 metre high with either 2 wires at one and one-and-a-half metre or 4 wires at 60 cm, 1 metre, 1.25 metre and 1.5 metre. It is easier to train tree on 4 wires than on 2. The trees are planted 3 metre apart in rows, which are 4 metre apart (850 trees per hectare). Spacing of 2 by 4 metre has also been adopted (1,900 trees per hectare). It depends upon the growing conditions, soil, fertility and orchard equipment. One-year old trees, at least 1.5 metre in height, or 2 years old trees with strong central leader are used for planting. Any lateral shoots are cut-back to 2 buds and the leader is headed at the top wire. All other laterals are removed. The trees are tied loosely at least at the 2 of the 4 wires Eight scaffold branches, 4 on each side can be selected. As lateral branches extend, these are fastened near their tips only. trellis In this system, vines are allowed to grow straight upto a height of 1.5-1.6 metre and then trained overhead on a canopy of usually 3 or 4 wires (45-60 cm apart) fixed to the cross-angle arm supported by vertical pillars or posts. The growing tips are pinched off to encourage side shoots after reaching the height of 1.5 metre. Two vigorous shoots after reaching the height of 1.5 metre are selected as primary arms from which 4 laterals on each side along the wires are developed on secondary arms. Each complete secondary arm consisting of 6-8 fruiting units. tatura trellis The Tatura trellis system was first developed at Tatura in Australia for high-density planting of peaches and then tried for other deciduous fruits grown under high-density planting sytems. The tree has the configuration of V-shaped trough. Each tree has two scaffold limbs, which grow east and west at an angle of 60° to the ground surface and tree rows run northsouth. Results obtained with this system are very encouraging showing each and high yields. Fruits like guava, jamun and ber are quite amenable to this system. It accommodates 1600-2000 trees per hectares. Curtain In vine crops like grape, this system aims to modify or convert a wide canopy achieved by the traditional Kniffin (or Cordon) system into two narrow ‘curtains’. This is achieved by hand positioning the horizontal shoots so that all tend vertically down. In a wide canopy where leaves shade one another as well as fruit, grape maturation is retarded and vines are less productive. Conversion of wide canopy into narrow ‘curtains’ exposes the leaves on the basal portion of shoots to higher light intensities and thus to higher temperatures, which leads to more rapid maturation of the fruits with higher soluble solids content (sugar). In comparison to Kniffin system, yield increase of more than 50% and soluble solids by more than 1 % could be obtained. A further advantage is that the positioning of the shoots away from the posts of the trellis permits mechanical harvesting. 230 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” This system is suitable to grow apples for mechanized harvesting and pruning. The mechanized harvesting needs tree with flexible yield-holding twigs and as few as possible rigid skeletons (or scaffolds). The skeleton of the curtain is a trunk (central leader) with one or two pairs of horizontal scaffolds, 1.5 to 2.0 metre long in a tree density of 2,500-3,000/ha. The cropping twigs hang vertically to give a hanging twig curtain which accommodates the horizontally vibrating fingers of the fruit harvester. Since this system is adopted for mechanized harvesting, tree flexibility is very important because both the vibrating fingers and the fruit collecting devices penetrate into the canopy and push or pull them with certain force. The maximum height of the tree is about 3.0 metre. The apple-curtain system, using an over-row harvester, increases production efficiency without any loss in investment and yield. Pillar This system can be used with a tree structure consisting of a single leader of 3 metre height. The number of bearing units maintained depends upon the vigour of the tree. Each unit consists of a 2-year fruiting limb, a 1-year old shoot, and the current growth. Regular pruning practice consists of removing the spent fruiting limb (3-year-old), heading back the 2-year terminals off the limb but leaving the fruit bud intact in anticipation of fruiting and thinning out all but a single 20-25 yearold shoots. This pruning pattern is repeated each year, thus the productive 2-year old fruiting wood is continually renewed. High quality and annual production are achieved by controlling the bearing area. A close spacing of 1.8 metre x 3.6 metre accommodating 1522 plants/ha results in high production. By controlling size, mechanical production practices may be facilitated and harvesting is generally simplified. The pruning operation although extensive, is routine and no difficult decision is needed to be made. However, whether the pillar system of renewal pruning will prove to be practical for tropical fruits remains to be seen. Bush Fruit trees grown under this system resembles a bush in appearance. It is a semi-intensive high-density planting system accommodating 500-1,500 trees/ha. Either a dwarf cultivar or dwarfing rootstock is used to control the tree height. Light pruning in early years, consisting of thinning of branches around the tree after harvesting and moderate pruning in the late years, are carried out to restrict tree growth. The advantage of bush orchard is the establishment of an orchard at a lower cost. This system is particularly important where land availability is not limiting factor. Fruit like litchi, guava, lime, lemon, phalsa, ber, aonla can be considered for bush orchards use of growth retardants In the absence of rootstocks and dwarf varieties, various growth retardant have been used to restrict the vegetative growth of the plant. Among them the commercially adopted are Paclobutrazol, daminozide AMO 1618, Alar, CCC, Ancymidol, BAS 111, B-9 (Phosphon D) and chloramquat. These growth retardants are used to reduce shoot growth by 1/3 and 1/2 and improve cropping efficiency. This promotes increased flowering in the subsequent year and may be useful in encouraging earlier commercial fruit production in strongly vegetative, sparingly fruitful young trees. SADH is sprayed at a concentration of 3000 ppm during intensive shoot growth in early June and at 2000 ppm during petal fall in subsequent years. Daminozide controls growth and the trees start bearing a year earlier than normal trees. there are at least three basic mechanism by which can be restricted by chemical :- By killing the terminal buds of branches or severely inhibiting apical meristematic activity:- Maleic Hydrazide, fluorenol (Schneider, 1970) and ethylene release compound (Luckwill, 1978) By reducing apical control:-TIBA(2,3,5-Triodobenzoic acid), M&B 25-105, Dikegulac. By inhibiting internode elongation without disrupting apical meristematic function:-growth retardentSADH,CCC,AMO-1618 and Paclobutrazol . The chemical of the second and third group can be employed for tree size regulation in high density planting orchard at different stages of the crop. - Nursery tree:-M&B 25-105 were effective to improve branching and chemical removal of unwanted low branches from the nursery tree Young orchard tree:- Dikegulac for increasing lateral branching (Sachs et al.,1975). M&B 25-105 and pp528 have found to produce more flowering and heavier cropping during the 4th in apple (Quinlan, 1981). Bearing tree :- Paclobutrazol(PP333) has been found very effective and superior to the earlier chemicals this regard for mango(Kurian and lyer, 1993). This chemical is more effective as a soil drench than foliar spray. 231 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Recently, a new plant growth regulator, prohexaidone –calcium experimentally known as BAS-125W (Apagee) . Dikegulac at 1000ppm increased lateral shoots as well as reduced tree height and spread in peach (Arnold et al, 1983). The possiblity of employing growth retardants means for chemically dwarf young mango tree to facilitate high density planting (kurian & lyer, 1993). The effect of soil drenching with paclobutrazol (2.5,5.0 or 10g/ha) and foliar spray of Cycocel (4000 or 8000ppm) and Alar (1500 or 3000ppm)- regulating tree vigour of 9-year old, densely planted ’Alphonso’ mango at Bangalore Paclobutrazol (Cultar) has gained commercial application in crop regulation in mango when applied after pruning; it helps in the early attainment of physiological maturity by the shoot and induces regularity in bearing in vigorous and alternate bearing varieties.In pears, Paclobutrazol has been found to be quite effective in controlling growth, and promoting flowering and fruit set in several cultivars (Davis and Curry, 1991). It appears that Paclobutrazol promote axillary flower initiation, by decreasing the apical dominance. Triazoles have proved to be more consistent in affecting increased yield in stone fruits than pome fruits, whether applied as foliar spray or applied to the soil. Paclobutrazol application as a dormant soil drench (0.1 g/tree) increased flowering and productivity in cherry (Webster, 1990). In peaches Paclobutrazol application as a soil drench at 4 kg/ha during fall or as a foliar spray at 250 ppm concentration is quite effective in increasing fruiting. Basak and Jakooczak (1998) observed that BAS 111 applied to foliage using three sprays, at 2-4 g/L during spring, was more efficient retardant for plum than uniconazol. Pruning coupled with paclobutrazol has got remarkable success in high-density planting of mango (Singh and Mishra, 2002). Effect of soil drenching with paclobutrazol at 2.5 g/plant on earliness flowering in comparison with untreated control. induction of viral infection Though not commercially adopted, tree size can be reduced by inducing viral infection eg. In citrus and apple. Citrus Exocortis Viroid dwarfing is the main approach being promoted in Australia for tree size control in high density orchards. The budding or grafting techniques for field graft transmissible dwarfing(GTD) inoculation are similar to those for the production of nursery trees. The New South wales department of agriculture, Australia (Sanderson, 2000) has published details of inoculation methods citrus exocortis dwarfing. In Israel There have also been problems with poor tree performance, especially under drought conditions (water stress) and where water salinity levels were high. South Africa had trialled the use of dwarfing viroids but is now moving away from it in favour of other management techniques to reduce tree size, such as rootstock selection and the open hydroponic growing system. At present only the Australian and Californian citrus industries are using dwarfing viroids in commercial citrus plantings. use of incompatible rootstock The use of graft incompatible scion and stock also induces dwarfness in the composite plant. In ber, the cultivars on Zizyphus rotundifolia, Z . nummularia induces dwarfness due to graft incomaptibility which can be exploited for HDP effect of high density Planting light Interception In initial life of high density groove, this resource is effectively utilized as compared to conventional planting. However, in later years, the interception is poor due to crowding of tree canopy. It oftenly results in smaller sized fruits and poor colour development. Fruit size and quality No doubt that the yields are very high in dense planting, fruit size may be relatively smaller with little or no effect on fruit quality. Goswami et.al. (1993). Weed Growth And population Weeds are unwanted plants, which compete with crops for water, nutrients, light and harbor insect pest and disease and interfere with orchard management and harvesting operation, resulting in poor growth andproductivity of main crop. Due to dense canopy in high density planting, only the filtered light is intercepted by the ground, which affected the weed growth and population per unit area. In the initial years of establishment, there may be some growth of weeds but in late years, the problem of weeds is eliminated. 232 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Fruit maturity One of the major effects of the high density plantings has been on the hastening or delaying of the fruit maturity. This effect can be effectively utilized by the farmers for harnessing maximizing profits from high density planting. The fruit under conventional plantings are harvested at one time resulting in bumper production of Kinnow fruits in the market. It oftenly forces farmers to sell their produce at lower rate. With the adoption of high density planting technique in Kinnow, farmers can get very high returns due to late maturity (Sharma et.al.(1999). Incidence of insect pest and disease HDP change the microclimate of the particular piece of land due to reduction in sun light, affecting the temperature and humidity. These conditions are favorable for the occurrence or increase in the incidence or intensity of insect pests and disease. Even though there is no such report available in literature that high density planting support it. Harvesting problems Harvesting in high density planting is really a difficult task. In the initial years of the planting it may not be a problem, however, after fully maturity of trees harvesting may great problem. However, new approach like mechanical harvesting has become as one of the most viable option in high density planting than on convectional planting Constraints in adoption of hdP systems - Requires high capital to establish though it is more productive and profitable, if followed scientifically. Non-availability of adequate planting material of dwarf varieties in different horticultural crops, except banana. Non-availability of clonal rootstocks in some fruit and plantation crops are the major constraints in promotion of HDP. Lower longevity of the plants. Avoidance in use of inter- and mixed-cropping system. Overcrowding trees in mango HDP after 1to 12 years. Harmful effects of chemicals like paclobutrazol causing barrenness in crops like mango, grape etc. Non-availability of complete package for HDP and use of mechanization. Lack of standardization of production technology in HDP of various fruit crops and extension of technicalknowhow to the farmers. Lack of promising dwarfing rootstock in mango, guava, sapota, peach etc. reference Anbu S, Parthiban S, Suresh J and Thangaraj T. 2001. High density planting and planting system in mango. South Indian Hort 49: 13-15 Anonymous. 2009. National Horticulture Board Statistical Database Awasthi R P, Rana H S, Jha A and Kumar S. 2003. Performance of ‘July Elberta’ peach under different high density planting systems. Indian J. Hort 60(3): 203-207 Backyard Orchard Culture, Growing Fruit Trees in Limited Space. 1994. In: Internet> Dave Wilson Nursery Balkhoven-Baart, J.M.T., Wagenmakers, P.S., Bootsma, J.H., Groot, M.J. and Wertheim, S.J. (2000). “Developments in Dutch apple plantings.” Acta horticulturae 513: 261-270 Behboudian M H and Mills T M. 1997. Deficit irrigation in deciduous orchards. Hort. Rev. 21: 105-131 Boland A M, Mitchell P D, Jerie P H and Goodwin I. 1993. The effect of regulated deficit irrigation on tree water use and growth in peach. J. Hort. Sci.68(2): 261-274 Chalmers D J, Mitchell P D and Jerie P H. 1981. Physiology of growth control of peach and pear trees using reduced irrigation. Acta Hort 146: 143-149 Davis T D and Curry E A. 1991. Chemical regulation of vegetative growth. Git. Rev. Plant Sci. 10: 151-188 Dunkan JH, Sproule RS and Bevington KB. 1978. Commercial application of virus induced dwarfing. Proc. Int. Soc. Citriculture(1978). pp317-319 Goswami A M, Sharma R R and Saxena S K. 2001. High density planting in tropical and subtropical fruit crops. Indian J. Hortic. 58(1/2): 23-27 Goswami AM, Saxena SK and Kurien S. 1993. High density planting in citrus. In: advances in Hort. Vol.2. pp.645-648. Chadha KL and Pareek OP. eds. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi. Johnson PR and Robinson DM.1999. the tatura trellis system for high density mangoes. Acta Hort. 509:359-361 233 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Johnson R S, Handley D F and DeJong T M. 1992. Long-term response of early maturing peach trees to postharvest water deficit. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 117: 881-886 Kanwar JS and Singh H. 2004. Scope of High density plantings of peach in subtropics of India. Acta Hort. 662: 221-224 Kappel F and Brownlee R. 2001. Early performance of ‘Conference’ pear on four training systems. Hortscience 36: 69-71 Kundu S. 2007. Effect of High density planting on growth, flowering and fruiting of guava. Acta Hort 735: 267-270 Kurian RM and Lyer CPA. 1993. Chemical regulation of tree size in mango cv. Alphonso.III. Effect of growth retardents on yield and quality. J. Hort. Sci. 68: 361-364 Mahajan A R, Lal S and Tiwari J P. 2005. Effect of different planting systems on growth, flowering, fruiting and yield of guava 37: 27-30 Mahajan AR, Tiwari JP and Lal S. 2007. Studies on planting systems in guava cv. Sardar. Acta Hort. 735: 263-266 Reddy B M C. 2004.High density planting in horticultural crops. In Proceedings of the first Indian horticultural congress 295-319 Sharma YK, Goswami AM and Sharma RR. 1992. Effect of dwarfing aneuploid guava rootstock in high density orcharding. Indian J. Hort. 49(1): 31-36 Singh G, Singh AK and Mishra D. 2007. High density planting in guava. Acta Hort. 735: 235-241 Van Den Ende, B. (2005) “Open Tatura with cordon: A new way to grow fruit.” Good Fruit Grower 56 (8): Retrieved from http://www.goodfruit.com/issues May 2007. 234 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XXIV studies on integrAted nutrient mAnAgement in soyBeAn (GlyCIne mAX L). d. sridevi, syed Ahmad hussain, m. yakadri, and 1A.vijaya gopal Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030. 1 Department of Agricultural Microbiology and Bioenergy, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad- 500030. E-mail : srimutluru@gmail.com A field experiment entitled “ Studies on integrated nutrient management in Soybean (Glycine max) was carried out under Southern Telangana Zone agro climatic conditions in kharif season, the experiment was conducted in sandy clay loam soils in RBD with twelve treatments replicated thrice the treatments include application of 100%, 50% and 25% inorganic forms and as substituted with proportionate organic nitrogen forms ( Vermicompost, FYM ) and supplemented with Rhizobium and micronutrient application resulted in increase in growth yield attributes and yield of soybean crop. However substitution of inorganic form of RDN up to 50% with organic forms either with FYM or vermicompost resulted in increase in growth, yield attributes and yield whereas the substitution of inorganic form with that of organics of RDN beyond 50% lead to non significance performance. Application of Rhizobium either alone or in combination with micronutrients mixture over and above organic and inorganic sources of RDN at various levels (25%, 50% and 75% RDN) increased the performance of the crop. However highest grain yield (2238 kg ha-1 ), harvest index (40.7), highest net returns ( 58520 Rs/ha) and benefit cost ratio (2.73) was realized when 25% RDN is substituted with FYM besides supplementing with Rhizobium and micronutrients. Key words : Soybean, Recommended dose of Nitrogen, Rhizobium, grain yield, benefit cost ratio. introduction Soybean (Glycine max(L.) occupies an important place in international trade due to its high protein content of edible oil, protein and also due to its various uses is rightly called a “Golden gift of nature to mankind” which is a rich source of protein (40-42%) and quality oil (20-22%). In India it is grown in an area of 9.6 million ha. with production of 9.9 million tons and productivity of 1027 kg/ha. Soybean occupies third place among oil seed crops of Andhra Pradesh. Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) is one of the major kharif oilseed crops in India, mainly in semi-arid tropics of Central India. Low productivity of crop is primarily because of uncontrollable climatic factors like erratic rainfall, distribution pattern and controllable edaphic factor of low organic matter status owing to imbalanced use of both macro and micro nutrient through high analysis inorganic fertilizers. Soybean utilizes high quantities of nutrient from soil and if balanced fertilization is not done it may lead to mining of soil nutrients. Therefore, it is necessary to integrate various sources of both organic and inorganic in nature to maintain soil fertility for sustainable production of soybean. The benefit Integrated Nutrient Management in crops like Soybean has been realized and therefore it is felt essential to study the influence of Integrated Nutrient Management practices under the climatic conditions of southern Telangana zone. materials & methods A field experiment entitled “studies on integrated nutrient management in soybean (Glycine max L.)” was conducted during kharif season, at College Farm, College of Agriculture, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. The soil was sandy clay loam in texture under study was slightly alkaline (7.9) in reaction, and low in available nitrogen (230.7 kg N ha-1), medium in available phosphorus (25.4 kg P2O5 ha-1) and potassium (282.5 kg K2O ha-1). The Experiment was laid out in a Randomized Block Design with 12 treatmental combinations which were replicated thrice. The variety JS-335 is used. Nitrogen @ 40 Kg ha-1, phosphorus @ 60 Kg ha-1 and potassium @ 40 Kg ha-1 in the form of urea, single super phosphate and murate of potash, respectively were applied as basal. Vermicompost and recommended dose of fertilizers were incorporated in soil. Rhizobium treatment was also done in their respective treatments and at 20th day micronutrient mixture spray was applied @ 500 Kg ha- to their respective treatments. results and discussion: Recommended doses of nitrogen (levels and sources) influenced all yield attributes, pods per plant, seeds per pod were significantly influenced by organic and inorganic N sources when applied in different sources and proportions of nitrogen and their application in combination with micronutrients and Rhizobium. Whereas, 100 seed weight of soybean could not register significant difference due to RDN sources and levels. Substitution of 25% of RDN with Rhizobium treatment resulted in optimal growth and performance of crop, which is on par with 100% RDN (T1). Highest 235 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” grain yield of 2238 kg ha-1 and 2165 kg ha-1 were harvested with inorganics 75%, Rhizobium treatment, micronutrients and organics FYM and vermicompost respectively as shown in the Table . Sharma and Namdeo (1999), Ghosh et al. (2005), Mohan Kumar et al. (2005) and Imkongtoshi and Gohain (2009). Similar trend is also observed in haulm yield and harvest index. However, substitution combined application of RDN upto 50% of inorganic nitrogen source with organic source showed positive trend in yield. Whereas, the trend was negative when, the substitution level reached upto 75%. A combined application inorganics (75%), organics (25%) besides Rhizobium and micronutrient is resulted in highest net returns and benefit cost ratio of 58,520 Rs. ha-1 and 2.73, respectively Similar results have been observed by Nagaraju and Mohan Kumar (2010). table : effect of integrated nutrient management on yield and Cost of cultivation, gross returns, net returns and B: C ratio of soybean. Treatment Grain yield (kg ha-1) Haulm yield(kg ha-1) Harvest index (%) Cost of cultivation (Rs. ha-1) Gross returns (Rs. ha-1) Net returns (Rs. ha-1) B:Cratio (Rs. ha-1) T1 100% RDN (inorganic) 1627 2778 36.9 21035 58334 37299 1.77 T2 25% RDN (inorganic) + 75% RDN through FYM. 1303 2400 35.1 20800 46805 26005 1.25 T3 50% RDN (inorganic) + 50% RDN through FYM. 1542 2792 35.5 20879 55366 34487 1.65 T4 25% RDN (inorganic) + 75% RDN through Vermicompost 1196 2249 34.7 42984 21284 0.98 T5 50% RDN (inorganic) + 50% RDN through Vermicompost. 1466 2679 35.3 21480 52649 31169 1.45 T6 100% RDN (inorganic) + Rhizobium treatment. 1842 2874 39.0 21095 65907 44812 2.12 T7 75% RDN (inorganic) + Rhizobium treatment. 1717 2902 37.1 20917 61546 40629 1.94 T8 100% RDN (inorganic) + Micro nutrient mixture. 1682 2778 37.7 21455 60259 38804 1.80 T9 100% RDN (inorganic) + Micronutrients +Rhizobium. 1913 2960 39.2 21515 68435 46920 2.18 75% RDN (inorganic) + 25% RDN FYM + Micronutrients + Rhizobium 2238 3250 40.7 21435 79955 58520 2.73 T11 75% RDN (inorganic) +25% RDN-VC+Micro nutrients + Rhizobium 2165 3193 40.4 21738 77371 55633 2.55 T12 Control (No Fertilizer). 1022 2025 33.5 19000 36782 17782 0.93 T10 S.Em.± 65.84 92.07 1.22 CD ( P = 0.05) 194.36 271.7 3.61 Conclusions 21700 Substitution of inorganic nitrogen sources upto 50% with organics is possible for profitable crop production. Whereas substitution of 75% RDN inorganic sources is not recommended.Seed treatment with Rhizobium japonicum can substitute 25% of RDN.Solitary application of either Rhizobium or micronutrients over and above 100% RDN inorganic whereas, combination of inorganics (100%) Rhizobium and micronutrient is useful for better crop growth and yield.Every added level and sources of input increases the cost of cultivation but maximum net returns and benefit cost ratio would be possible only when inorganics (75%), organics (25%) in combination with micronutrients and Rhizobium application. 236 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” references Naga Raju, A. P. and Mohan Kumar, H. K. 2010. Effect of Micronutrients and Bio inoculants on Growth and yield of soybean (Glycine max (L.). Mysore Journal of Agricultural Science.44 (2):260-265. Mohan Kumar, H. K., Naga Raju A. P and Krishna H.C. 2005. Effect of Conjunctive use of Micronutrients and bio inoculants on nodulation, Quality and seed yield of soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill). Imkongtoshi and Gohain, T. 2009. Integrated nutrient management in soybean (Glycine max L.) under terrace cultivation of Nagaland. Crop Research. 38 (1, 2 & 3): 39 – 42. 237 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XXV PhytoremediAtion PotentiAL of BrAssICA junCeA L. CuLtivArs surbhi sharma1 and shanti s.sharma2 Assistant Professor, Baba Farid college Deon, Bathinda E mail:surbhi_kaul@rediffmail.com Abstract Phytoremediation of metal polluted soils essentially relies on the large capabilities of some plant species to accumulate heavy metals i,e the metal hyperaccumulators. The use of plants for removal of environmental pollutants is a cost effective alternative.Use of plants for environmental remediation is very old for waste water treatment. Phytoremediation can be applied to both organic and inorganic pollutants present in solid substrate eg soil, liquid substrates e.g water and air.The uptake of cadmium in roots and shoots of Brassica cultivars PBR-91 and RL-1359 were compared. Plants were grown hydroponically. Cadmium exerted its phytotoxic effects on seed germination ,seedling growth as well as plant growth of Brassica juncea cultivars PBR-91 and RL-1359.Marked organ-specific and cultivar specific differences,in the responses to Cd were observed. index terms: Hydroponics, soil-less cultures, Phytoremediation introduction Soil is usually the most available growing medium for plants. It provides anchorage, nutrients, air ,water ,etc. for successful plant growth6.However,soils do pose serious limitations for plant growth too, at times. Presence of disease causing organisms and nematodes, unsuitable soil reaction, unfavorable soil compaction, poor drainage, degradation due to erosion etc.are some of them2.Phytoremediation of metal polluted soils depends on capabilities of some plants to accumulates heavy metals. The plants accumulating › 0.1 percent(Ni, Co or Pb),› 1 percent Zn and › 0.01 percent Cd on dry weight basis are considered the hyperaccumulator for element(s)concerned4.Explanations for the phenomenon of metal hyperaccumulation have been suggested by many authors. Boyd and Martens 3(1992) summarised the explanations into( i) inadvertant uptake,(ii)metal tolerance(sequestration),(iii)disposal from plant body,(iv)drought resistance,(v)interference with other plants and,(vi)pathogen/herbivore defense. The processes involved in phytoremediation comprise of (i)metal uptake by roots; effective uptake requires that the contaminant must be in a biologically accessible form so that root absorption occurs and,(ii)translocation of the contaminant from root to shoot making tissue harvesting easier and lessening the worker exposure to the contaminants. After harvesting ,the biomass could be processed to recover most metal contaminant. Alternatively, the biomass could be reduced in volume by physico -chemical and/or biological means for subsequent handling e.g.,secure landfilling5.Continuous search has led to identification of usefulness of some high biomass crop species for metal accumulation. Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.),a member of Brassicaceae, was demonstrated to accumulate Cd,and Zn in high concentrations 7 material and methods plants of Brassica juncea were grown in hydroponic culture containing Hoagland nutrient solution. The composition of nutrient medium was :KNO3.1.5mM,MgSO4.0.5mM,(NH4)H2PO4.0.25mM,H3BO3.11.500µM,Ca(NO3)2.0.70mM,MnSO4.1.25µM,ZnSO4. 0.20µM, CuSO4.0.075µM, NH4MoO4.0.025µM,Fe-EDTA.11.8µM.Plants were exposed, when required, to the stated concentrations of Cd through addition of CdSo4 to the nutrient medium. Plastic pots of 1.6 l capacity were used for plant culture;3 plants per pot were grown by holding the plants in the holes onto the lids with the help of cotton. The nutrient medium was appropriately aerated with an aquarium pump and replaced by a fresh one at regular intervals during the growth of test plants. Two types of experiments were performed designated as short term and long term experiments. In case of short term experiments, Plants were grown for seven days(following 3-d germination period in the petriplates). Thereafter, they are exposed to desired cadmium concentration(o-500µM) achieved in the nutrient medium by appropriately supplementing the latter with Cd (CdSO4).In case of long term experiments, Plants were grown for 21 days(following a 3-d germination period in the petriplates. Thereafter, they were exposed for 10days to cadmium(0-50µM)added as CdSO4. At the end of the exposure to Cd, various plant growth and biochemical parameters were measured. The observations were recorded every 24,48 and 72 h following the treatment(24 h soaking) with stated Cd concentrations. Since ,the magnitude of response to Cd was not much different at three time points, the data for final count i,e.72 h is presented( fig 3.1) 238 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” results a) seed germination: Cd did not affect the seed germination much until 100µM .Beyond this, Cd inhibited the germination in a concentration dependent manner in both the cultivars; CV RL-1359 performing some what better than CV PBR-91. Thus,250µM Cd inhibited the germination in CV PBR-91 by 46 and 49% respectively at 250 and 500µM concentrations whereas these figures were 12 and 23% only in CV RL1359(fig 3.1) b) seedling growth: Cd inhibited the seedling growth, measured in terms of root and hypocotyl length, in a concentration dependent manner in both the cultivars. There were marked organ-specific differences in response to Cd.Thus, the Cd -induced inhibition of root elongation growth was invariably stronger than that of hypocotyl growth.Based on the root elongation growth was invariably stronger than that of hypocotyl growth. Based on the root elongation growth, CV PBR91 proved much more tolerant to Cd than CV RL-1359 so far as the effect of Cd concentrations≤50µM is concerned. Whereas these Cd concentrations did not markedly inhibit the root elongation growth in CV PBR-91,there was a substantial inhibition of root growth in CV RL-1359 at 5µM Cd(30%).The latter intensified upon leading to a 66% inhibition at 50µM. At 100 and 500µM concentrations, The Cd effect was identical ;the inhibition being≥66% and 100%,respectively at these concentrations. Regarding the response of hypocotyl growth to Cd , it was, overall, comparable in magnitude except at a couple of concentrations(e.g.,50µM)where there was a tendency for a stronger inhibition in CV PBR-91 than in CV RL1359( fig 3.2) c) effect of Cd in short- term experiment: The experiments performed in the laboratory(incubator)revealed that Cd inhibited the plant growth of both Brassica juncea cultivars. However ,strong organ specific and cultivar-specific differences in response to Cd were evident. In general,PBR-91 was more tolerant to Cd than CV RL-1359.Thus,root growth in CV RL-1359 was markedly inhibited by Cd in excess of 10µM leading to a 70% inhibition at 100µM Cd( fig3.3).In contrast, root growth in CV PBR-91 was not much reduced until 50µM Cd,the root growth inhibition occurred beyond this only .Even at 500µM Cd,the root growth inhibition was only 30%( fig 3.3). root fresh weight parameter appeared less sensitive to Cd.Thus despite a Cd-dependent strong reduction of root elongation in CV RL-1359,the effect on root fresh weight was marginal( fig 3.3 D).In CV PBR-91,the response of the two growth parameterswas generally similar( fig 3.3C).In contrast to the root growth, Cd inhibited the shoot growth(measured as fresh weight) of Brassica juncea cultivars only marginally. Further, the response of the two cultivars was generally comparable. (fig 3.4) 239 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 240 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” d) effect of Cd on plant growth in long-term experiments: The root growth,in terms of root elongation growth and root fresh weight, was inhibited with an increase in cadmium concentration in both the cultivars of Brassica juncea.The magnitude of Cd -induced inhibition, particularly in terms of root elongation growth, was generally comparable in both the cultivars. The same was true for Cd-induced reduction of root weight .The shoot growth in terms of fresh weight was inhibited by cadmium in a concentration dependent manner in both the cultivars. The extent of Cd-dependent decline in leaf area was comparable in CVs PBR-91 and RL-1359 at lower cadmium concentrations (10,20µM).However, at higher concentrations (≥30µM) the Cd induced decline was stronger in CV PBR-91 than in CV RL-1359.For example, leaf area of Cd (50µM)stressed plants was 35 and 75% of control in CV PBR-91 and CV RL-1359,respectively(fig.3.5). e) trichome density: The members of Brassicaceae including Brassica juncea are characterized by the presence of trichomes on leaf surfaces. The changes, if any, in the density of the trichomes due to the exposure of plants to Cdon the abaxial as well as adaxial leaf surfaces were monitored. There was a marked difference in the trichome density of the leaf surface of the CVs PBR-91 and RL-1359.The difference was much larger for the adaxial surface. The cadmium-induced increase in trichome density was several times greater in CV PBR-91 and RL-1359.In CV PBR-91,Cd (50µM) stressed plants showed 7-and 21-fold higher trichome density(no/cm2)) over control in the adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces, respectively(fig3.6). In contrast to CV PBR-91,the Cd induced increase in trichome density in CV RL 1359 was only marginal. f) Chlorophyll content: The plant exposure to Cd resulted in a concentration-dependent manner in both types of experiments. In the short-term experiments ,Cd-induced reduction of chlorophyll content was invariably stronger in CV RL-1359 than in CV PBR-91.Leaves of (100µM)-stressed plants contained 47 and 14% of control chlorophyll in CVs PBR-91 and RL-1359,respectively(Fig 3.7).Cd at 500µM concentration reduced chlorophyll level to 18% of control in PBR-91.In contrast, in the long-term experiment, when the older plants were exposed to Cd, the Cd-induced suppression of chlorophyll was generally comparable in the two cultivars. Thus,Cd(50µM) stressed plants contained about 8 and 11% of control chlorophyll levels in CVs PBR-91 and RL-1359,respectively.(fig 3.8) g) Cadmium uptake and accumulation: In order to obtain intracellular Cd contents the roots, at the end of exposure period, roots were subjected to desorption with ice-cold 5 mM Pb(NO 3) 2.The root Cd contents in both the cultivars increased proportionately with an increase in the external Cd concentration. Roots, in RL-1359 accumulated higher Cd contents than those in CV PBR-91(3.9).The Cd accumulation. Plants exposed to 50µM Cd contained 5150 and 1750 µg Cd g-1 dry weight in CV PBR-91 and CV RL-1359,respectively. discussion The present study clearly shows a good phytoremediation potential of Brassica juncea cultivars for concentrating Cd from the surrounding medium(soil).The phytoremediation potential of Indian mustard(Brassica juncea)was identified 241 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 242 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” about a decade ago(1990)1.The data clearly suggest that PBR-91 is capable of efficiently translocating Cd from root to shoot when compared to RL-1359.The stronger root to shoot translocation seems to be one of the mechanisms for higher Cd accumulation rates in PBR-91.Along with this ,PBR-91(the better Cd accumulator)registered an increase up to 21fold in trichome density due to Cd treatment over the control.The finding suggest a strong involvement of trichomes in management of surplus Cd content at an organ level. Since trichomes represent a tissue external to leaf, the Cd Storage in them represent a metal detoxification mechanism. references Banuelos, G.S. and Meek. D.W.1990.Accumulation of selenium in plants grown on selenium-treated Soil,J.Environ Qual.19:772-777. Biebel,J.P., “ Hydroponics-The science of growing crops without soil.”Florida Department of Agric. Bull. P.180,(1960). Boyd,R.S.and Martens,S.N.1992.The raison detre for metal hyperaccumulation by plants.In:Baker ,A.J.M., Proctor,J. and Reeves, R.D.(eds),The Ecology of Ultramafic(Serpentine)soils.Intercept,Andover,pp.279-289. Chaney, R.L., Malik, M., Li ,Y .M. M., Brown, S.L., Angle, J.S and Baker, A.J.M.(1997). Phytoremediation of soil metals. Curr.opin.Biotechnol.8:271-281. Cunningham, S.D. and Ow, D.W.1996.Promises and prospects of phytoremediation. Plant Physiol.110 Ellis,N.K.,Jensen,M., Larsen, J. and Oebker,N., “Nutriculture Systems-Growing plants without soil.” Station Bulletin No.44. Purdue University, Lafa yette, Indiana.(1974) Salt, D.E., Prince, R.C., Pickering ,.J.I and Raskin, I.1995 Mechanisms of cadmium mobility and accumulation in Indian mustard .Plant Physiol.109:1427-1433. 243 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XXVI effeCt of orgAniC fertiLizer vs. BiofertiLizer on BioChemiCAL PArAmeters of BreAd WheAt. [trItICum AestIVum L.] Kowsar Jan1, Aabid m. rather2 and m.v. Boswal1 Department of Botany, C.S.J.M. University of Kanpur, Department of Botany, University of Kashmir Corresponding author:jankousar1982@gmail.com;abid.bot@gmail.com Abstract The present study performed during Nov. 2009 to April 2011 at Christ Church College, Kanpur, was spread over investigation concerned with the effect of Biofertilizer and to compare it with organic fertilizers on biochemical parameters(protein, Fe and Zn content in the grains). of wheat Triticum aestivum L.Applation of Biofertilizer (Azotobacter sps. ) alone or in combination jinong [ containing,humic acid ]and farm yard manure increase yield and grain quality of Triticum aestivum L Astonishingly the new humic acid containing organic fertilizer Jinong was far more effective than Biofertilizer applied alone or with Farmyard manure. Among all applications 0.2% Jinong applied alone was more effective in increase Fe, Zn and protein content in grains..Addition of farmyard manure to this organic fertilizer further enhanced the value of Fe ,zn and protein content in grains.therefore the Fe ,zn and protein content in grain of wheat due to treatments of Biofertilizer and specially Jinong can be considered a beneficial effect. introduction Generally grain Zn and Fe concentrations in wheat cultivars are not adequate for human nutrition in diets specially with grains constituting the main source of essential mineral. Moreover wheat is rich in phytic acid and phenolic compounds that reduce biological availability of Zn and Fe in the human digestive tract (Welch and Graham, 2004). So sufficient amount of Fe and Zn should be available in the crops to overcome this problem. ). Globally wheat is the leading source of vegetable protein in human food, having a higher protein content than either maize or rice. . It finds place in both the meals of a common citizen. Amongst the cultivated food cereal, wheat occupied second place in production at global level. An increasing realization in human population all over the world, the need of consumption of wheat after rice has importance. To meet out the requirement effort is being made of how to increase crop productivity per unit area, per unit time so that demand of its supply be increased. . In order to suggest the possible line of attack for improving the yield potential and quality of wheat, scientists have been trying to understand the yield formation process which seemed to be of immense practical significance. The use of chemical fertilizers has been realized to increase the yield but potential of soil decreased due to loss of organics. Experiencing the adverse effects of synthetic input dependent agriculture the concept of organic agriculture is gaining momentum. India has tremendous potential to grow crops organically (Maity et al., 2004). Application of organic manures or biofertilizers is the only option to improve soil organic carbon for sustenance of soil quality and future agricultural productivity (Ramesh, 2008). Since the end of the 20th century the need to use Biofertilizers has arisen as the after effect of chemical fertilizer was realized. The few reports indicate that Biofertilizers lead to increased crop productivity. Application of Biofertilizer (mix. of Azotobacter chroococcum, Azospirillum liboferum and Bacillus megatherium) applied with chemical fertilizers increased vegetative growth, yield and essential oil content of fennel (Mahfouz and Sharaf-Eldin, 2007) compared to chemical fertilizers only. Biofertilizers are better source for protection and production (Mithal, 2001). Biofertilizer stimulate barley growth and yield of maize (Wu et al., 2005), wheat and barley (Canbelat, et al., 2006). Biofertilizers recorded higher N uptakes and net returns over no biofertilizers in wheat-maize cropping system (Kumar and Ahlawat, 2006). Jinong, recommended by China Green Food Development Center, Under the Agricultural Ministry, Govt. of China (www. cfcl_india.com /jinong-haolf.html) is an organic liquid fertilizer, whose main constituent is humic acid. Humic acid fertilizer is the essence of farm manure, its effect on increasing crop yield is more significant than chemical fertilizer and manure. It has been further observed that the NPK and trace elements present along with humic acid in Jinong are ideal for any plant growth. It’s application is totally safe, harmless and pollution free. Jinong organic liquid fertilizer contains – 65.54 g/l humic acid; 20.58 g/l of N; 23.69 g/l of P; 21.67 g/l of K; 2.03 g/l of Cu + Fe + Zn + Mo + Mn + B; 2.8% of water and pH is 4.3. Balanced and co-ordinate development of plant body is controlled by minerals, organic substances and hormonal factors involving wide range of growth nutrients. Plant nutrition, using a balanced fertilization program with both macro and micronutrients has become very important in the production 244 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” of high and yield high quality products. Among the many macro and micronutrients essential for plant growth N, P, K, Cu, Fe, Zn, Mo, Mn and B are essential metals for cell metabolism. . Consequently the use of humic substance has often been proposed as a method to improve crop food (Adani et al. 1998). Sharif et al. (2002) found the addition of 0.5 – 1.0 kg/ha humic acid resulted in increased wheat grain yield by 25-69% over control. They further suggested that addition of humic acid with half dose of NPK produced significant and economical wheat yield with increased crop productivity by increased nutrient uptake. ). Chen and Aviad (1990) and Varanini and Pinton (1995) summarised the effects of humic substance on plant growth as positive effects on seed germination, seedling growth, root initiation, root growth, shoot development and the uptake of macro and micro elements. Several reports indicate that either soil or foliar application of micronutrients have positive correlation with wheat yield (Rashid and Rafique 1988; Wisal et al., 1990; Habib, 2009; Wroble, 2009). Therefore, the Fe and Zn content in grains of wheat due to treatments of Biofertilizer and especially Jinong can be considered a beneficial effect. A number of attempts have been made to increase micro nutrient concentration in grain. Improvements in grain quality may be attributed to the role of nutrients obtained through Biofertilizer or Jinong in enhancing accumulation of assimilate in the grains (during grain filling stage) and thus the resultant seeds had greater individual mass (Baskin and Baskin, 1998). Increased nitrogen increased protein content. . In the present investigation the effect of Jinong, the bio organic fertilizer, was studied. The effect was compared with biofertilizer and solid organic manure farmyard manure. Their combination effects were also noted. For biochemical studies Fe, Zn content in grain (the two most important minerals required for human consumption) and protein content of grain can be analysed. materials and methods The seeds of Triticum aestivum L. var. K-9107 (Deva) were obtained from Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur. The plants were raised in earthenware pots (25 cm diameter) filled with garden soil and kept in the garden of Christ Church College, Kanpur. The. Biofertilizer[Azotobacter sps] were brought from the micro-biology Dept of Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur..and Farmyard Manure were obtained from the market. Jinong was obtained from Elegant Fashion Fiber Chemicals Ltd. Jajmau, Kanpur. The Biofertilizer Azotobacter was applied as soil treatment. For this soil was mixed with Azotobacter powder as recommended. In preliminary experiments soils treatment and seed treatment were compared. However, soil treatment being more effective this was chosen as mode of application in the present study. In order to find the most suitable concentration of Jinong i,e 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, and 0.5% preliminary experiments were conducted under controlled laboratory conditions in the Department of Botany, Christ Chruch College. The experiments on seed germination and seedling growth were conducted by Garrad’s Technique (1954) in test tube. Based on preliminary experiments 0.2% Jinong and 0.3% Jinong were applied alone or in combinations at soaking seed stage and three sprays at intervals of 14 days, the first spray being 20 DAS (days after sowing). (since 0.2% Jinong gave better result it was used for combined treatments with Biofertilizer / farmyard manure (Table 1). table 1.ten treatments were applied as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Control Biofertilizer 0.2% Jinong 0.3% Jinong Biofertilizer + 0.2% Jinong 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. results and discussion FYM Biofertilizer + FYM 0.2% Jinong + FYM 0.3% Jinong + FYM Biofertilizer + 0.2% J + FYM A comparative study of the effect of Biofertilizer and or organic fertilizers used has been expressed in Chart D. The right treatment may help increase yield and grain quality of Triticum aestivum L. The over all picture of Biofertilizer enhancing the value of Fe, zn and protein in grain and the more promoting effect with humic acid containing Jinong is encouraging. Summarizing the entire investigation one can conclude that Biofertilizer (Azotobacter sps.) treatment applied alone was very effective in promoting biochemical parameters.Treatment of Jinong o.2% (J), the liquid organic fertilizer containing humic acid applied alone was very effective compared to Biofertilizer alone and FYM alone. Addition of FYM to 0.2% J proved to be the best among test,application. The iron and zinc in grains increased with Biofertilizer treatments by 2.33 and 2.51%. With FYM the increase was only 2.03% and 0.55%. However, Jinong which contains trace elements were superior to Biofertilizer in increasing these elements in grain. With 0.2% Jinong the increase was 14.45% and 10.08%, respectively. Addition of manure to Jinong gave better results and the increase was by 24.71% and 18.37%, respectively. The protein increased by 1.24% with FYM. Biofertilizer could increase it by 14.55%. Jinong was superior to Biofertilizer and the increase was 23.84% with 0.2%. With FYM, Jinong further increased protein by 29.72%. [Table 2]. 245 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table2. Comparative effect of Biofertilizer with organic fertilizers on biochemical parameters as compared to control. Parameters Control Treatments BF 0.2% J Fym 0.2% J+F Zn (ppm) 14.81 52.80 2.33 2.51 14.45 10.08 2.03 0.55 24.71 18.37 Protein content (%) 14.43 14.55 23.84 1.24 29.72 Fe (ppm) The increase in biochemical parameters with Jinong can be attributed to be due to presence humic acid which is the major component in addition to small proportions of macro and micronutrients. Increase of uptake of macro and microelements influenced by humic substance have been reported in different plant species (Chen and Aviad, 1990). There are few researches on using humic substances as foliar application. Singer et al. 1998 found that application of Delta mix (an organic fertilizer containing humic acid with micronutrients) enhanced the growth and pod quality of common bean. Humic acid containing Jinong which was used as an experimental material in the present study also enhanced wheat quality. Humic substances in soil have multiple effects (Sangeetha et al., 2006).. Indirect effects involve improvements of soil properties like aeration, micronutrient transport, water holding capacity (Tan 2003). Direct effects are those which require uptake of humic substances into plant tissues resulting in various biochemical effects (Chen and Aviad, 1990). The benefits of humic substances are reflected in improved seed germination, root growth, uptake of minerals in plants. Many studies have demonstrated that humic substances have a direct action on plant growth by influencing metabolic processes such as respiration, nucleic acid synthesis and ion uptake (Dell’ Agnola and Nardi,1987; Piccolo et al., 1992). The quantity of Fe increased [table19] in the grains with treatments.The increase was significant with o.2%J and o.2%J+F and was 16.95 and 18.47 ppm respectively.the percentage increase over control [fig 19a] was 24.71 with o.2%J+F which was maximum and 2.o3 minimum with Fym. Quantity of Zn [table 19] also increased with treatments and was 58.12ppm with o.2%J,62.50ppm with o.2%J+F which were both significant. The latter value was maximum amoung all treatment. The percentage increase over control[fig19a] was 10 .08% and 18.37% with0.2%J and 0.2%J+F whereas it was only 2.51% with biofertilizer. The content of protein Table19 increase in the grains with treatments.The increase was significant with Bf,0.2%J and 0.2%J+F and was 16.53%, 17.87% and 18.72 respectively as compared to 14.43% in the control .The percentage increase over control[fig 19] showed best effect(14.55% ,23.84% and 29.72%) with Bf, 0.2%J and 0.2%J+F , respectively the latter being best. Figure 19b indicates the L.S.D. at 5%. Level for Fe, Zn and protein content in Triticum aestivum L. grain after treatment. Fe content: Fe content was best with 0.2% J + F (Fig. 19b) and this was at par with 0.2% J. Control was at par with FYM and Bf. zn content :This was best with 0.2% J + F (Fig. 19) and was followed by 0.2% J. The latter two treatments were not at par with each other or other treatments. Control was at par with FYM and Bf. Protein content: Protein content (Fig. 19b) was best with 0.2% J + F and this was at par with 0.2% J treatments. Control was at par with FYM only. Table 19: Influence of Biofertilizer and organic fertilizers on Fe and Zn and protein content in grains of triticum aestivum L. S.No. Treatment Fe content (ppm) Zn content (ppm) Protein content (%) 1 Control 14.8 ± 0.39 52.80 ± 1.78 14.43 ± 0.33 2 Bf 15.25 ± 0.32 54.13 ± 1.33 16.53 ± 0.26* 3 0.2% J 16.95 ± 0.89* 58.12 ± 1.83* 17.87 ± 0.83* 4 FYM (F) 15.11 ± 0.37 53.11 ± 1.27 14.61 ± 0.65 62.50 ± 0.61* 18.72 ± 0.02* 5 0.2 % J + F 18.47 ± 0.37* C.D. at 5% level Data in parenthesis is % increase over control. Bf = Biofertilizer; J = Jinong; FYM/ F = Farmyard Manure Data in parenthesis is % increase over control. 246 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” references Adani, F.; Genevini, P.; Zaccheo, P.; Zocchi, G. (1998). The effect of commercial humic acid on tomato plant growth and mineral nutrition. J. Pl. Nutr. 21 (3) : 561-575. Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (1998). Seeds Ecology Biogeography and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. Academic Press, New York Chen, Y. and Aviad, T. (1990). Effects of humic substances on plant growth, 161–186. In : MacCarthy, P.; Clapp, C.E.; Malcolm, R.L. and Bloom P.R. (eds.). Humic Substances in Soil and Crop Sciences: Selected readings. Amer. Soc. Agronomy, Madison, WI. Canbelat, M.Y.; Barik, K.; Carmarci, R. and Sahin, F. (2006). Effect of mineral and biofertilizers on barley growth on compacted soil. Acta Agriculture Scandinavica. Section B- Plant Soil Science. 56 (4) : 324-332. Dell’Agnola, G. and Nardi, S. (1987). Hormone-like effect of enhanced nitrate uptake induced by depolycondensed humic fractions obtained from Allolobophora rosea and A. caliginosa faeces. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 4: 115–118. Garrad, A. (1954). The effect of 1-Indole-acetic acid on the germination of certain members of Cruciferae. New Phytol. 53: 165-176. Habib, M. (2009). Effect of foliar application of Zn and Fe on wheat yield and quality. African J. Biotechnol. 8: 6795–6798 Kumar, V. and Ahlawat, I.P.S. (2006). Effect of biofertilizer and nitrogen on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and their after effects on succeeding maize (Zea mays) in wheat – maize cropping system. Ind. J. Agric Sci. 76 (8) : Mahfouz, S.A. and Sharaf-Eldin, M.A. (2007). Effect of mineral vs biofertilizer on growth, yield and essential oil content of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill). Int. Agrophysis. 21 : 361-366. Maity, T.K. and Tripathy, P. (2004). Organic farming of vegetables in India : Problems and Prospects. www.share4dev.info/ kbdocuments/2997. pdf>(Retrieved on October 13, 2011). Mithal Jiskani, M. (2001). Biofertilizers better source for protection and production of Crops. J. Plant patho., 321-322. pakissan.com Piccolo A, Nardi, S. and Concheri, G. (1992). Structural characteristics of humic substances as related to nitrate uptake and growth regulation in plant systems. Soil Biol. Biochem. 24 : 373-380. Ramesh, P. (2008). Organic farming research in M.P. Organic farming in rain fed agriculture: Central institute for dry land agriculture, Hyderabad. 13-17. Rashid, A. and Rafique, E. (1988). Annual Report. Cooperative Research Programme on Micronutrient Status of Pakistan Soils and its Role in Crop Production. NARC, Sangeetha, M.; Singaram, P. and Devi, U. (2006). Effect of lignite humic acid and fertilizers on the yield of onion and nutrient availability. 18th World Congress of Oil Science. July 9-15, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. Sharif, M.; Khattak, R.A. and Sarir, M.S. (2002). Wheat yield and nutrients accumulation as affected by humic acid and chemical fertilizers. Sarhad J. Agric. 8(3): 323-329. Singer, S.M.; Sawan, O.M.; AbdelMouty, M.M. and Salman, S.R. (1998). Study of the effects of the Delta mixTM and organic matter on growth and productivity of bean plants grown under calcareous soil conditions. Egyptian J of Hortic. 25: 335–47 Tan, K.H. (2003). Humic Matter in Soil and the Environment. Marcel Dekker. New York. Varanini, Z. and R. Pinton (1995). Humic substances and plant nutrition. Prog. Bot. 56:97–117. Welch, R.M. and Grahm, R.D. (2004). Breeding for micronutrients in staple food crops from a human nutrition perspective J. Exp. Bot. 55(396): 353-364. Wisal, M.; Iqbal, M. and Shah, S.M. (1990). Effect of mode of application of Zn and Fe on the yield of wheat (CV. 81). Sarhad J. Agric. 6:615– 618 Wroble, S. (2009). Response of spring wheat to foliar fertilization with boron under reduced boron availability. J. Elementol. 14: 395 -404 Wu, S.C.; Cao, Z.H.; Li, Z.G. and Cheung, K.C. (2005). Effect of biofertilizer containing N-fixer, P and K solubilizers and AM fungi on maize growth: a greenhouse trial. Geoderma. 125: 155-166. 247 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XXVII oPtimisAtion of AgronomiC mAnAgement PrACtiCes toWArds eXPLorAtion of the PossiBiLity of groWing Jute seed CroP in the northern humid PArt of West BengAL P. Poddar & h. das Discipline of Agronomy, RRS (TZ), Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Coochbehar-736101, West Bengal, India E-mail: drparthendu.poddar@rediffmail.com Abstract An experiment was conducted at farm of Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya between July 2011 to December 2011 to optimize the most suitable date of sowing, spacing and topping schedule in case of seed production of white jute. Jute cultivar JRC 321 was sown on 25th July, 9th August and 24th August with 45 x 10 cm, 45 x 15 cm and 60 x 15 cm spacing and topping was done at 30 and 45 DAS (days after sowing). First two dates of sowing gave significantly higher seed yield (5.12 and 5.45 q/ha respectively) over third date of sowing (2.05 q/ha). There was significantly higher seed yield (4.42 q/ ha) obtained with 45 x 15 cm spacing. Topping at 45 DAS (4.48 q/ha) gave significantly higher seed yield than topping at 30 DAS (3.94 q/ha). Approximately, a net return of Rs. 7130.00 to 20732.00 per hectare can be achieved from the cultivation of jute (capsularis) for seed crop. Key Words: Jute seed, Spacing, Topping, Yield introduction and Backdrop Among the fibre crops jute (Family: Tiliaceae), known as ‘Golden Fibre of Bengal’, is the second most important commercial fibre yielding cash crop next to cotton. Jute is used extensively in the manufacturing of different types of traditional packaging fabrics, manufacturing hessian, sacking, carpet backing, mats, bags, tarpaulins, ropes and twines. Recently, jute fibres are used in a wide range of diversified products namely decorative fabrics, dresses, soft luggage, footwear, greeting cards, model door panels and other innumerable useful consumer products. About 80 % of jute sticks are used as fuel wood by villagers and 15 % as structural material for rooms as well as fencing. Jute sticks, waste jute fibre or even the dried jute plants and seed plants can be pulped by chemical and chemi-mechanical processes viz. soda, kraft, alkaline sulphite processes etc. for making particle boards, paper sheet, paper boards, paper bags both on a large or rural scale (Nayak and Roy, 2011). Jute leaves contain all vital nutrients needed by the human body. It is a rich source of protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus and vitamins like A, B and C. (Shitanda and Wanjala, 2006). About 04 million farm families are involved with raw jute farming and an employment to the tune of 10 million paid man-days is generated in this sector (Poddar & Misra, 2006). India exports jute goods to the tune of 166 thousand tons per annum amounting to Rs. 10736 million (average of 2007—2010, Source: Indian Jute, VOL.XXII NO.1, December, 2010). At global level also, a renewed thrust has been given to the improvement of this eco-friendly crop through diversified uses. This crop is environment friendly because of the following facts a) it is an annually renewable energy source with a high biomass production per unit land area b) highly biodegradable products can easily be disposed off without any environmental hazard like synthetics c) Co2 assimilation rate of jute is higher than that of trees & d) Jute mitigates green house effect to some extent as 01 hectare of jute plants can consume about 15 tons of Co2 from the atmosphere and release about 11 tons of O2 in 100 days of jute growing season (Inagaki, 2000). In India, as a fibre crop, it is mainly cultivated in the humid tropical climate mainly under rainfed condition, predominantly by marginal and small farmers of eastern India. The state of West Bengal alone contributes 75.71% of total national area under jute and 82.97% of total Indian jute production (Source: Indian Jute, VOL.XXII NO.1, December, 2010). Non-availability of quality jute seed to the farmers at a lower price and at proper time is one of the major constraints faced by jute community. In India, requirement of certified, foundation and breeder seed of jute are 5000 tons, 62.5 tons and 0.8 tons respectively (Kumar et al., 2010). There is also an imbalance between total seed requirement for fibre production and total seed production in this zone as a result of which seed for this zone is to be imported from other dry states. Fibre and seed are two different crops of jute and climatic requirements for them are also different. Though jute as a fibre crop is grown in Eastern and North Eastern states, at present jute seed crop particularly of olitorius varieties is grown mainly in non- efficient areas of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat where the weather, particularly rainfall and soil is ideal 248 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” for jute seed production and cost of production is less largely due to less weed growth and comparatively less labour wages. Now the prices of seeds from non-fibre producing states are rising and very often jute seeds from non- fibre producing states are not available in time. If fibre producing states together produce some quantity of jute seed, it may arrest steep increase in prices of seed and at least some quantity of good quality jute seed may be available in time. materials and methods A field experiment was conducted at the farm of Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya (26019’86” N latitude, 89023’53” E longitude and at an elevation of 43 meters above mean sea level.), Cooch Behar, West Bengal to optimize the most suitable date of sowing, spacing and topping schedule in case of seed production of capsularis jute (JRC 321). The rainy season in this region starts from 1st week of May and continues up to last week of September having intermittent, drizzling and occasional heavy rainfall. The average rainfall per annum of this zone varies between 2100 to 3300 mm. The maximum rainfall, i.e., about 80% of the total, is received from south-west monsoon during the rainy months of June to September. The soil was sandy loam on texture, having pH of 5.39, medium in organic C (0.58%), low in available N (175.62 kg/ha), medium in available P (14.56 kg/ha) and medium in available K (204.51 kg/ha). The crop was cultivated under rainfed condition with different treatments including recommended package of practices. The three dates of sowing [25th July (D1), 9th August (D2) and 24th August (D3)], three spacing treatments [45 x 10 cm (S1), 45 x 15 cm (S2) and 60 x 15 cm (S3)] and two topping schedules [30 DAS (T1) and 45 DAS (T2)] were laid out in randomized complete block design with splitsplit-plot arrangements and three replications. Date of sowing was assigned to the main plots, spacing to the sub-plots and topping was assigned to the sub-sub-plots having total 18 treatment combinations. 249 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” results and discussion effect of date of sowing The analysis of variance (Table: 1 & 1.1) revealed that planting dates influenced different growth parameters significantly. Similar finding was also reported by Guha and Das (1997) & Sarkar and Sinha (2004). Up to 30 DAS, 25th July sown (D1) crop recorded highest plant height (cm), dry matter production/plant (g), leaf area/plant (cm2) and leaf area index but at 60 DAS, 90 DAS and at harvest, sowing on 9th August (D2) out-yielded first date of sowing in terms of all the abovenamed parameters. So far as number of primary branches/plant and number of secondary branches/plant were concerned, 9th August sown crop exhibited the best result. Regarding all the growth parameters, last date of sowing i.e. 24th August (D3) performed significantly worst at all growth stages of jute seed crop. Factually, not only the total rainfall but also the distribution of rainfall during the entire vegetative growth period is of paramount importance in case of jute fibre as well as jute seed production. Better performance of the earlier sown crop (D1) at initial stages of growth may be attributed to the fact that up to 30 DAS, 25th July sown crop received total 546 mm. of rainfall while D2 & D3 received only 260.5 and 367.5 mm rainfall respectively (Table: 2). High rainfall at initial stages promoted luxurious vegetative growth in 25th July sown crop. From 60 DAS, second date of sowing (9th August) started gaining much growth over D1 probably due to the following two reasons. Firstly, high rainfall in the early stage of 25th July sown crop resulted into higher weed infestation and growth which ultimately hampered the crop growth in the later stages. Secondly, as during 31 to 45 DAS, D2 i.e. 9th August sown crop received much higher amount of rainfall (329 mm) in comparison with that received by 25th July sown crop (38.5 mm), a much more favourable soil moisture regime was prevalent leading to the promotion of higher growth in case of D2. Achievement of pronounced growth by D2 over other dates of sowing at 60 DAS ultimately tantamount to better performance in terms of all growth parameters at later stages also like 90 DAS & at harvest. Treatment D3 always gave the worst results because total rainfall received by 24th August sown crop during entire growing period was only 403 mm while D1 and D2 received total rainfall of about 945 and 624.5 mm respectively. On account of the receipt of a very meagre amount of rainfall (38.5 mm) during first 15 days, 24th August sown crop suffered a lot in terms of growth which could not be compensated during the later stages of the crop. Observations furnished in Table: 3 & 3.1 exhibited that seed yield, stick yield along with different yield parameters like capsules/plant, seeds/capsule and thousand seed weight were statistically influenced by different dates of sowing. Guha and Das (1997) also reported that in case of jute seed production number of capsules/plant, number of seeds/capsule and seed yield were significantly influenced by different dates of sowing. Roy and Mazumdar (1995) reported significant effect of date of sowing on 100 seed weight in case of tossa jute. Similarly, Mishra and Nayak (1997) reported that different sowing dates had significant effect on stick yield of seed crop of jute. It was recorded that 9th August sown crop achieved significantly higher number of capsules/plant, thousand seed weight, seed yield and stick yield. This phenomenon may be attributed to the sound and better crop stand attained by 9th August sown crop at later and final stages of growth as evident from the Table: 1. In case of seed yield, first two dates of sowing were statistically at par. Only, in case of number of seeds per capsule, D3 (sowing on 24th August) performed the best. This might be explained by the fact that as D3 obtained statistically least number of capsules per plant, the size of the capsule was enhanced which might bear more seeds. But in terms of seed yield, stick yield and all the yield parameters except number of seeds per capsule, D3 (24th August) evidenced significantly lower output keeping consonance with its worse performance with regard to all the growth components. Highest harvest index was found in case of D1 followed by D2 & D3. In terms of seed quality, little better results were recorded with the seeds obtained from 25th July sown crop (D1) in comparison with the seeds obtained from D2 and seeds from D3 i.e. sowing on 24th August performed the worst. Highest gross return, net return (Rs.20732.00 ha-1) & B: C ratio (1.76:1) was manifested by D2 closely followed by D1. Treatment D3 recorded the least value and even negative net return. effect of spacing Spacing influenced all growth parameters significantly (Table: 1 & 1.1) except number of primary branches/plant. Highest plant height was recorded from the most wide spacing up to 60 DAS, but at 90 DAS and at harvest a moderate spacing of 45 x 15 cm recorded higher plant height than others. Spacing of 60 x 15 cm performed excellent in terms of dry matter production/plant, leaf area/plant, number of primary branches/plant and number of secondary branches/plant in the final stages of crop growth. Achievement of more vigour by an individual plant in case of wider spacing might explain the result as all the above-mentioned growth parameters were taken, calculated and quantified per individual plant. It was observed in Table: 3 & 3.1 that spacing had no significant effect on the yield components like capsules/plant, seeds/capsule and thousand seed weight. Madakadze et al. (2007) also made similar observation for thousand seed weight. Spacing of 45 x 15 cm gave the best result in terms of capsules/plant and thousand seed weight while spacing of 60 x 15 cm showed the highest number of seeds/capsule. More vigour of plants resulted from widest spacing might enhance the size of the capsules leading 250 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” to more number of seeds/capsule. As the number of capsules per plant and thousand seed weight were maximum with 45 x 15 cm spacing, seed yield was found maximum with this treatment being statistically at par with 60 x 15 cm spacing. As a matter of fact, though widest spacing (spacing of 60 x 15 cm) performed excellent in terms of growth parameters like dry matter production/plant, leaf area/plant, number of primary branches/plant and number of secondary branches/plant in the final stages of crop growth and also in terms of yield component like number of seeds/capsule, yield might not increase up to the highest extent due to less plant population per unit area. But, the difference in seed yield in between S2 and S3 was insignificant (only 0.08/ha). Poorest performance of S1 might be attributed to its worst performance with regard to almost all the growth and yield parameters. S1 (45 x 10 cm spacing) being the closest spacing recorded more stick yield probably due to more plant population per unit area. Stick yield gradually decreased with wider spacing in a significant manner because of difference in plant population per unit area. Similar finding was also reported by Mishra and Nayak (1997). Seeds obtained from S2 recorded more germination percentage followed by S3 & S1. In the laboratory studies on seedling length, seeds from S1 & in the field studies, seeds from S3 performed better. Seedling dry matter production at laboratory study and SVI were recorded best with S2. Highest gross return, net return (Rs.9608.00 ha-1) & B: C ratio (1.35:1) was manifested by S2 i.e. 45 cm x 15 cm. effect of topping From the data (Table: 1& 1.1) it was observed that different topping schedules had significant effects on the growth parameters like plant height at 90 DAS and at harvest; dry matter production/plant at 60 DAS, 90 DAS and at harvest; leaf area/plant at 60 DAS and 90 DAS, leaf area index at 90 DAS and number of primary as well as secondary branches/plant. Actually, topping management practices did not influence the growth parameters at early stage of crop growth because first topping was done after 30 days of sowing. Earlier topping i.e. topping at 30 DAS had harmful effect on plant height throughout the crop growing stage and also dry matter accumulation/plant at initial growth stage but rendered beneficial effect in terms of other growth parameters like dry matter production/plant at 60 DAS, 90 DAS and at harvest; leaf area/ plant and leaf area index at 30 DAS, 60 DAS and 90 DAS and number of secondary branches/plant. This is because of the fact that in T1, early removal of apical portion of the plant checked the vertical growth from early growing stage. Naturally, branching started earlier in case of earlier topping and the primary branches remained in vegetative stage for long time leading to the formation of more number of secondary branches. In early topping, as duration of branching was higher, an individual plant attained more vigour. On the contrary, topping at 45 DAS exhibited higher number of primary branches/plant. Dey et al. (1998) and More et al. (2005) reported almost similar results with some of the growth parameters considered in the present experimentation. It was furnished in Table: 3 & 3.1 that thousand seed weight, seed yield as well as stick yield were significantly influenced by topping management practices, but topping had no significant effect on the yield components like capsules/plant and seeds/capsule. More et al. (2005) and Sarkar and Sinha (2004) observed that thousand seed weight of jute was found higher with topping at 45 DAS. Topping at 45 DAS exhibited superior performance with regard to all the yield parameters like number of capsules/plant, seeds/capsule and thousand seed weight. Topping at 30 DAS promoted much vegetative growth but better reproductive growth was obtained with topping at 45 DAS. More number of primary branches in T2 resulted into more number of capsules/plant. Due to the combined effect of higher number of primary branches/plant, number of capsules/plant, seeds/capsule and test weight topping at 45 DAS gave 12.05 % higher seed yield of jute than topping at 30 DAS. Almost similar result was found in the experiment conducted in Kendrapara (2008) as per AINPJAF Annual Report (2009-10). On the contrary, stick yield was significantly more when topping was done at 30 DAS. Attainment of higher vigour by the plants receiving the treatment topping at 30 DAS might lead to such result. Though not significant, seeds obtained from treatment T1 recorded slightly higher value for germination %, seedling root length, shoot length, total length of seedling and seedling dry matter at laboratory condition as well as SVI. But while studied under field condition, seeds from T2 performed better. It was also noted that higher gross return, net return (Rs.9764.00 ha-1) and B: C ratio (1.36:1) was achieved by T2 in comparison with T1. Conclusions: Thus, it may be inferred that through some agronomic management like direct seeding during last week of July to first week of August with 45 x 15 cm spacing and topping at 45 DAS, jute (capsularis) seed production can be taken up profitably in terai region of North Bengal and jute farmers will definitely be benefited upon getting good quality seed at proper time and at moderate price. Approximately, a net return of Rs. 7130.00 to 20732.00 per hectare can be achieved from the cultivation of jute (capsularis) for seed crop. 251 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table: 1 AnovA of effect of date of sowing (d), spacing (s) and topping management (t) practices for the growth attributes of jute seed crop Sou- df rce Plant height Dry matter production/plant Leaf area/plant Leaf area index Branches/plant 30 DAS 60 90 DAS DAS Harv- 30 60 est DAS DAS 90 Harv- 30 60 90 30 DAS est DAS DAS DAS DAS Prim- secon60 90 dary DAS DAS ary D 2 *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** *** S 2 * *** *** *** *** *** *** ** *** *** *** *** *** *** NS ** Dx S 4 NS ** *** * *** * * * *** NS *** *** *** *** NS NS T 1 NS NS *** *** NS *** ** * NS * *** NS NS ** *** *** Dx T 2 NS NS NS NS NS *** ** NS NS * NS NS NS NS *** * Sx T 2 NS NS NS NS NS ** NS NS ** * NS *** NS NS NS NS Dx Sx T 4 NS NS NS NS NS ** NS NS NS * NS NS NS NS NS NS * Significant at P= 0.05, ** Significant at P= 0.01, *** Significant at P= 0.001, NS: Non significant at P≤ 0.05 table: 1.1 effect of date of sowing, spacing and topping management practices on the growth attributes of jute seed crop Variable / Treatment Plant height (cm) 30 DAS Dry matter production/plant (g) Leaf area/plant (cm2) Leaf area index Branches/plant 60 DAS 90 DAS Harvest 30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS Harvest 30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS 30 DAS 60 DAS 90 DAS Primary Secondary Date of sowing D1 (25.07.11) 63.03 a 137.81 b 165.28 a 168.53 b 1.51 a 14.50 b 38.53 b 39.11 b 204.23 a 2520.99 b 1492.75 b 0.318 a 3.939 b 2.338 b 10.33 a 6.73 b D2 (09.08.11) 61.91 a 165.00 a 167.61 a 172.93 a 1.48 a 36.98 a 52.55 a 52.59 a 179.46 b 4118.04 a 1568.94 a 0.292 b 6.495 a 2.445 a 10.99 a 12.12 a D3 (24.08.11) 47.58 b 104.23 c 110.04 b 115.63 c 0.89 b 9.08 c 20.22 c 30.99 c 141.94 c 1504.19 c 392.00 c 0.224 c 2.371 c 0.607 c 7.76 b 6.20 b MSD (P=0.05) 3.12 5.60 3.12 4.22 0.05 2.13 3.50 3.16 5.62 231.40 71.87 0.009 0.434 0.104 1.18 1.79 S1 (45 x 10 cm) 55.30 b 126.11 b 141.72 b 145.31 b 1.17 b 16.29 b 33.69 b 38.08 b 164.72 b 2435.28 b 1013.83 c 0.366 a 5.412 a 2.253 a 8.98 a 6.84 b S2 (45 x 15 cm) 57.93 ab 139.13 a 152.03 a 156.17 a 1.35 a 22.29 a 36.24 b 41.86 a 180.53 a 2837.29 a 1151.55 b 0.267 b 4.203 b 1.706 b 9.98 a 8.91 a S3 (60 x 15 cm) 59.28 a 141.80 a 149.18 a 155.61 a 1.35 a 21.98 a 41.36 a 42.76 a 180.37 a 2870.65 a 1288.31 a 0.200 c 3.189 c 1.431 c 10.12 a 9.30 a MSD (P=0.05) 3.12 5.60 3.12 4.22 0.05 2.13 3.50 3.16 5.62 231.40 71.87 0.009 0.434 0.104 NS 1.79 T1 (30 DAS) 57.08 a 133.88 a 145.12 b 149.29 b 1.28 a 21.90 a 38.99 a 42.09 a 176.15 a 2792.57 a 1196.79 a 0.280 a 4.353 a 1.860 a 7.48 b 10.52 a T2 (45 DAS) 57.93 a 137.48 a 150.17 a 155.44 a 1.30 a 18.47 b 35.20 b 39.71 b 174.27 a 2636.24 b 1105.68 b 0.276 a 4.184 a 1.734 b 11.91 a 6.19 b MSD (P=0.05) NS NS 2.10 2.84 NS 1.43 2.35 2.13 NS 155.53 48.31 NS 0.070 0.79 1.20 spacing topping NS Means in a column followed by same letter do not differ significantly at P ≤ 0.05 [Tukey’s Studentized Range (HSD) test] MSD: Minimum Significant Difference 252 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table: 2 total rainfall during the period of growth for different planting dates Planting dates Rainfall (mm) Duration Sowing to 15 DAS 16 to 30 DAS 31 to 45 DAS 46 to 60 DAS 61 to 75 DAS 76 to 90 DAS 91 to 105 DAS 106 DAS to harvest Total D1(25.07.11) 324.0 222.0 38.5 329.0 20.5 10.0 00.0 1.0 945.0 D2(09.08.11) 222.0 38.5 329.0 20.5 10.0 00.0 1.0 3.5 624.5 D3(24.08.11) 38.5 329.0 20.5 10.0 00 1.0 3.5 0.5 403.0 (days) 128 125 124 Source: Integrated Agromet Advisory Services, UBKV, Cooch behar, West Bengal, personal communication. table: 3 AnovA of effect of date of sowing (d), spacing (s) and topping management (t) practices for yield and yield attributes of jute seed crop source df Capsules/plant seeds/capsule thousand seed weight seed yield stick yield D 2 *** *** ** *** *** S 2 NS NS NS * *** DxS 4 NS NS NS NS * T 1 NS NS * ** ** DxT 2 NS NS NS NS NS SxT 2 NS NS NS NS NS DxSxT 4 NS NS NS NS NS * Significant at P= 0.05, ** Significant at P= 0.01, *** Significant at P= 0.001, NS: Non significant at P≤ 0.05 table: 3.1 effect of date of sowing, spacing and topping management practices on yield and yield attributes of jute seed crop Variable / Treatment Capsules/plant Seeds/capsule Thousand seed weight (g) Seed yield (q/ ha) Stick yield (q/ ha) D1 (25.07.11) 91.05 b 36.24 b 3.63 b 5.12 a 33.51 b D2 (09.08.11) 113.43 a 37.11 b 3.82 a 5.45 a 51.40 a D3 (24.08.11) 66.20 c 39.23 a 3.65 b 2.05 b 23.98 c MSD (P=0.05) 15.22 1.39 0.13 0.53 3.43 S1 (45 x 10 cm) 82.44 a 37.59 a 3.64 a 3.86 b 45.72 a S2 (45 x 15 cm) 94.18 a 37.34 a 3.75 a 4.42 a 34.92 b S3 (60 x 15 cm) 94.07 a 37.64 a 3.72 a 4.34 ab 28.26 c MSD (P=0.05) NS NS NS 0.53 3.43 89.13 a 37.33 a 3.65 b 3.94 b 38.35 a Date of sowing spacing topping T1 (30 DAS) T2 (45 DAS) 91.33 a 37.72 a 3.75 a 4.48 a 34.24 b MSD (P=0.05) NS NS 0.09 0.36 2.31 Means in a column followed by same letter do not differ significantly at P ≤ 0.05 [Tukey’s Studentized Range (HSD) test]. MSD: Minimum Significant Difference 253 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table: 4 AnovA of quality of jute seeds obtained from different dates of sowing (d), different spacing (s) and different topping management (t) practices Source df Seedling Seedling dry matter At laboratory condition At field condition Root length Shoot length Total length Root length Shoot length Total At laboratory length condition At field condition Seedling vigour index D 2 NS NS NS NS * * ** ** ** S 2 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS DxS 4 NS NS NS NS * NS NS NS NS T 1 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS DxT 2 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS SxT 2 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS DxSxT 4 NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS * Significant at P= 0.05, ** Significant at P= 0.01, *** Significant at P=0.001, NS= Non significant at P= 0.05 table: 4.1 Quality of jute seeds obtained from different dates of sowing (d), different spacing (s) and different topping management (t) practices variable / treatment Date of sowing D1 (25.07.11) D2 (09.08.11) D3 (24.08.11) MSD (P≤ 0.05) spacing S1 (45 x 10 cm) S2 (45 x 15 cm) S3 (60 x 15 cm) MSD (P≤ 0.05) topping T1 (30 DAS) T2 (45 DAS) MSD (P≤ 0.05) seedling seedling dry matter At field condition At laboratory condition total At laboratory At field length (cm) condition condition (mg plant-1) (g plant-1) seedling vigour index root length (cm) shoot length (cm) total length (cm) root length (cm) shoot length (cm) 2.78 a 4.41 a 7.18 a 9.92 a 57.94 a 67.86 a 1.717 a 1.273 a 167.22 a 2.71 a 4.29 a 6.99 a 9.54 a 56.22 ab 65.77 ab 1.700 a 1.236 a 165.03 a 2.62 a 4.11 a 6.73 a 9.13 a 53.00 b 62.13 b 1.444 b 1.012 b 139.13 b NS NS NS NS 4.04 4.62 0.181 0.204 17.61 2.78 a 4.44 a 7.22 a 9.49 a 56.22 a 65.72 a 1.617 a 1.193 a 156.02 a 2.61 a 4.05 a 6.66 a 9.45 a 54.67 a 64.12 a 1.656 a 1.172 a 161.38 a 2.72 a 4.32 a 7.04 a 9.64 a 56.28 a 65.92 a 1.589 a 1.156 a 153.99 a NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS 2.77 a 4.28 a 7.05 a 9.31 a 55.48 a 64.79 a 1.630 a 1.173 a 158.71 a 2.63 a 4.26 a 6.89 a 9.75 a 55.96 a 65.72 a 1.611 a 1.174 a 155.55 a NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS NS Means in a column followed by same letter do not differ significantly at P ≤ 0.05 [Tukey’s Studentized Range (HSD) test]. MSD: Minimum Significant Difference 254 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Table: 5 Effect of date of sowing, spacing and topping management practices on gross return, net return & benefit : cost ratio for jute seed production Variable / Treatment Gross return (Rs. ha-1) Net return (Rs. ha-1) Benefit: cost ratio D1 (25.07.11) 40773 13385 1.49:1 D2 (09.08.11) 48120 20732 1.76:1 D3 (24.08.11) 19494 -7894 0.71:1 S1 (45 x 10cm) 36876 9488 1.35:1 S2 (45 x 15cm) 36996 9608 1.35:1 S3 (60 x 15cm) 34518 7130 1.26:1 T1 (30 DAS) 35145 7757 1.28:1 T2 (45 DAS) 37152 9764 1.36:1 Date of sowing Spacing Topping references AINPJAF (2009) Annual Report, 2009-10, All India Network Project on Jute and Allied Fibres, Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore, Kolkata, West Bengal, pp. 67-68. DEY, P., N. C. BANERJEE, S.P. BHATTACHARYA, D. DAS & M. BHATTACHARYYA (1998) Effect of weed management and pruning on jute seed production. Environment and Ecology 16: 1-6. GUHA, B. & K. DAS (1997) Effect of spacing and planting date on seed production of jute (Corchorus capsularis) propagated by vegetative means. Indian Journal of Agronomy 42: 385-387. INAGAKI, H. (2000) Progress on kenaf in Japan. Proceedings of Third annual conference, American Kenaf Society, Texas, USA. INDIAN JUTE (2010) A Bulletin of National Jute Board, Kolkata, West Bengal. Vol. XXII No. 1. KUMAR, D., SAHA, A., BEGUM, T. and CHOUDHURY, H. (2010) Possibility of jute seed production in jute growing states of India. In: Jute and Allied Fibres Production, Utilization and Marketing. Indian Fibre Society, Eastern region. 230 - 234 p. MADAKADZE, R.M., T. KODZANAYI & R. MUGUMWA (2007) Effect of plant spacing and harvesting frequency on Corchorus olitorius leaf and seed yield. African Crop Science Conference Proceedings, African Crop Science Society 8: 279-282. MISHRA, G.C. & S.C. NAYAK (1997) Effect of sowing date and row spacing on seed production of jute (Corchorus species) genotypes with and without clipping. Indian Journal of Agronomy 42: 531-534. MORE, S.R., S.B. RAJMANE, P.P. SURANA, S.S. MEHETRE & V.S. WANI (2005) Effect of sowing dates and topping on seed yield of jute. Annals of Plant Physiology 29: 64-66. NAYAK, L. and ROY, A ( 2011) Utilization of jute by products: A review. Agril. Review 32(1): 63 - 69. PODDAR, P. and MISHRA, A. (2006) Production technology of jute crop with particular reference to North Bengal condition. In: State level workshop-cum-training on jute and allied fibres, UBKV, Coochbehar, West Bengal, 16 – 18 p. ROY, B. & T.K. MAJUMDAR (1995) Effect of sowing date and nitrogen level on seed yield of white jute (Corchorus capsularis) and tossa jute (C. olitorius). Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 65: 891-893. SARKAR, A. K. & A.C. SINHA (2004) Seed production of tossa jute (Corchorus olitorius L.) as influenced by time of sowing and clipping apical bud under rainfed condition in Terai region of West Bengal. Journal of Interacademicia 8: 21-26. SHITANANDA, D. and WANJALA, N.V. (2006). Effect of different drying methods on the quality of jute (Corchorus olitorius L.). Drying Technology 24: 95 - 98. 255 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” CO-XXVIII PushKArmooL: A PotentiAL mediCinAL And AromAtiC PLAnt harpal singh, Bhupender dutt* and Chanderlekha sharma* Department of Agriculture, (MA&Ps) Baba Farid College, Deon Bathinda Punjab *Department of Forest Products, Dr YS Parmar UHF Nauni Solan (HP) E-mail: hari85@ymail.com) Abstract Inula racemosa Hook.f. is a perennial medicinal and aromatic plant belonging to family Asteraceae. It is locally known as Pushkarmool and manu. The plant is critically endangered and is distributed in north-western Himalayas. The roots are widely used locally in indigenous medicine as an expectorant and in veterinary medicine as a tonic. The rhizome is sweet, bitter and acrid in taste with a neutral potency and act as antiseptic, anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and mild diuretic. Due to ruthless extraction and fragile nature it has been extracted very drastically. This little known aromatic plant of Lahul valley is considered a rare species according to the Red Data Book of Indian plants. The species was categorized as critically endangered in the Conservation Assessment and Management Prioritization (CAMP) workshop 1998. In natural habitats, due to ruthless extraction unsystematic collection, the reduction and fragmentation of plant population and habitats is occurring at a rapid and accelerating rate. These factors may result in extinction of species, especially those already with threatened status. Present review article is based on the published literature and personal observations of this potential little known medicinal and aromatic plant. introduction Inula racemosa Hook.f. commonly known as pushkarmool is a perennial herb belonging to family Asteraceae occurs in the North Western Himalayas at an altitude of 2000 to 3200 m and falls under endangered category (Anonymous, 1998). In India it is found in areas of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The plant is about 1.5 m tall stout herbaceous i.e. non woody but firm structure with radical, 20-45cm x 12-20 cm long, stalked, broad elliptical leaves. The leaves have long petioles and are scabrid above and tomentose beneath. The stem is grooved, rough and very hairy with terminally borne yellow flower heads. Flowers are hermaphrodite, 3-5 cm in diameter and bright yellow in colour and pollinated by bees and flies. Fruits are slender achenes of 0.4 cm long, bearded with 1 cm long pappus hairs. Plant can be propagated through division of roots and seeds. Flowering is from July to August and the seeds ripen from August to October (Chauhan, 1999). Among the 20 species of Inula (Asteraceae) occurring wild in India, five are considered to be of economic value and pushkarmool (Inula racemosa) is one of them because its roots are expectorant, seeds aphrodiac (Sarin, 1996). Pushkarmool has gained prominence as a medicinal and aromatic plant, and is now grown on a small scale in northwestern Himalaya. The domesticated forms of these incipient cultigens have been selected by the natives from the wild types as a traditional crop. At present, its cultivation is restricted to borders of agricultural fields of wheat, barley and buckwheat, in the Lahul valley of Himachal Pradesh. The fragrant aromatic roots of this plant are likely to find a place in natural perfumery materials (Arora et al., 1980). Fresh roots are stout have a strong aromatic odour resembling orris and camphor; dried roots have a weak odour and used in Kashmir as adulterant of Kuth (roots of Saussurea lappa). Fresh root is brown which becomes greyish on drying and resembles camphor in aroma. Roots contain inulin (polydisperse carbohydrate) 10% and an essential oil (1.3%, alantolactone - C15H20O2; m.p.760) (Anonymous, 1959). It is commercially useful herb and paste of roots is effectively used in dressing the wounds and ulcers as the herb possess antiseptic properties also alleviates pain along with oedema. The paste of the roots is specially recommended, to be applied on the chest in pleurisy and inflammatory conditions of pleura, to mitigate the pain (Kaul, 1997). Internally, pushkarmool is used to boost appetite and digestion. Hence it is beneficial in anorexia i.e. loss of appetite and dyspepsia (indigestion). Clinical reports of Inula racemosa confirm its use as hypoglycemic agent (Chaturvedi et al., 1995). Pushkarmool is used as an antispasmodic and diuretic in treatment of hiccough, asthma and bronchitis. Further, the alantolactones present in the root, when used in low concentration of 1:1,000 dilutions, are reported to kill Ascaris within 16 seconds. Standard forms of pushkarmool are not yet known under cultivation, the domesticated type has more sweet odour and higher essential oil content than Kuth roots (Saussurea costus) (Bhavaprakash, 1961). 256 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Due to fragile nature of its habitat and exploitation due to commercial medicinal properties, the species is facing the onslaught of indiscriminate over exploitation, habitat destruction and competition. Population of the species in the entire North West Himalayan range is witnessing a speedy decline in density and diversity, thus dwindling both in size and number. Unabated as the plant extraction and habitat destruction continues to be, far are not days when these herbal gems will become extinct from globe. It indeed is a crucial situation for this species, calling for salvage of whatever is left and if not rescued now, irretrievable loss of this precious legacy from the globe will be the eventual and inevitable consequence (Wani et al., 2006). The rhizome part is also used in Tibetan medicine and it is said to have a sweet, bitter and acrid taste with a neutral potency. It is used in treatment of contagious fevers that have not fully ripened and pain in upper body, especially between the neck and the shoulders (Tsarong and Tsewang, 1992). Root is the official part of pushkarmool which has at least four sesquiterpene lactones, namely alantolactone, isolantolactone, dihydroalantoctone and dihydroisolantolactone. Sesquiterpene lactones are the chief constituents which possess antiseptic, expectorant and diuretic properties e.g., βetasitosterol, daucosterol and inunolide provide the healing properties. Isolantolactone major sesquiterpene lactones have been found to be active against the human pathogenic fungi especially Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Geotrichum candidum, Candida tropicalis and Candida albicans (Tan et al., 1998). Pushkarmool is used to mitigate Vata-kappa Jawara (a type of fever) as an indigenous medicine. The drug is considered more potent and less pungent in taste. It provides relief for Vata, nausea, swellings breathlessness, and chest pain (Charak, 1941). The root oil is strong purgative and used in stomach troubles, also used as a tonic in veterinary medicine. It is reported to be good for boils, inflammations, cough and ear pain. It is also found beneficial for cardiovascular system, angina and dyspnea (Kashyap, 2009). Composition of Chyavanaprasha The drug chyavanaprasha is a mixture of Emblica officinalis, Agele marmelos, Clerodendrum phlomidis, Oroxylum indicum, Gmelina arborea, Stereospermum suaveolens, Sida cordifolia, Desmodium gangeticum, Uraria picta, Teramnus labialis, Piper longum, Tribulus terrestris, Solanum indicum, Solanum xanthocarpum, Pistacia integerrima, Phaseolus trilobus, Phyllanthus niruri, Vitis vinifera, Leptadenia reticulata, Inula racemosa., Aquilaria agallocha, Tinospora cordifolia, Terminalia chebula, Ellettaria cardamomum, Habenaria intermedia, Microstylis walichii, Microstylis museifera, Hedychium spicatum, Cyperus rotundus, Boerhaavia diffusa, Polygonatum verticillatum, Nymphaea alba, Santalum album, Pueraria tuberosa, Adhatoda vasica, Roscoea alpina, Martynia diandra and Sesamum indicum in definite proportions (Jagetia et al., 2004). medicinal Properties The genus Inula (Asteracea) is known for diverse biological activities viz., anticancer, antibacterial, hepatoprotactive, cytotoxic, and anti-inflammatory properties (Ali et al., 1992). Inula racemosa find use in Indian System of Medicine for cardiac asthama cough, pulmonary infections and skin diseases and as aldurant for Saussurea costus (Sarin, 1996). The herb can be used both internally, as well as externally. The roots of Inula species are used for the medicinal purpose. Externally, the paste of its roots is used effectively in dressing the wounds and ulcers as the herb possesses antiseptic property. Inula racemosa has therapeutic benefits in cardiorespiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Patel et al., 1982). In Ayurvedic, Chinese and Mediterranean traditional system of medicine, Inula species are used in angina pain (Zhang and Li, 2009). The herbal formulations of Pushkarmool have shown protective effects in animal models of myocardial necrosis. Ability of Inula racemosa, as β- blockers and antioxidant has generated interest to explore it as a cardioprotective agent (Tripathi et al., 1988). Pushkaramoola is one of the herbs mentioned in all Ayurvedic scriptures (Jamna, 2012). It possesses various synonyms like kasari - an enemy of cough, sulahara - pain killer, svasari- an enemy of breathlessness. The great sage Charaka has categorized it as hikka nigrahana- stops hiccup and he has also cited it as the best medicament for pleurisy along with cough and asthama (Anonymous, 2004). Roots are bitter, acrid, thermogenic, cardiotonic, expectorant, alexipharmic, anodyne, anti-inflammatory, digestive, carminative, aphrodisiac, febrifuge and tonic (Ojha, 2011; Ayurveda Pharmacopeia, 2004). Inula racemosa is the highly praised panacea for cough, hiccup and bronchial sthama. It reconciles the pulmonary functions by abolishing the bronchospasm, relieving the mucous and hence, the obstruction in bronchial asthma. The herb restrains the itching sensation and oozing in the skin diseases and thus facilitates the wound healing. It is pacifying to the brain and helps in strengthening it in mental debility. The herb also accords a stimulant action to genital system in both the sexes. In males it works well as an aphrodisiac and in females, it augments the quantity of menstrual bleeding. Thus, it can be used both, in amenorrhoea as well as dysmenorrhoea. It possesses a mild diuretic property hence, 257 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” is used with benefit in dysuria (Zawar, 2011; Prajapati, 2004). Medicinally the powdered roots and dried foliage is used as anti-spasmodic, hypotensive and for treatment of cardiovascular and liver troubles. It is used for treatment of respiratory tract disorders, foul ulcers, and chronic bronchitis and as an antiseptic. The roots collected for usage as an aromatic source. The dry are as an insect and pest repellants. Also decreases the blood pressure and stimulates peristaltic movements of intestine (Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants, 2001; Wani et al. , 2006). Chemical constituents of Inula racemosa and their medicinal properties Chemical Constituents of essential oils Medicinal Properties Source (s) Inulin 10% & roylene 3% Decreases blood pressure & stimulates peristaltic movements of intestine Wani et al., 2006 major constituents Sesquiterpene lactones (Alantolactone & Isoalantolactone ) Sesquiterpenes 60%, aplotaxene 22 % & phenylacetonitrile 2% Healing properties, cytotoxic activity against the K562 human leukemia cell line, Possesses strong antifungal, anthelmintic and hypolipidemic properties more potent and less toxic than santonin. Alantolactone kills Ascaris in 16 hr; antiseptic, expectorant, diuretic; a ringworm fungicide; and found to be beneficial in histamine induced bronchospasm. Li, et al 1993; Sharma et al., 2011 minor-constituents Dihydroalantolactone, Inunolid, alkaloids, tannins and sugars. Anthelmentic,and hypolipidemic properties; antiseptic, expectorant, diuretic & kills Ascaris in 16 hours, anti-inflammatory in animals to stimulate the immune system Singh et al., 1980 traditional use of Inula racemoca reported from different sources. Plant part Use Source(s) Rhizomes and roots Used as anthelmintic for children, antiasthmatic, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory & diuretic agents and digestive properties in India & Tibetin Sharma et al., 2006 Pounded roots Treatment of rheumatism, hypertension, cardiovascular and liver disease respiratory tract disorder, pulmonary infections, skin diseases, gastrointestinal disorders, fever and pain. Gholap and Kar , 2005; Rawat and Everson, 2011 Seeds Aphrodisiac Veterinary medicine Tonic and stomachic Flowers Flowers used as offerings to various deities in religious ceremonies, Leaves and stems Leaves and stem fodder and fuelwood Roots Extract prepared from roots is frequently used for diarrhea in children and abdominal pain, dosage 0.5-1 ml once in in day in alternate days till cure Malik, et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2001 references Ali S I, Qaiser, M and Abid R. 1992. Flora of Pakistan - Asteraceae. University of Karachi, Karachi Printing Press 210: 71 p. Anonymous. 2004. CSIR, CCRAS and PLIM, Ayurveda Pharmacopea of India, Controller of publication , Civil lines, Delhi 5:102-103. Anonymous. 1959. Wealth of India. Raw Materials. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi, 236-237. Anonymous. 1998. Threatened Medicinal Plants of Himalaya-a check list. CIMAP, Workshop, Lucknow, 14-16. Arora R K, Maheshwari M L, Chandel K P S and Gupta R. 1980. Mano (Inula racemosa): little known aromatic plant of Lahul valley, India, Economic Botany, 34 (2):175-180. Bhavaprakash N. 1961. Chowkhamba Sanskrit series Publication, Varanasi, 246 p Charak S S. 1941.3rd ed. Narayana Sagar Press, Sagar, 131p. Chaturvedi P, Shukla S, Tripathi P, Charurasia S, Singh S K and Tripathi Y B. 1995.Comparative study of Inula racemosa and Saussurea lappa on the glucose level in albino rats, Ancient Science of Life, 15(1):62-70 Chauhan N S.1999. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Himachal Pradesh. Indus Publishing Company, New Delhi, India, 632p Jamna J, Balakrishnan R, Ramakrishnana P, Sarala S and Jolly C I. 2012. Comparative pharmacognostic of Inula racemosa Hook.f and its adulterant Coffea travancorensis Wight & Arn, Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources 3(3):386-394. 258 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Jagetia G C, Rao S K, Baliga M S and Babu K S. 2004. The Evaluation of Nitric Oxide Scavenging Activity of Certain Herbal Formulations in vitro: A Preliminary Study. Phytotherapy Research 18: 561-565 Kashyap A. 2009. Studies on in vitro propagation and conservation of Inula racemosa Hook.f. Ph.D Thesis submitted to Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, H.P. Kaul M K. 1997. Medicinal Plants of Kashmir and Ladakh. Indus Publication Company F-5, Tagore garden, New Delhi. Patel V, Banu N and Ojha J K. 1982. Effect of indigenous drug (Pushkarmula) on experimentally induced myocardial infarction in rats. Act. Nerv. Super., 3(Suppl.), 387-394. Sarin, Y K. 1996. Illustrated Manual of Herbal Drugs used in Ayurveda National Institute of Science Communication (CSIR), Dr. K S. Krishnan Marg. New Delhi-India. Tan R X, Tang H Q, Hu J and Shuai B. 1998. Lignans and sesquiterpene lactones from Artemisia sieversiana and Inula racemosa, Photochemistry, 49:157-161. Tripathi, Y B Tripathi P and Upadhyaya B N. 1988. Assessment of the adrenergic beta-blocking activity of Inula racemosa. J. Ethanopharmacol 23(1):3-9. Tsarong and Tsewang J. 1992. Tibetan Medicinal plants, Tibetan Medical Publications, India, 200p. Wani P A, Ganaie K A, Nawchoo I A and Wafai B A. 2006. Phenological episodes and reproductive strategies of Inula racemosa (Asteraceae)-a critically endangered medicinal herb of North West Himalaya, International Journal of Botany, 2 (4): 388-394. Li Y, Zhang Y and Li L. 2009. Comparison of the therapeutic effects of different compositions of muskone in the treatment of experimental myocardial infact in rats and analgesia in mice, Phytotherap Res.22:1219. Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants. 2001. A handbook Kapoor, K.L.D.(Ed.), CRC Press Boca Raton New York Washington, DC. Zawar S N. 2011. Monograph of few selected plants - Holistic approaches. New India Publishing Agency Pitam Pura, New Delhi-110088 pp 430-431. Prajapati N D, Purohit S S, Sharma A K and Kumar T. 20007. A handbook of Medicinal plants (India) Jodhpur 342002 pp 289. Sharma M, Sharma A, Singh R, and Katiyar KC. 2011. Der Pharmacia Sinica, (USA): PSHIBD 2(6):6-10. Singh N, Nath R, Gupta MC, Kohli RP.1980. Quaterly Journal of crude drug and Research 18:39. Sharma R K, Sharma S and Sharma S S. 2006. Seed germination behavior of some medicinal plants of Lahaul and Spiti cold desert (Himachal Pradesh): implications for conservation and cultivation. Current Science 90(8):11131118. Gholap S and Kar A. 2003. Efficacy of some plant extracts in regulating corticosteroid-induced hyperglycemia in mice. Pharmaceutical Biology 41(5):315-318. Rawat Y S and Everson C S. 2011. Inula racemosa Hook.f: A potential medicinal crop in the cold desert agro-ecosystem of North Western Himalaya, India. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 5(26):6218-6223. 259 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 260 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-I ChALLenges And APProAChes to deveLoPment of sustAinABLe AgriCuLture in indiA r. K. mahajan Professor, Deptt. Of Postgraduate Studies, Punjabi University Regional Centre, Bathinda-151001 introduction Agriculture is still an important and critical sector of the Indian economy. Though its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country has fallen from about 30 percent in 1990-91 to less than 15 percent in 2013-14, yet agriculture forms the backbone of development. About 50 percent of the work force is engaged in agriculture and on an average Indian still spends almost half of his/her total expenditure on food. Being both a source of livelihood and food security for a vast majority of the population of India, its performance still assumes greater significance. We also know that 8-10 percent growth rate of the economy cannot sustain unless there is at least 4 per cent growth rate of agriculture sector. Though this magic figure has been over emphasized even by our Prime Minister at different forums but nothing concrete has been done to achieve this target. The advent of agrarian crisis and rural distress would have continued unabated, but a spate of farmers’ suicides in different states shocked the nation. Infact farmer suicide is not the crisis, it is the outcome of the (agrarian) crisis (Sainath, 2012). The PM Prof. Manmohan Singh, who was reluctant to admit any crisis in agriculture until 2005, has to visit Vidherbha area of Maharashtra to endorse the agrarian crisis which was manifested by peasant suicides. However, the adhoc and populist measures were taken to quell the agrarian crisis i.e. loan waiver, interest relief, food security bill etc., but no elaborate policy framework and action plan prepared by the govt. to improve the crisis ridden agriculture. The new economic reforms elaborated the development policies concerning industry and trade. There is no specific policy provision made for the development of agricultural sector. The WTO exposed the agricultural sector, but nothing has been done to adequately protect agriculture from global competition. The agricultural sector has been badly affected by declining public investments, which in turn caused agricultural growth to decelerate significantly. The profit margin in agriculture has also declined in agriculture. All these factors cause a severe crisis in agriculture. Therefore, there is need to discuss some of the challenges faced to Indian agriculture and suggest ways to the development of sustainable of agriculture. Critical Challenges facing indian Agriculture A critical assessment of agricultural transformation in India reveals that the benefits of the Green Revolution (GR) did not reach millions of small farmers. Moreover, agricultural growth in regions that adopted GR practices has become saturated with stagnant yields. There are also the problems of depletion and degradation of natural resources as well as intensive use of energy, fertilisers and pesticides. There are also challenges of dwindling institutional support and trade reforms to Indian agriculture. There are also biotechnology and environment challenges. All these challenges cause agrarian crisis. There is disagreement of causes of agrarian crisis amongst economists. However, it is generally regarded that agrarian crisis are policy driven. Capital Formation in Agriculture Sustainable rate of growth of agriculture depends upon perpetuated investment. Higher level of investment in agriculture sector is essential for capital formation to generate agriculture growth. Since agriculture is important for the development of the economy, the growth of that sector should be ensured for Indi’s overall economic growth. On the other hand, there is an insufficiency in the capital in India. However, the trend shows that there has been declining public sector capital formation for the development of agriculture since 1980s. The declining trend of capital formation as a percentage of total capital formation is shown in the diagram. 261 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” per cent share of Agriculture & Allied sector in total Gross Capital Formation Note: All the figures are at 2004-05 prices. Source: CSO. The perusal of the diagram shows that the share of capital formation in agriculture to gross capital formation on 2003-4 prices declined significantly from 18.4 percent in 1980-1 to 14.4 percent in 1990-91 which further decreased to 7.7 percent in 2009-10. This has also a significant effect on the decrease in private investment in agriculture. price policy and unviable Agriculture The cost of production per unit has also been increasing. As a result, the revenue has been falling or stagnant. The neoliberal policies advocate reduced subsidies on fertilizer and diesel, reduction of public expenditure on infrastructure, opening up of the import and export of agricultural crops, increase in the cost of electricity, etc. However, the technology and land fatigue is noticed as the average growth rate of production of wheat, rice and foodgrains during 1990-2010 has been coming down to 2.6 per cent, 1.4 per cent and 1.6 per cent, respectively. This was due to stagnancy in yield of wheat, rice and foodgrains which grew at an average rate of 1.7 per cent, 1.2 per cent and 1.6 per cent, respectively, during the same period. Moreover, the average growth rate of foodgrains production at 1.6 per cent during 1990-2010 trailed the average population growth of 1.9 per cent (Table-1). It has been observed that the yield per unit of land is continuously decreasing. On the other hand, in order to maintain the productivity of land, more quantities of the inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation etc. have to be used. Moreover, the cost of inputs has been rising since 1991 which results into the cost of production of important crops. The comparatively fast wave of farmers’ suicide has been noticed in the areas which grow cotton crop. The cotton crop has the distinct features as compared to other foodgrain crops. Production of cotton requires large capital outlays, large in comparison to typical earnings of farmer households. There are out-of-pocket expenses for the purchase of most of the inputs. GM cotton seeds need to be bought from the market every year (because of restrictions put in place by the MNCs selling the seeds and for maintain the productivity); large quantities of fertilizers and pesticides are also needed (whose prices are increasing because of reduction of subsidies). Therefore, the cost of production has been continuously rising. Most of the time, these costs could only be met with credit. The credit was provided by the same agency (often a branch of some MNC like Monsanto) that sold the seeds, the fertilizer and the pesticide, along with the knowledge that was required to carry out the cultivation. Table-2 shows the comparative statement of cost of production, prices recommended by state government and MSP fixed by central government of India for the major crops e.g. wheat, paddy and cotton. The perusal of Table-2 shows that cost of production of various crops has been continuously rising since 1995-96. However, the support price of these crops has not been rising at the same pace. The central government used to fix the MSP much below the cost of production. It has been observed that at the time of harvest of crops, MSP of the crop becomes the market price and most of the farmers have to 262 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” sell their produce at that price. As a result of this pervasive agricultural price policy, there is downward bias in crop prices, especially for small and marginal farmers who lack storage and transportation facilities and have to pay back the loan to local traders. As a result the revenue accrue to majority of the farmers has been falling or stagnant. Moreover, a crop failure becomes disastrous for the farmers. Unremunerative prices and crop failures make the farmers defaulter of credit. Thus, continuous economic pressure on the farmers forces them to take the extreme step like suicide. Deceleration in Agricultural Growth An important feature of present agrarian crisis is the sharp deceleration in agricultural growth because of the agricultural technology fatigue, inefficiency in inputs use and increase in input costs. The Planning Commission’s document The Agricultural Strategy for the Eleventh Plan shows that the agricultural GDP growth declined from 3.62 percent during 1984-85 to 1995-96 to 1.85 percent during 1995-96 to 2004-05. Even in Punjab, average of annual growth rate of agriculture was 2.5 percent per annum during 1995-2000, 1.8 percent during 2001-2005 and remained the same i.e. 1.8 percent during 2006-2012. Due to stagnation of foodgrains production in India, the per capita annual production of cereals has declined from 192 kg in 1991-95 to 174 kg in 2004-07 and pulses from 15 kg to 12 kg. research, extension, technology Fatigue Research, extension and technology are three main things which make agriculture more scientific and increase in productivity. The yield for many crops declined in the 1990s. This is mainly due to technology fatigue. The National Commission on Farmers indicates that there is a large knowledge gap between the yields in research stations and actual yields in farmers’ fields; the yield gaps given by the Planning Commission range from 5 to 300 percent depending on the crop and the state. There is challenge of public sector research to increasing the resources poor farmers and less privileged areas such as dry lands, hill area etc. Indebtedness and suicides The agrarian crisis is also manifested by growing farmers’ indebtedness and suicides. The NSS 59th round Survey on Indebtedness of Farmer Households reported that 48.6 percent of farmer households were indebted. A similar survey in 1991 found only 26 percent of farmer households was indebted. In Punjab, Kerala and Karnataka, the proportion of farmers under debt was nearly two-thirds and in Maharashtra, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal more than half of the farmers surveyed were in debt. This has increased the incidence of suicide amongst the farmers and agricultural labourers. Recently Parliament is informed that a total of 290,740 farmers have committed suicide during 1995-2011 due to various reasons, including bankruptcy or sudden change in economic status and poverty. A government survey conducted in Punjab by three varsities says 5,000 farmers and farm labourers committed suicide in Punjab, which was once a state of plenty, during 2000-2010. About 4,500 deaths occurred in six Malwa districts - Sangrur, Bathinda, Ludhiana, Moga, Barnala and Mansa. Here also the financial crunch that forced these suicides was due to rising agricultural input cost, drug addiction and unsurmountable debts for meeting both farm and household expenditure. environmental Challenges in Indian Agriculture A number of studies conducted by different agencies has shown that the focus of the Indian agriculture planning had been only on maximization of agricultural production. As a result, the environment impact of this planning were either not considered or sacrificed deliberately. However, Chadha et al (2004) in his study found that there was a significant negative relationship between land and water degradation and foodgrain productivity in both 1980s and 1990s. By the early 1980s approximately 53 percent (173.6 million hectares) of India’s geographical area had been considered degraded according to the Ministry of Agriculture (GoI, 2001): Agriculture alone through irrigation has accounted for 83 percent of the total water use in the country during 1990 (Vyas 2003). This has questioned the sustainability of agriculture in India. suggestions for sustainable development of Agriculture Sustainable agriculture is a set of farming practices which can continue to maintain the farm productivity, efficiency and profitability in the long run, without depleting the natural resources and the environment. New high-yielding varieties of seeds are really “high responders” rather than high yielder, i.e., with increasing amount of fertilizer and water they respond more efficiently and yield is higher than other varieties. Under poor conditions, i.e., in absence of sufficient water and fertilizer these seeds do not give higher yield compared to traditional crops. It is presumed that high dose of fertilizers cause faster depletion of soil nutrients and in a way we are mining soil, since nutrients are being used much faster than they are being replaced. On the other hand, with the use of organic manures the soil nutrients are maintained for longer periods. We shall now discuss a few measures which can make farm business more sustainable and profitable. 263 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” High Value Crops There has been a considerable change in both domestic and international demand for agriculture. Therefore, agriculture should not be confined to foodgrain crops, but certain other high value crops are to be grown. On the domestic front, with the rise in per capita income, demand for fruits and vegetables will continue to grow. Estimated income elasticities of demand for fruits at the mean are well above one in rural areas and are much higher in low income households. In case of urban areas, the elasticity is higher than one for fruits in all income groups (Sharma and Jain, 2011). The scenario of the agricultural sector has also changed considerably with the advent of WTO. With the liberalization of trade and providing the market access to agricultural produce, a country will be required to promote much more diversified agriculture. Since India is a producer of traditional crops, it is observed that the share of agricultural exports in total export value declined from about 18.5 percent in 1990-91 to about 10.6 percent in 2009-10, while share of agricultural imports to total national imports increased from 2.8 percent in 1990-91 (pre-reforms period) and reached a high of 8.2 percent in 1998-99 and declined to about 4.4 percent in 2009-10 (GoI, 2010). There is a scope for increase in export of high value crops, provided that the quality and food safety issues are well taken care of. This may be improved by quality control and adhering to the international standard. For the promotion of High Value Crops, gross returns from the fruits and vegetables are much more than the field crop groups. Providing investment grants to farmers, communities and horti-business could help compensate farmers and at the same time, facilitate diversification towards high value crops or horticultural undertakings. As a one time grant, there would be lesser permanent subsidy burden, which would help in containing annual fiscal costs. Hills and mountains, arid & semi-arid regions, and coastal areas do offer opportunities for area expansion under horticultural crops. Rationalization of input subsides, strengthening of market institutions through promotion of vertical coordination between farms and firms, and reinvigorating R & D institutions need focus. A future road map for high-value agriculture development should focus on investment in technology development and dissemination, basic infrastructure, improve the technical capacity of producers and other players in the value chain, institutional support in core functions of production, logistics and marketing through concerted public sector support and active public-private partnerships, and provision of inputs, in particular planting materials for fruits and seeds for vegetables. smallholder Agriculture in India: evolving perspectives and policies Majority of the farmers are characterized by small farm holdings in India. The average farm size is only 1.57 hectares. Around 93 percent of farmers have land holdings smaller than 4 ha and they cultivate nearly 55 percent of the arable land. On the other hand, only 1.6 percent of the farmers have operational land holdings above 10 ha and they utilize 17.4 percent of the total cultivated land. Due to diverse agro-climatic conditions in the country, a large number of agricultural items are produced. Broadly, these can be classified into two groups - foodgrains crops and commercial crops. Therefore, any policy for development in agricultural may have to involve small farmers. Uptill now most of the agricultural development policies and programmes as well as technological and institutional developments have been focusing on planning from macro perspectives without understanding the importance of micro environments and the socioecological systems that shape smallholder livelihoods. There is also need to remove subsidies on unsustainable fertilizers and subsidizing practices that encourage soil and water conservation can help small producers green their own supply chains (agricultural inputs, feed and drip irrigation). Another thing which is compulsory, i.e. investing in the modernization of extension services is essential, including approaches such as farmer field schools (FAO 2008), the use of rural radios and other mobile telecommunication methods (Munyua 2000; Bhavnani et al. 2008). Biotechnology and environmental Challenges There has been widespread propaganda of the multinational companies producing GM seeds for the spread of this technology in the developing country like India. Though empirical literature available shows the economic benefits of growing GM crops, yet reservations are related to actual and perceived environmental and health risks. There has been relatively little bio-safety research on the health and environmental effects of GM crops (UNESCAP, 2009). The problems in the adoption of GM crops are also a matter of serious debate, needing systematic and long-term studies specific to these crops across countries. Dr. Antoniou said: “Research studies show that genetically modified crops have harmful effects on laboratory animals in feeding trials and on the environment during cultivation. They have increased the use of pesticides and have failed to increase yields. Our report concludes that there are safer and more effective alternatives to meeting the world’s food needs.” 264 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Not surprisingly, many countries do not have strong regulatory systems and rural institutions that facilitate an informed choice of GM crops by resource-poor farmers (Tripp 2009). There is need to thoroughly study the actual and perceived environmental and health risks, intermingled with broader concerns about intellectual property rights and corporate dominance before adopting this technology. The need for well founded research on the social effects of GM crops stems from that some parts of India that adopted Bt cotton when it was introduced in 2001 have been in the throes of an agrarian crisis, even leading to farmers’ suicides. technological Change There has not been a revolutionary change in agricultural technology since 1970s. The yield for many crops declined in the 1990s. The issue of technology fatigue in agriculture is well known. There is a need to shift away from individual crop-oriented research focused essentially on irrigated areas towards research on crops and cropping systems in the dry lands, hills, tribal and other marginal areas. In view of high variability in agro-climatic conditions in such unfavourable areas, research has to become increasingly location-specific with greater participation or interaction with farmers. Private sector participation in agricultural research, extension and marketing is becoming increasingly important especially with the advent of biotechnology and protection being given to intellectual property. Agro-processing units in rural Areas There is need for agro-processing units started in the rural areas. These units are crucial both in generating productive employment and alleviation of poverty in rural areas. The agro- based industry is regarded as an extended arm of agriculture. The development of the agro based industry can help in stabilising and making agriculture more lucrative and create employment opportunities both at the production and marketing stages. The broad-based development of the agro-products industry in rural areas will add value to agricultural output. It will help in developing rural areas, generate employment, income and alleviate poverty. table-1: All India Average Annual Growth Rates of Area, Production and Yield of Principal Crops (%) 265 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table-2: Comparative statement of Agricultural Cost/Prices And msP of Wheat Year (Rs./Qtls.) Cost of Production MSP Recommended by State Govt. MSP Recommended by CACP MSP Fixed by Govt. of India 1995-96 455 440 380 380 1996-97 488 490 405 415+60=475 1997-98 549 600 455 455+55=510 1998-99 612 615 490 550 1999-2000 638 640 550 580 2000-2001 669 675 580 610 2001-2002 687 690 610 620 2002-2003 695 700 620 620 (+10) 2003-2004 697 700 630 630 2004-2005 716 725 640 640 2005-2006 759 760 650 650+50 2006-07 795 800 700 750+100 2007-08 807 950 1000 1000 2008-09 1153 1200 1080 1080 2009-10 1211 1250 1100 1100 2010-11 1218 1275 1120 1120 CroP-WheAt Comparative statement of Agricultural Cost/Prices And msP of Paddy Year Cost of Production (Rs./Qtls.) Recommended by State Govt. Recommended By CACP Fixed by Govt. of India CroP-PAddy 1996-97 490 C F S.F. 500 520 540 C F S.F. 370 390 410 C F S.F. 380 395 415 1997-98 506 C F S.F. 510 530 550 C F S.F. 415 435 455 GRADE(A) 415 445 1998-99 536 C F S.F. 500 520 540 440 GRADE(A)470 GRADE(A) 440 470 1999-2000 603 C F S.F. 575 600 625 465 GRADE(A)495 GRADE(A) 490 520 2000-01 665 C F S.F. 600 620 650 510 GRADE(A)540 GRADE(A) 510 540 2001-02 706 C F S.F. 620 640 670 520 GRADE(A)550 GRADE(A) 530 560 2002-03 717 C F S.F. 640 660 690 530 GRADE(A)560 GRADE(A) 530 560 2003-04 716 C F S.F. 650 670 700 550 GRADE(A)580 550 GRADE(A) 580 266 (+20) International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 2004-05 725 C F S.F. 680 700 730 560 GRADE(A)590 560 GRADE(A) 590 2005-06 746 C F S.F. 700 720 750 560 GRADE(A)600 570 GRADE(A) 600 2006-07 756 C F S.F. 720 750 780 570 GRADE(A)600 620 GRADE(A) 650 2007-08 759 C F S.F. 730 760 790 645 GRADE(A)675 Basmati 1120 GRADE(A) 645+50 675+100 2008-09 1088 C F S.F. 1200 1300 1400 1000 GRADE(A)1050 GRADE(A) 850 880 2009-10 1126 C F S.F. 1250 1350 1450 950 GRADE(A)980 950+50 GRADE(A)980+50 2010-2011 1204 C F S.F. 1300 1400 1500 1000 GRADE(A)1030 1000 GRADE(A)1030 2011-2012 1277 C F S.F. 1350 1450 1550 Comparative statement of Agricultural Cost/Prices And msP of Cotton Year (Rs./Qtl. Kapas) Cost of Production Recommended by State Govt. Recommended By CACP Fixed by Govt. of India 1996-97 1680 1700 1380 1380 1997-98 1851 1850 1530 1530 1998-99 1993 2000 1650 1650 1999-2000 2253 2200 1750 1775 2000-01 2362 2300 1825 1825 2001-02 2394 2350 1875 1875 2002-03 2446 2400 1875 1875 (+20) 2003-04 2496 2500 1925 1925 2004-05 2619 2650 1960 1960 2005-06 2063 2650 1980 1980 2006-07 1829 2700 1990 1990 2007-08 1965 2700 2030 2030 2008-09 2630 3000 3000 3000 2009-10 2777 3050 3000 3000 2010-11 2547 3100 3000 3000 2011-12 2667 3150 CROP-COTTON Figures in bracket bonus for drought relief. Source: agriharyana.nic.in/Stat_Info/COST%20AND%20PRICE-I.doc concluded 267 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” ConCLusion Agriculture is still an important and critical sector of the Indian economy, but it is passing through the phase of crisis of low productivity, high cost of production and low profit margin. WTO has exposed to the international competition, but Indian agriculture is not in a position to withstand this challenge. Both public and private sector capital formation in agriculture is very low. Moreover, there is predominance of small farmers in Indian agriculture. The question arise how we can change the existing gloomy scenario of Indian agriculture and develop it to make it sustainable and economically viable. It is suggested that the farmers must shift from tradition crops to high value crops. There has been tremendous change in demand for agricultural products in India as well as in foreign countries recently. The government must come out to help the farmers for this type of shift. There is also need to develop technology to involve small farmers so that they remain in this vocation profitably. The corporatization of agriculture is not the solution because it will forcibly make small farmers unemployed. Though GM crops may be economically viable, but there is a number of issues related to health, biodiversity, environment, etc. which are to be settled first. Research and development in the agricultural technology is necessary to bring in cheap technology. There must be development of the agro-based industry which will add value to agricultural output. It will help in developing rural areas, generate employment, income and alleviate poverty. reference Chadha, G.K., Sen, S., and H.R. Sharma (2004), State of the Indian Farmer: A Millenium Study, Vol. 2: Land Resources, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, New Delhi, India. FAO. 2008b. Farmer Field Schools On Land And Water Management In Africa. Proceedings of an international workshop in Jinja, Uganda, 24-29 April 2006. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Government of India (2001), India: Nation Action Programme to Combat Desertification, Volume – I. Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi. GoI (2010), “Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2010 and previous issues”, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi. Munyua, H. 2000. Information And Communication Technologies For Rural Development And Food Security: Lessons From Field Experiences In Developing Countries. Rome: Sustainable Development, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Muradian, R., Corbera, E., Pascual, U., Kosoy, N. and May, P. 2010. Reconciling Theory And Practice: An Alternative Conceptual Framework For Understanding Payments For Environmental Services. Ecological Economics 69: 1202-1208. Sainath P. (2012), ‘Farm suicides rise in Maharashtra, State still leads the list’ July 3, The Hindu, http://www.thehindu.com/ opinion/columns/sainath/article3595351.ece (downloaded on 10/2/2013) Sharma, Vijay Paul and Dinesh Jain(2011). ‘High-Value Agriculture in India: Past Trends and Future Prospects’, Indian Institute Of Management Ahmedabad, India, Research and Publications, W.P. No. 2011-07-02 Tripp, Robert (2009). Biotechnology and Agricultural Development: Transgenic Cotton, Rural Institutions and ResourcePoor Farmers. New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group United Nations ESCAP (2009), Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security in the Asia Pacific, http://www.unescap. org/65/documents/Theme-Study/st-escap-2535.pdf Vyas V. S. (2003), India’s Agrarian Structure, Economic Policies and Sustainable Development, Academic Foundation Publishers, New Delhi. 268 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-II AgriCuLturAL eConomy of PunJAB: groWth to Crisis sukhpal singh, h s Kingra, sangeet and shruti Bhogal Department of Economics and Sociology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana Keywords: Agriculture, Punjab, crisis, growth. The adoption of new agricultural technology in mid sixties, backed with adequate agricultural policies, catapulted the state of Punjab to the status of being called the ‘grain bowl of India’ as it transformed the state from being food deficit to food surplus. With only 1.5 per cent of geographical area of the country, besides feeding its growing population, the state has been contributing 35-40 per cent of rice and 45-70 per cent wheat to the central pool since last two decades. Based on the secondary data from different research reports the paper is focused on the growth as well as crisis phase of Punjab agriculture. The paper reveals that Punjab state is witnessing an increase in production of various crops as during the last four decades total food grain production increased by more than three and half times, and yields of wheat, paddy and total food grains nearly doubled. The production of wheat increased from 5.62 million tonnes to 17.98 million tonnes; similarly, production of rice increased from 0.92 million tonnes to 10.54 million tonnes, and production of cotton and potato has gone up by 1.57 and 9.47 times, respectively, from 1970-71 to 2011-12 (GoP). However, production of pulses and oilseeds declined drastically over this period and that of sugarcane with some variations remained almost the same. One of the dominant reasons for fall of production of these crops was the drastic decline of area under these crops due to shift to paddy and wheat. Green revolution brought significant changes in the cropping pattern of Punjab. There was a remarkable shift in cropping pattern to mainly wheat and rice from other alternative crops. The increase in wheat cultivation has been at the cost of gram, rapeseed and mustard, while that of rice has been obtained by shifting the area from maize, groundnut, millets and cotton. During 1970-71, about 41 per cent of the gross cropped area (GCA) was under wheat which increased to 44.50 per cent in 2010-11. Rice occupied around 6.87 per cent of the GCA in 1970-71, which increased to 35.75 per cent in 201112. The proportionate area under cotton in 1970-71 was 7 per cent of gross cropped area and increased to 9.34 per cent in 1990-91 but after mid 1990s the area under cotton has been adversely affected due pest attack as its share in GCA went down to 5.97 per cent in 2000-01. With introduction of Bt varieties, area under cotton started increasing and rose to 7.69 per cent in 2007-08, and slightly declined to 6.53 per cent of the GCA in state during 2011-12. The areas under sugarcane and potato have not remained stable; and share of pulses and oilseeds in GCA has recorded a sharp decline from 7.29 and 5.20 per cent in 1970-71 to 0.20 and 0.63 per cent in 2011-12, respectively (GoP). This imbalance in the cropping pattern noted in favour of mainly two main cereals viz. rice and wheat was due to higher relative profitability along with minimum production and marketing risk for these crops. The degree of development can be judged from the level of capitalisation and mechanisation. The capital investment in agriculture has been increasing steadily in response to the rapid adoption of green revolution technology in Punjab. Growth driving factors like number of tubewells, tractors, use of chemicals are rising over the years. The number of tube wells per thousand hectare (ha) has gone up from about 47 in 1970-71 to 333 in 2011-12. Similarly the number of tractors per thousand (ha) in state was only 1.3 in 1970-71, which increased to 72 in 2011-12. The per hectare consumption of chemical fertilizers (NPK) which was merely 37.50 kg in 1970-71 has reached the levels of 246 kg in 2011-12. Consumption of insecticides and pesticides (Technical Grade) has increased from 3200 MT in 1980-81 to 6150 MT in 2011-12. Development of irrigation infrastructure along with large scale mechanization of state agriculture helped in increasing the cropping intensity in the state. The other side of this glorious picture is the one which indicates decline in the overall conducive growth of the state agriculture. Due to ever increasing demands from increasing population of country, the main emphasis of the model of development in Punjab state has remained on increasing the food production with little attention on managing its natural resource base. Unfortunately, in the past two decades, intensive agricultural practices have put tremendous pressure on the soils and resulted in steady decline in its fertility (nutrient availability), both with respect to macro and micronutrients. The crops of paddy and wheat have high nutritional requirements but the most commonly adopted double cropping system (paddy and wheat) has been heavily depleting the nutrient contents of soil. For example, a rice – wheat sequence that yields 7 tons/ha of rice and 5 tons/ha of wheat removes more than 300 kg N, 30 kg P and 300 kg of K per ha from the soil. Even with recommended rate of fertilization in this cropping pattern, a negative balance of primary nutrients still exists (Benbi et al., 2006). Also, the water table is severely depleting due to excessive use for the changed cropping pattern where wheat and paddy are being widely produced. 269 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Among other problems faced by agriculture in Punjab, declining profitability is a major setback. Although, the income of the farmers increased up to mid 1980s, but after that the farm profitability started declining due to higher input costs, constant productivity and declining prices of crops. The real farm income declined which has plunged agriculture in to a crisis of unprecedented scale, the consequences of which are not just economic but multi-dimensional. A large number of proximate and structural factors have pushed farming and farmers towards distress conditions (Singh et al., 2012). Also, due to the declining productivity and returns, Punjab economy faces the problem of labour absorption on small farm land holdings; as a result, the number of small land holders has declined over time. Unlike India, Punjab witnessed a different trend as the number of operational land holdings of marginal and small farmers declined from 3.96 lakh in 1980-81 to 3.87 lakh in 1995-96 to 2.96 lakh in 2000-01 and further to 2.68 lakh in 2005-06. This decline in the number of small holdings is a pointer to the fact that the small holdings are non-viable under modern capital intensive farm technologies. Even holdings up to four hectares in Punjab find it increasingly difficult to maintain their living from the farming activity alone and given an opportunity, will also leave farming. Also, the capacity of agricultural sector to absorb population is declining over a period of time. The total workforce engaged in agriculture as agricultural labourers followed a rising trend up to 1991 but then declined. The estimated figures of workforce engaged in agriculture declined from 24.79 per cent in 1971 to 23.9 per cent in 2011due to unfavourable conditions and non-viability of agriculture (Singh and Bhogal, 2013). Among other hurdles of development, the rural economy of the state is reeling under debt as about 89 per cent of the total farmer households are indebted (Singh et al., 2007). The issue of growing indebtedness has become central and is being associated positively with farmers’ suicides. Various studies exhibit that farmers and agricultural labourers have been committing suicides primarily due to economic hardship and indebtedness. Small and marginal farmers are the main victims, as they are not in a position to eak out their lives with meagre earnings reaped from their tiny size of holdings, which of course are capital intensive. As reported in a study by Singh et al., 2012, about 78 per cent of the total small farmers that committed suicide for being distressed by indebtedness. Though the overall growth, mechanisation, capital investment, use of fertilizers, pesticides, is increasing, the profitability and viability of agriculture for small farmers is declining. The small farmers are committing suicide following the debt crisis. Alongside, other aspects like natural resources and capacity of agriculture to absorb labour which is declining need to be mulled over in order to avoid ambiguous development. references Benbi DK, Nayyar VK and Brar JS, 2006, The Green Revolution in Punjab: Impact on Soil Health, Indian Journal of Fertilizers, 2(4), 57-66. GoP (Govt. Of Punjab): Statistical Abstract of Punjab, various issues. Singh, Sukhpal, Majeet Kaur, H. S. Kingra (2007) “Flow of Funds to Farmers and Indebtedness in Punjab”, Research Report, Punjab States Farmers Commission, Government of Punjab, Department of Economics and Sociology, Punjab Agricultural University. Singh, Sukhpal, Sidhu R. S., Sidhu S. K., Kingra H. S. and Sidhu M. S. (2012), “Farmers’ and agricultural labourers’ suicides due to indebtedness in the Punjab state”, Research Report, Department of Economics and Sociology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Singh, Sukhpal and Shruti Bhogal (2013) “Changing Pattern of Rural Workforce and Process of Depeasantisation in Punjab” in Proceedings of 55th Annual Conference of Indian Society of Labour Economics at JNU, New Delhi on December 16, 2013. 270 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-III A study on Co2 emission in reLAtion to AgriCuLturAL groWth And food seCurity in indiA g.s. mahadevaiah1, gunjan Bhandari2 and gourav Kumar vani3 1. Assoc. Prof., 2. & 3. M.Sc. Students. gunjanbhandari5@gmail.com Dept. of Agricultural Economics, UAS, Bangalore, (Karnataka) Abstract The ongoing development process is continuously adding to the pool of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Increasing CO2 level has been viewed as a mixed blessing for agriculture. Although, it’s exact impact is not known but through global warming it can have a direct bearing on food production. ICAR report said that net agriculture revenue would decline by 12.3 percent if temperature increases by 2 degree Celsius and rainfall decreases by just 7 percent. Keeping this in view, the present study attempts to find out the contribution of the growth in three sectors of Indian economy viz., agriculture, manufacturing and service sectors to increased CO2 emission and study its relation to agricultural GDP and poverty(as a measure of food security). Secondary data for fifty years and simple regression and tabular analysis have been used for this purpose. The findings of the study indicate that the CO2 emissions due to growth in agriculture are not significant but increased CO2 emissions have resulted in increased temperature. In the short run, agricultural production seems to vary directly with CO2 emissions while poverty decreases with increase in agricultural GDP and in CO2 emissions. Key words: CO2, Agriculture, Poverty and Food Security introduction With a population of 1.2 billion growing at a rate of 1.76 percent, food security will continue to remain a major concern for Indian economy. Ensuring food security requires continuous agricultural growth. This is only possible under favourable climatic conditions. It is proven fact worldwide that increase in green house gas emission lead to increase in temperature. Net agriculture revenue would decline by 12.3 percent if temperature changes by 2 degree Celsius and rainfall by just 7 percent according to ICAR report6 (2012). This decline in revenue from agriculture will have cascading effect on 52.8 percent of Indian population which directly and indirectly depend on agriculture as source of livelihood. This will impact the purchasing power and in turn food security status. In this context a study was planned with the following objectives: To study the short term relationship between agriculture and climate change in India To analyze the impact of climate change on food security methodology Present study is based on time series data obtained from World Bank Development Indicators web site5, RBI Hand Book of Indian Economy 20121, Data Portal of Govt. of India4. In order to carry out the study, carbon emission, poverty rate and agricultural GDP were used as proxy for climate change, food security and agriculture respectively. Data was collected on contribution of different sectors in GDP, CO2 emission from India, Poverty status in India, mean annual temperature and population of India for a period of 50 years spanning from 1960-61 to 2010-11. Data on Poverty status (at national poverty line) was only available for the years 1993-94, 2004-05 and 2009-10. Tools used in the analysis are compound annual growth rate (CAGR) 2, percentage, regression analysis3. Regression analysis was performed for following regression equations 1. CO2=b0+b1*AgGDP+b2*ManufGDP+b3*ServiceGDP+ e1 2. AgGDP=b0+b1*C O2+e2 3. Temp= b0+b1*CO2+e3 Co2^: Carbon Emission from India per capita; AgGDP#: Agricultural GDP per capita of India; ManufGDP#: Manufacturing GDP per capita of India; ServiceGDP#: Service Sector GDP per capita of India; Temp: Mean Annual Temperature of India (degree Celsius). Since, population has effect on all variables in present study and therefore to remove the effect of increase in population it 271 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” is imperative to take the variables per capita. Compound Annual Growth Rates were calculated for Poverty, Co2 emission and share of Agriculture in GDP.  Vn 1/ n  Formula to calculate CAGR is CAGR=  V  − 1 *100   0  Where Vn: Value in nth year, V0: Value in initial year, n: no. of years from initial to final value. To calculate percentage points change in X per unit percentage change in Y formula used is = results Table No. 1 shows the data on poverty, carbon emission, share of Agriculture in GDP and Agricultural GDP. From CAGR it can be observed that during 16 year period (1993-94 to 2009-10) poverty and share of agriculture in GDP registered negative growth of 2.58 and 2.79 percent per annum. While carbon emission and value of agricultural GDP increased at a rate of 5.41 and 2.72 percent per annum. table 1: Compound Annual growth rates Years # Poverty rate@ Carbon Emission ^ Share of Agriculture In GDP@ Ag GDP# 93-94 45.3 864.93 28.27 429.98 04 to 05 37.2 1411.13 18.81 565.423 09 to 10 29.8 2008.82 17.98 660.99 CAGR -2.58 5.41 -2.78 2.72 (Rs.000’ crore at 2004-05 constant prices) (000’ kt) (%) ^ @ If poverty and share of agriculture continues to decline at their negative CAGR then their values will reduce to half in 27 and 25 years respectively. Carbon emission and agricultural GDP will double in 13 and 26 years if they continue to increase at their CAGR. One percent increase in Carbon emission will reduce poverty rate by 0.1172 percent points. One percent increase in agricultural GDP will reduce poverty rate by 0.2885 percent points. table no. 2: results of regression Analysis CO2 AgGDP Temp. Intercept -527.39* (250.74) 371.46*** (6.11) 24.05*** (0.05) CO2 - 0.12*** (0.007) 5.07e-07*** (6.04e-08) AgGDP 1.32 (0.66) - - ManufGDP 4.41*** (1.16) - - ServiceGDP -0.57 (0.29) - - R2 Adjusted 0.949 0.86 0.5864 F statistic 309.128*** 310.4*** 70.48*** Significance Codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ Figures in parenthesis indicate standard error. Results of regression are provided in Table No. 2. In first regression we can find that carbon emission per capita is significantly affected by manufacturing sector GDP per capita while agriculture and service sector does not contribute significantly to carbon emission in India. From second regression it can be observed that carbon emission had positive 272 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” impact on agriculture in India in past 50 years. But it does not mean in future carbon emission will not hurt agriculture sector. It is also clear from third regression that carbon emission per capita has significant impact on temperature increase. Cent percent increase in carbon emission from 2009-10 level will reduce poverty by 11.72 percent points. This implies that increased carbon emission will lead to an increase of approximately 2 degree Celsius in mean annual temperature making it to reach a level of 26.1 degree Celsius. This will reduce net agricultural revenue by 12.3 percent. Conclusion From the foregoing analysis, it is evident that though in the short run agriculture sector does not seem to be harmed by increase in Carbon emission but in long run it will lead to decline in food security status by reducing affordability of poor to purchase food items. references Anonymous, 2011-12, Hand book of Indian Economy, published by RBI. Chandra Prasanna, 2009, Projects, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi: chapter. 7.20. Porter. D. C., Gunasekar S., Gujarati D. N., 2011, Basic Econometrics, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi. data.gov.in data.worldbank.org/indicator http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/alarm-bells-at-crop-summit--acute-food-scarcity-in-india-by-2020-/737239/ 273 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-IV CroP ProduCtivity, diversifiCAtion And sustAinABiLity sukhpreet singh, ram sharn and meenakshi mohinia Abstract More than half of the world’s labour force is engaged in agriculture. Most of the food comes from it and it supplies various raw materials to our industries. If we talk about agriculture in Indian context then also more than three-forth of our population is engaged in agricultural activities. Agriculture sector, world over has experienced a phenomenal growth since the mid 20th century. During the past 40 years, scientists have used biotechnology for genetic crop improvement i.e. for genetic modification. Crop diversification, crop rotation, new genetic varieties of seed, pest and disease control programs, irrigation technology, fertilizers, mechanical equipment has drastically increased the crop production world over which is known as the Green Revolution. It has dramatically increased staple food production in the world. A network of international agricultural research institutions has been established to carry on with this task. Green revolution has been a mixed bag of success for agriculture as it has raised a new set of problems, over use of water and fertilizers, water logging and salinization and excess of fertilizer and pesticide cause pollution of water bodies and contamination of ground water. In such a situation a renewable and lasting alternative is sustainable agriculture that has to emerge for successful agricultural revolution. introduction More than half of the world’s labour force is engaged in agriculture. Most of the food comes from it and it supplies various raw materials to our industries. Now, many of the countries which were once colonies of Europe, especially those in Central America, are still heavily involved in the agricultural production as they were hundreds of years ago. About 45% of the world’s population makes their living through agriculture. The proportion of the population involved in agriculture ranges from about 2% in the United States to about 80% in some parts of Asia and Africa. There are millions of subsistence farmers in the world, those who produce only enough crops to feed their families. Agriculture uses about a third of the land on the planet and occupies the lives of about two and a half billion people. Farming in the twentieth century has become highly technological in more developed nations with geographical technologies like GIS, GPS, and remote sensing while less developed nations continue with practices which are similar to those developed after the first agricultural revolution, thousands of years ago. It’s important to understand where our food comes from. Growing need of agricultural production has been greatly felt with the growth of population, not only for the sake of food security but also for providing employment. Crop diversification within the sector has also been noticed to a great extent. Agriculture plays an essential role in the process of economic development of less developed countries like India. Besides providing food to nation, agriculture releases labour, provides saving, contributes to market of industrial goods and earns foreign exchange. Agricultural development is an integral part of overall economic development. In India, agriculture was the main source of national income and occupation at the time of Independence. Agriculture and allied activities contributed nearly 50 percent to India’s national income. Around 72 percent of total working population was engaged in agriculture. These confirm that Indian economy was a backward and agricultural based economy at the time of Independence. After 61 year of Independence, the share of agriculture in total national income declined from 50 percent in 1950 to 18 percent in 2007- 08. But even today more than 60 percent of workforce is engaged in agriculture. In spite of this, it is also an important feature of agriculture that is to be noted that growth of other sectors and overall economy depends on the performance of agriculture to a considerable extent. Because of these reasons agriculture continues to be the dominant sector in Indian Economy. Since independence India has made much progress in agriculture. Indian agriculture, which grew at the rate of about 1 percent per annum during the fifty years before Independence, has grown at the rate of about 2.6 percent per annum in the post-Independence era. Expansion of area was the main source of growth in the period of fifties and sixties after that the contribution of increased land area under agricultural production has declined over time and increase in productivity became the main source of growth in agricultural production. Another important facet of progress in agriculture is its success in eradicating of its dependence on imported food grains. Indian agriculture has progressed not only in output and yield terms but the structural changes have also contributed. All these developments in Indian agriculture are contributed by a series of steps initiated by Indian Government. Land reforms, inauguration of Agricultural Price Commission with 274 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” objective to ensure remunerative prices to producers, new agricultural strategy 1, investment in research and extension services, provision of credit facilities, and improving rural infrastructure are some of these steps. hypothesis - - Govt. policies and scientific innovations i.e. the high yielding varieties programme, multiple cropping programme, integrated development of dry areas, plant protection measures, increased use of fertilizers, and new irrigation, always prove a boon for the production and development of overall agriculture practices. The new strategy, New Agricultural Strategy, is beneficial for all states as equal. objectives - To trace out the principle government policies for promoting agricultural development. To see the relationship between the diversification of agriculture and increased production of food grains. research Questions - Do green revolution change the cropping pattern? How Green Revolution changes the land use pattern of particular areas? Do farmers convinced to grow other than traditional crops after green revolution? Do diversification or crop specializations fulfill the need of grains in India? Analysis For the overall development of Indian agriculture, many institutional and infrastructural changes have been introduced since Independence. Broadly, agricultural policy followed during this period can be distinguished in four phases: first phase considered from 1947 to mid sixties; second phase considered period from mid sixties to 1980; third phase included period from 1980 to 1991; and forth phase includes period from 1991-92 onwards. The first phase of agricultural policy witnessed tremendous agrarian reforms, institutional changes, development of major irrigation project and strengthens of cooperative credit institution. The most important contribution of land reforms was abolition of intermediaries and giving land titles to the actual cultivators. Land reforms were important in increasing agricultural production during this phase. The Community Development Programme, decentralized planning and the Intensive Area Development Programmes were also initiated for regenerating Indian agriculture that had stagnated during the British period. In order to encourage the farmers to adopt better technology, incentive price policy was adopted in 1964 and the Agricultural Price Commission was set up to advice the Government on the fixation of support prices of agricultural crops. Despite the institutional changes and development programmes introduced by the Government during this phase, India remained dependent upon foreign countries for food to feed the rising population. The second phase in Indian agriculture started in mid 1960s with adoption of new agricultural strategy known as Green Revolution. The new agricultural strategy relies on high-yielding varieties of crops, multiple cropping, the package approach, modern farm practices and spread of irrigation facilities. The biggest achievement of this strategy has been attainment of self sufficiency in food grains. Agrarian reforms during this period took back seat while research, extension, input supply, credit, marketing, price support and spread of technology were the prime concern of policy makers.The third next phase in Indian agriculture began in early 1980s. This period started witnessing process of diversification which resulted into fast growth in non-food grains output like milk, fishery, poultry, vegetables, fruits etc which accelerated growth in agricultural GDP during the 1980s There has been a considerable increase in subsidies and support to agriculture sector during this period while public sector spending in agriculture for infrastructure development started showing decline in real term but investment by farmers kept on moving on a rising trend. The fourth phase of agricultural policy started after initiation of economic reform process in 1991. This raised new challenges among policymakers. Because of this, a New Agricultural Policy was launched by Indian Government in July 2000. This seeks to attain output growth rate of 4 percent per annum in agriculture sector based on efficient use of resources. It seeks to achieve this objective in a sustainable manner and with equity. This was first time when government released a national agriculture policy. The policy document discusses what ought to be done in agriculture. methodology Changing Agrarian Economy since Independence:- agrarian economy has changed since Independence. Keeping this view in mind we took two indicators of agricultural growth i.e. land use pattern, and cropping pattern. 275 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” land use pattern The basic factor in agriculture is land. Knowledge about land use pattern is vital to understand whether the utilization of land in India is at its full potential or far from its full potential. In India the classification of land has had its roots in agricultural statistics. Till 1950, the land in India was broadly classified into five categories. Hence, a reclassification was adopted from March 1950. table: 1 Changes in Land use Pattern in india from 1950-51 to 2001-02 Category 1951-52 1971-72 2001-02 Non-Agricultural Land 12690 (4.41%) 16972 (5.58%) 24070 (7.89%) Barren and Uncultivable Land 37484 (13.02%) 27996 (9.20%) 17709 (5.81%) Net Sown Area 119400 (41.4% ) 139721 (45.94%) 141416 (46.36%) Forest Land 48889 (16.98) 63771 (20.97) 69511 (22.79) Other 201368 (24.19%) 221590 (18.31%) 238143 (17.15%) Note: Figures in bracket italics indicates percentage to Reported Area Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance (2008) Under it, land in India now classified under nine different categories. These are as: (i) forests; (ii) barren and uncultivable lands; (iii) land put to non-agricultural uses; (iv) cultivable wastes; (v) permanent pastures and other grazing lands; (vi) miscellaneous tree crops and groves not included in the net area sown; (vii) current fallows; (viii) other fallows; and (ix) net sown area. 276 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Changes in Cropping pattern Cropping pattern means the proportion of area under different crops at a particular period of time. A change in cropping pattern means a change in the proportion under different crops. Table 4 indicates that the area under non-food crops as a proportion of the total cropped area is increasing but still there is dominance of food crops. At the beginning of the economic planning in India, 76.7 percent land was put under food crops and about 23.3 percent on non-food crops. By 2001, area under food crops had come down to 65.83 percent and under non-food crops has increased to 34.17 percent. This shift in the allocation of area from food crops to non-food crops reflect a change from subsistence cropping to commercial cropping. This shifting of land from food crops to non-food crops was mainly influenced by the prevailing price in market and profitability per hectare. Similarly, here it can also be concluded that, there is preponderance of cereals, about 54.43 percent of the area is devoted to the production of cereals, while only 11.4 percent is devoted to pulses. Though, the area under both cereals and pulses is increasing but the rate of increase in area under cereals is greater than that of pulses. It means whatever cropped area increased as a result of irrigation facilities, chemical fertilizer, and high yielding varieties of seeds, a greater part of it is devoted to food grains. Within cereals, area under coarse cereals is gradually declining since 1950/51. This is due to fact that coarse cereals are inferior goods. table 2: Changes in Cropping Pattern in india since 1950-51 CROPS 1950-51 1970-71 2000-01 Rice 23.50 22.60 24.03 Wheat 7.60 11.00 13.84 Corse Cereals 29.90 27.80 16.55 Sugar Cane 1.30 1.60 2.49 Total Oilseeds 8.3 8.90 13.56 Source: Agricultural Statistics at a Glance (2008) Furthermore, Table 4 also shows that area under fruits and vegetables and oilseeds is gradually increasing since 1950/51. This is because the consumption pattern is shifting from cereals to non-cereals. These growth rates are lower than the growth rate of rural population. Thus, the clear implication of this growth trends is that the per capita output in agriculture is declining. Conclusion In India, “while population grows, the land surface is fixed and of this only a certain proportion is available for cultivation” (Planning commission, 1961). Further scope for bringing extra land under the plough is limited. This can be done by applying inputs in a more intensive way and by adopting modern methods of production through use of improved technology, besides making an adequate provision for institutional financing, better methods of marketing, etc. These technological factors comprise (i) irrigation; (ii) Consumption of fertilizers and manure; (iii) Improved seed, and (iv) agricultural implements. Water is another basic factor in agriculture next only to land. Only rainfall is the natural source 277 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” of water in agriculture. But rainfall is the most unreliable Therefore, only artificial supply of water through irrigation is the way to overcome the problem of deficiency of water, water of tanks, ponds, lakes, and artificial reservoirs. The surface water is carried to the filed by canals, distributaries, and channels. Ground water is tapped by sinking wells where drought animals, diesel or electric power is utilized to take out water. In India canals, tanks, wells including tubewells are the principal sources of irrigation. Since 1950-51, considerable importance had been attached to the provision of canal irrigation and well irrigation. Even though 40 percent of irrigation is supplied by canals, now well irrigation has caught up rapidly irrigation by tubwells has been expanded considerably. In the meantime, tanks and other source of irrigation are declining in importance. In any scheme for boosting agricultural output, the use of chemical fertilizer has an important role. India’s soil though varied and rich in deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus- two plants nutrients which together with organic manure influence crop return, which population rising at a first rate, the use of larger and larger doses of chemical fertilizer is the only way to augment our food grains production. The new agricultural strategy was based on increased use of fertilizer. reference Azam-Ali, S. N. and Squire, G. R. 2002. Principles of Tropical Agronomy. Oxon, UK: CABI Publishing. Balakrishnan, P. and M. Parameswaran (2007), “Understanding Economic Growth in India: A Prerequisite”, Economic and Political Weakly,. Chand Ramesh (2001), “Emerging Trends and Issues in Public and Private Investments in Indian Agriculture: a State wise Analysis”, Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Government of India (2008), Agricultural Statistics at a Glance. Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi. Sharma, K. L. (1977), “Measurement of the effect of area, yield, and prices in the increase of value of crop output in India”, Agricultural Situation in India, 278 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-V Assessment of eXtent of entrePreneuriAL suCCess Among the ProteCted AgriCuLture entrePreneurs gondkar sachin sopan, B.K.singh & r.s.hudda M.Sc Agri. Extension, IARI, New Delhi, Senior Scientist, CATAT, IARI, New Delhi, Professor, Dept. of Extn. Education, CCS HAU, Hisar. gondkarsachin@gmail.com Key Words: protected cultivation technology, sustainability, profitability, entrepreneurial success The present challenge of climate change, degradation of natural resources, effects of hazardous agricultural chemical residues offer us a great opportunity to shift towards more sustainable and higher efficient use of available natural resources. This situation calls for more intensive but sustainable options like green house or protected agriculture. ‘Protected Agriculture’ is the modification of the natural environment to achieve optimum plant growth. Foreseeing need for wider adoption of technology, the investigation was done in Maharashtra (in 2010-11), as the state has gone miles in adoption of the technology. For measurement of the extent of entrepreneurial success, a special index was developed which included parameters focusing profitability, sustainability, enterprise expansion, and socio-psychological dimensions. The results revealed that the extent of entrepreneurial success among the entrepreneurs was found to be moderate (71.6 %) to high level (16.7%). Correlation of entrepreneurial success with socio-personal-economic, psychological and communication characteristics of protected cultivation entrepreneurs with multiple correlation coefficient was analyzed, result indicated positive correlation with education (R value=0.306**), experience in protected cultivation (R= 0.248*), risk orientation (R=1.026**), and economic motivation (R=0.552*). Results on sustainability parameters indicated that most of the entrepreneurs viewed protected cultivation technology as sustainable cultivation practice. As the entrepreneurs experience higher productivity with less or optimum natural resources. The practice of protected cultivation technology had given impetus and scope for more diversified production base as combining vegetables, flowers and fruits.. Hence more innovative sustainable technologies like protected cultivation need to be given higher attention and spread to the potential geographical locations. introduction India today is earmarked by the world as one of the fastest developing countries with the potential to become a super power. The country has always been an agri-oriented country, with a surplus in food grain production due to the wide adaptation of new emerging technologies and methods in production. The present challenge of climate change, degradation of natural resources, effects of hazardous agricultural chemical residues offer us a great opportunity to shift towards more sustainable and higher efficient use of available natural resources. This situation calls for more intensive but sustainable options like green house or protected agriculture. ‘Protected Agriculture’ is the modification of the natural environment to achieve optimum plant growth (Jensen, 1995). Eentrepreneurships is the dynamic process of creating incremental wealth. The wealth is created by individuals who take the major risks in terms of equity, time and career commitment of providing value to some product or service (Kuratko , 2001). objective 1. Assessment of Extent of Entrepreneurial Success Among the Protected Agriculture Entrepreneurs. methodology Foreseeing need for wider adoption of technology, the investigation was done in Maharashtra (in 2010-11), as the state has gone miles in adoption of the technology. The sample included protected agriculture entrepreneurs, who have launched their own enterprises of greenhouses and started cultivating, trading and exporting flowers and vegetables. For measurement of the extent of entrepreneurial success, a special index was developed which included parameters focusing profitability, sustainability, enterprise expansion, and socio-psychological dimensions. Parameters for assessing entrepreneurial success under Entrepreneurial Success Index (ESI) A. Profitability Indicators i. Gross return per unit investment: 279 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” ii. Net income (Rupees) per annum): iii. Percentage reinvestment of profit: B. enterprise expansion parameters. iv. Employment generated in protected agriculture units: v. . Growth in number of protected agriculture units: vi. Degree of market expansion: C. sustainability parameters. vii. Adaptability: viii. Sustainability: ix. Degree of diversification: d. socio-psychological parameters. x. Degree of satisfaction: xi. Prestige earned in Society: xii. Occupational Leadership: results entrepreneurial success: The entrepreneurial success score is a cumulative total of the obtained scores of the respondent expressed as a percentage over total obtainable score on entrepreneurial success index. table 1: distribution of respondents on entrepreneurial success index (esi). No. Entrepreneurial success index 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Mean Standard Deviation Range Categories Very low (<Mean-2SD) Low (<Mean-1SD) Moderate (Between Mean+1SD) High(>Mean+1SD) Very high(>Mean+2SD) n=60 59.95 11.70 31.43 – 86.43 frequencies 3 4 43 9 1 Percentage 5.0 6.7 71.6 15.0 1.7 The results revealed that the extent of entrepreneurial success among the entrepreneurs was found to be moderate (71.6 %) to high level (16.7%). It was also found that, the mean score per cent of entrepreneurial success of Protected Cultivation entrepreneurs was 59.95, which is just above fifty per cent .This indicates that the degree of success achieved by the entrepreneurs was just above average. Thus it can be concluded that the Protected Cultivation entrepreneurs were successful in their enterprises at moderate. Shelke et al. (2002), reported similar findings on their studies of entrepreneurship. 280 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 2: Correlation analysis between entrepreneurial success and selected independent variables. sr. no. socio-personal-economic variables Correlation coefficients (r) of adoption behavior of improved cultivation practices 1. Age -0.194 2. Education 0.306** 3. Caste 0.142 4. Family size 0.058 6. Social participation 0.271* 5. Land holding 0.212 6. Annual family income 0.117 7. Experience in Protected Cultivation 0.248* Psychological variables 8. Risk orientation 1.026** 9. Economic motivation 0.552* Communication Variables 10. Extension contact 0.227* 11. Mass media exposure 0.552** ** Significant at 0.01 level of probability * Significant at 0.05 level of probability Correlation of entrepreneurial success with socio-personal-economic, psychological and communication characteristics of protected cultivation entrepreneurs with multiple correlation coefficient was analyzed, result indicated positive correlation with education (R value=0.306**), experience in protected cultivation (R= 0.248*), risk orientation (R=1.026**), and economic motivation (R=0.552*). The results also reveal that high cost involved in the initial investment of protected cultivation was a major factor hindering in establishing the enterprise. Age of cut flower cultivators was however, having negative correlation with entrepreneurial behaviour. It shows that if entrepreneur is young age then chances of success are high. Educational status was found to be positive and significant at 0.01 level of probability. It shows that education an important factor in determining entrepreneurial orientation as cited by Shivaramane et al. (2008). Risk orientation of entrepreneurs was also showing positive relationship with entrepreneurial orientation. Mass media exposure was also a important factor determining the entrepreneur orientation as it showed positive and significant relationship with enterprise success. The reason could be higher exposure to information sources leading to more knowledge related to various activities and functions necessary for protected cultivation technology. Results for profitability parameters revealed that majority of entrepreneurs were gaining high on profit and productivity parameters. The increase net annual income shows that entrepreneurs had been benefited economically through practice of protected cultivation. Findings on enterprise expansion parameters show higher levels of perennial employment generation in the study area. Some of protected cultivation entrepreneurs were also progressively converting their open field cultivable area into protected cultivation structure. Sustainability parameters indicated that most of the entrepreneurs viewed protected cultivation technology as sustainable cultivation practice. As the entrepreneurs experience higher productivity with less or optimum natural resources utilization. The practice of protected cultivation technology had given impetus and scope for more diversified production base as combining vegetables, flowers and fruits in the study area. With adoption of this innovative technology farmers in the study area had showed greater adaptive skills in relation to various dynamic processes going in and around the entire socio-gio economic setup. Results on socio-psychological parameters indicated greater achievements on satisfaction levels, prestige gained and occupational leadership attained. Majority of the responded positively to various dimensions of socio-psychological 281 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” variables. But lack of coordination and cooperation among the entrepreneurs were also found to be impediments to cooperative marketing and input purchasing. Conclusion Hence it can be concluded that adoption of protected agriculture resulted in increasing productivity, sustainability and higher level of economic, social satisfaction among the entrepreneurs. The success of entrepreneurs in protected cultivation were moderate to high levels The major hurdles in wider spread of protected agriculture was higher initially investment, lack of training in protected cultivation technology, and unavailability of quality inputs in the study area. Thus the present challenge of rapid population growth, urbanization, climate change, rapid depletion of natural resource base demands for more sustainable but productive technology use. Increase in input use efficiency, conservation of natural resources without compromising the future generation demands is need of the hour. Hence more innovative sustainable technologies like protected cultivation need to be given higher attention and spread to the potential geographical locations. references Jensen, M. H., Malter, A. J. (1995). Book on “Protected Agriculture: A Global Review”. Published by World Bank, Washington DC. Shelke, R.D., Kalyankar, S.P. and Dhoke, P.K. 2002. Essential qualities of successful entrepreneur. National Seminar on Entrepreneurship Development in Agriculture. 2&3 March, 2002,Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani. Abstract: 34 Sivaramane, N., Kumar, A., Singh, D. R., and Arya, P. (2008). “An economic analysis o traditional and hi-tech rose (Rosa spp) cultivation”. Journal of Ornamental Horticulture,vol-11(1):21-26. Kuratko, D.F.et al. (2001). An examination of owner฀s goals in sustaining entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business Management, 35(1), January: 24-33 282 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-VI An eConomiC AnALysis of hAPPy seeder teChnoLogy for PAddy strAW mAnAgement g. s. romana, mandeep singh and gurmeet singh Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana Email: romanabti@gmail.com Paddy- wheat crop rotation is dominant in the state covering about 28 lakh hectares of cultivable land. This crop rotation is supposed to produce about 40 million tonne of crop waste every year. Out of this wheat straw is mostly used as dry fodder for cattle, a small part of paddy straw is utilised in generating power at biomass thermal plants while rest about 20 million tonne of the paddy straw is set on fire in the fields. Owing to high silica content, paddy straw cannot be directly fed to animals. It has been officially stated that the burning of paddy straw residue causes soil nutrient loss worth 3.85 million tonne of organic carbon, 59000 tonne nitrogen, 20000 tonne phosphorus and 34000 tonne of potassium besides severely affecting the quality of ambient air. Straw carbon, nitrogen and sulphur are completely burnt and lost to the atmosphere in the process of burning (Singh et al 2012). These nutrients then have to be replenished through organic or inorganic fertilisers, which increase the cost of production. A study conducted by the National Remote Sensing Agency indicated that paddy burning in Punjab contributed 261 giga gram (Gg; 1 Gg=1,000 metric tonne) of carbon mono dioxide, 19.8 Gg of nitrogen oxide, and other gases to the atmosphere. These gases cause green house effect which in turn disturbs the natural climate of the planet. Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), Ludhiana, has estimated that total crop residue (paddy and wheat) contained 6 million tonne of carbon, which on burning could produce 22 million tonne of carbon dioxide. It is further estimated that 25 percent nitrogen, 30-35 percent phosphorus, 50 percent sulphur and 75 percent potash applied to the paddy crop remains in the paddy straw. Heat generated by burning paddy straw kills useful microbes in the soil leading to poor soil health and loss of soil fertility. Farmers generally burn paddy straw before wheat sowing as the cheap and easy option for residue management as spreading, removal and incorporation of paddy straw in the field are labour-intensive and expensive tasks. Further decomposition of paddy straw delays the sowing of wheat. The delay of sowing wheat after 15 November results in yield losses of 1 % per day (Brar et al., 2010). To solve the problem of burning of paddy straw and late sowing of wheat, a machine called Happy seeder has been developed for in-situ management of paddy straw (Sidhu et al., 2007) that allows direct drilling of wheat in standing as well a loose paddy straw. The present paper is an economic analysis of the happy seeder technology used for the paddy straw management. The following objectives were proposed for this paper to conclude the results – objectives - To study the costs involved and returns thereof in happy seeder technology. To assess the benefits of using happy seeder To compare the normal sown wheat and happy seeder sown wheat. methodology The Front Line Demonstrations on happy seeder technology were conducted on 12 hectares of 17 farmers in Bathinda and 53 hectares of 14 farmers in Sangrur districts during the year 2012-13 to popularise the available technology for the management of paddy straw. These demonstrations were analysed to conclude the results. The normal wheat crop grown on these farms were compared with that of wheat crop sown with happy seeder. The various preparatory tillage operations have been assessed at the prevailing custom hiring rates in the respective district. The inputs have been assessed at the prevailing rates in the open market. Weighted averages and simple tabular analysis carried out to achieve the objectives. results and discussion Cost structure in using happy seeder The happy seeder for sowing of wheat crop after paddy harvesting can be used in the field as such without ploughing it. However the bundles of loose paddy straw left over after the combine harvesting get choked in seed drill, disturbing the uniform distribution of seed in the field. Thus, to assure the smooth functioning of the seed drill in the field, the loose paddy straw needs to be distributed uniformly in the field. The cost worth Rs.412 per acre was spent for this operation as stated in table 1. Apart from this Rs.150 per acre were spent more on sowing of wheat with happy seeder over the normal seed drill. This is because the custom hiring rates of happy seeder are higher than the normal seed drills due its limited availability 283 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” and higher price. Further Rs.100 per acre was also spent more on insecticides as happy seeder sown wheat crop is more susceptible to stem borer. Overall Rs. 5142 per acre were spent on table 1: Costs involved in happy seeder sown wheat (rs/Ac) S. No 1. Operations Amount (Rs.) Management of loose paddy straw Bathinda Sangrur Mean 425 400 412 2. Preparatory tillage Nil Nil Nil 3. Sowing 400 400 400 4. Weedicide use 380 380 380 5. Urea @110kg / Ac (Rs.277/ bag) 595 595 595 6. DAP @ 60 kg / Ac (Rs.1125/ bag) 1350 1350 1350 7. Irrigations - 4 only labour 5 hours 180 160 170 8. Insecticides and fungicides 400 400 400 9. Harvesting with combine 1000 1000 1000 10. Labour used 12 hours 450 5180 420 5105 435 Total Costs different operations in the field where happy seeder was used. These costs were Rs.75 per acre were more in Bathinda district over the Sangrur due to the different prevailing custom hiring rates there. Cost structure in using normal drill Under the conventional method of wheat sowing the loose paddy straw left over by the combine harvester is burnt in the open sky. The field is then cultivated 2-3 times with discs and cultivators for seed bed preparation. On the sample farms these operations were carried out and spent Rs.1550 per acre as shown in table 2. Apart from this the sowing with the normal seed drill cost Rs.150 per acre less than the happy seeder. The insecticide cost per acre was also less in the normal sown wheat worth Rs.100. The overall cost on different farm operations done for sowing wheat crop under the normal conditions came out to be Rs.6030 per acre in Bathinda and Sangrur districts. However there is slight variation in these costs in both the districts due to different custom hiring rates prevailing there. table 1: Costs involved in normal sown wheat (rs/Ac) S.No Operations Amount (Rs.) Bathinda Sangrur Mean 1. Harvesting and burning of paddy straw 500 450 475 2. Preparatory tillage 1100 1050 1075 3. Sowing 250 250 250 4. Weedicide use 380 380 380 5. Urea @110kg / Ac (Rs.277/ bag) 595 595 595 6. DAP @ 60 kg / Ac (Rs.1125/ bag) 1350 1350 1350 7. Irrigations - 5 only labour 5 hours 180 160 170 8. Insecticides and fungicides 300 300 300 9. Harvesting with combine 1000 1000 1000 10. Labour used 12 hours 450 420 435 Total Costs 6105 5955 Comparative Cost structure The costs incurred in sowing of wheat crop with happy seeder as well as normal drill are discussed in table 3. As it is clear from the table, Rs.63 per acre was spent more while handling the paddy straw before using happy seeder over normal sown fields. Further Rs.1075 per acre was spent additional for the preparatory tillage carried out before using the normal drill over the happy seeder fields. However the sowing was costly worth Rs.150 per acre by the happy seeder over the 284 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” normal drill. Apart from this Rs.100 per acre was also spent more in controlling the insect pests in happy seeder sown wheat over the normal sown wheat. The overall comparison shows that Rs.888 per acre was spent more in the normal sown wheat fields over the happy seeder sown wheat. Thus, apart from saving the burning of the paddy straw the happy seeder technology was able to save Rs.2220 per hectare over the normal sown wheat during the field preparation, sowing and management operations of the crop. table 3: Costs involved in wheat sown with S.No Operations Amount (Rs. / acre) Happy seeder Normal sown 1. Management of loose paddy straw 412 475 2. Preparatory tillage Nil 1075 3. Sowing 400 250 4. Weedicide use 380 380 5. Urea @110kg / Ac (Rs.277/ bag) 595 595 6. DAP @ 60 kg / Ac (Rs.1125/ bag) 1350 1350 7. Irrigations - 4 only labour 4 hours 170 170 8. Insecticides and fungicides 400 300 9. Harvesting with combine 1000 1000 10. Labour used 12 hours 435 435 Total Costs 5142 Productivity of wheat The productivity of happy seeder sown and normal sown wheat is compared in table 4 which shows that the productivity was slightly more in happy seeder sown wheat over the normal sown wheat crop. The overall productivity of happy seeder sown wheat in Sangrur district was 50.10 quintal per hectare while that of normal sown wheat was 49.40 quintal per hectare accounting for 1.42 per cent increase. This increase was 2.75 per cent in Bathinda district explaining 56.00 quintal per hectare in happy seeder sown wheat and 54.50 quintal per hectare in normal wheat crop. Overall happy seeder sown wheat gave 51.19 quintal yield per hectare over the normal sown wheat that yielded 50.34 quintal per hectare, thus, reporting 1.69 per cent increase. table 4: yield of happy seeder sown wheat (q / ha) District No of farmers Area (ha) Average Wheat Yield (q / ha) Demo. Local check % age change Sangrur 14 53.0 50.10 49.40 1.42 Bathinda 17 12.0 56.00 54.50 2.75 Overall weighted Average 31 65.0 51.19 50.34 saving nutrient enriched paddy straw The happy seeder technology was demonstrated during the year 2012-13 in district Bathinda and Sangrur. The loose paddy straw left over after the combine harvesting was not burnt but uniformly distributed in the same field. The wheat was then sown with the happy seeder machine. The nutrients left in the paddy straw got conserved in the field contributing towards the yield of the succeeding wheat crop as well as improving the physical properties of the soils like water retention capacity, infiltration rate, bulk density etc. the Punjab Agricultural University has estimated that 25 percent nitrogen, 30-35 percent phosphorus, 50 percent sulphur and 75 percent potash applied to the paddy crop remains in the paddy straw. The nutrients, thus, saved have been calculated equivalent to the prevailing market price of Urea, DAP and Potash fertilizer. The paddy straw biomass added 36 kilogram nitrogen, 8 kilogram phosphorus and 71 kilogram potash in one hectare area. These nutrients, thus, saved Urea, DAP and Potash fertilizer worth Rs.423, Rs.392 and Rs.1988 respectively totalling the amount to Rs.2803 per hectare besides improving the physical properties over longer period of time (Table 5). 285 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 5: nutrients saved by conserving paddy straw (rs./ ha) S.No Particulars Amount (Rs.) 1. 36 kg N saved from paddy straw (78.26 kg Urea @ Rs.5.40 / kg) 423.00 2. 8 kg P saved from paddy straw (17.40 kg DAP @ Rs.22.50 / kg) 392.00 3. 71 kg K saved from paddy straw (118.33 kg Potash @ Rs,16.80 / kg) gross saving by happy seeder All the savings by the happy seeder sown wheat over the normal sown wheat were summarized in table 6. The happy seeder technology saved during preparatory tillage, resulted in additional yield and saved nutrients by way of conserving paddy straw enriched table 6: savings by happy seeder over normal sown wheat S. No Particulars Amount (Rs. / Acre) 1 Saving on account of preparatory tillage 888.00 2. Gain on account of additional yield of 85 kg / ha @ Rs.1400 / q. 476.00 3. Fertilizers saved by conserving paddy straw 1120.00 Pollution check by zero smoking of paddy straw Unaccountable Total savings of using happy seeder per acre 2484.00 4. with nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. These saving were respectively Rs.888, Rs.476 and Rs.1120 per acre totalling to Rs.2484 per acre. Apart from above savings happy seeder saved huge amount of paddy straw from burning, checking large volume of toxic gases decreasing the green house gas effect, thus, pollution to the great extent. Conclusion From the above discussion it is very much weighted observation that paddy straw after the combine harvesting can be managed effectively as well as profitably by using the happy seeder machine specially designed for this task besides sowing of succeeding wheat crop. Further happy seeder is the most efficient method to reduce the cost of production and manages the combine harvested paddy straw and ultimately improves the soil productivity over the longer period of time. This machine saved Rs.2220 per hectare during various operations of wheat sowing over the normal practice of burning of paddy straw followed by seed bed preparation and sowing of wheat. The results of this study also indicated that the happy seeder produced slightly higher grain yield worth Rs.1190 per hectare as compared to normal sown wheat, thus, proving to be profitable practice. Apart from this if paddy straw not burnt and conserved in the same field saved nutrients left over in it from the previous paddy crop worth Rs.2800 per hectare. So on an average the happy seeder saved about Rs.3400 and Rs.6200 per hectare if the paddy straw is partially burnt and if not burnt but conserved in the field, respectively. Least but not the last, large volume of harmful gases and a thick smoke cover over the entire state pushing the majority of the old age population towards the dead end can also be saved. Therefore, the farmers are advised to adopt the happy seeder technology for sowing wheat crop in the combine harvested fields, for management of paddy straw, for sowing of wheat in time and also for higher profit. references Brar, Navneet Kaur, Condon Jason, Evans Jeffrey and and Yadavinder-Singh (2010), “Nitrogen management in wheat sown in rice straw as mulch in North-West India.” 19th World Congress of Soil Science, Soil Solutions for a Changing world 1-6 August, 2010, Brisbane., Australia. Published on DVD. Rahman, M.A., Chikushi, J. and Saifizzaman, M. (2005). Rice straw mulching and nitrogen response of no-till wheat following rice in Bangladesh. Field Crops Res., 91: 71–81. Sardana, V., Sharma, S.K. and Randhawa, A.S. (2002). Yield performance of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties to late and very late sowing dates under the extreme north-west conditions of Punjab. J Res Punjab Agric Univ., 40: 177182. Sidhu, H.S., Manpreet-Singh, Humphreys, E., Yadvinder-Singh, Balwinder-Singh, Dhillon, S.S., Blackwell, J. Bector, V., Malkeet-Singh and Sarbjeet- Singh. (2007). The Happy Seeder enables direct drillingof wheat in to rice stubble. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 47: 844-854. 286 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Singh, Avtar, Kaushal, Meenakshi and Singh, Harmeet. (2012). Improvement in productivity of wheat with crop residue and nitrogen-a review. Asian Journal of Biological and Life Sciences 1 (3): 139-146. Singh Avtar Singh, Maninder Kaur, J. S.Kang and Ashu Geol (2013), “Happy Seeder and Rotavator Technology for In-Situ Management of Paddy Straw.” International Journal of Advanced Research, Vol.1, Issue 8, 372-379. Statistical Abstract of Punjab (Various issues) 287 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-VII hydroPoniCs – most PotentiAL WAy to sustAinABLe AgriCuLture sandeep singh, research scholar Dept. of Floriculture and Landscaping,Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab) Dr. SunilaKumari, Asst. Professor/SMS (Horticulture), K.V.K.,Navsari Agricultural University, Surat (Gujarat) E-mail: sunnymehrok@gmail.com Abstract With the alarmingly increasing population and decreasing cultivable lands there is intense pressure on land and urgent need to search and develop technologies so that we can feed ourselves. The intensive agricultural practices in last few decades ignited by green revolution have led to hysterical use of chemicals, thus adding to land degradation and environmental pollution, ultimately affecting our health. Thus focus is required on improved technologies for efficient input uses. In such scenario hydroponics seems to be most potent cultivation system which is future agriculture. Our % of urban population suffers from malnutrition due to either unavailability of fruits and vegetables or due to their probative prices. Basically growing plants without soil in a liquid or soilless media with mineral nutrient solution is known as ‘Hydroponics’. Simplified Hydroponics (SH) can help low income families organize and run farming mini-enterprises to help improve their income and living standards – ensuring their food security and income generation. SH uses very low cost, simple technology; requires almost no investment; and uses family labour. Generally, it is located in urban or peri-urban areas, although it is also suited to rural conditions. Advantages connected with this type of hydroponics include, it promotes the use of recycled materials, thus making low-cost materials such as wood and disposable containers, useful. It allows the growth of a wide variety of vegetables such as lettuce, tomatoes, carrots, garlic, strawberries, melons, flowers, aromatic and medicinal plants, etc. It is ideal for food production in urban and suburban areas (Urban Agriculture). It offers the advantage of using places that have not previously been considered appropriate for food production (courtyards, small gardens, walls, balconies, rooftops). Allow the production of high quality harmless food. The resultant fruits and vegetables have a high biological and nutritional value. Hydroponics helps maximizing the available space by following advanced systems like vertical gardening. Maximizing the input use efficiency thus, leading to precision farming and sustainability. Although at present the break even price for hydroponics is higher than conventional agriculture but with present situations sooner or later we have to adopt it and standardize the technologies for simplified hydroponics. Key words: hydroponics, sustainable farming, agriculture, simplified hydroponic system introduction The burgeoning world population that has crossed 7 billion with India alone contributing 1.2 billion have created a huge pressure on land to feed and sustain it. Thus, the challenge before agricultural scientist is to provide adequate quantity and quality of produce for food and nutritional security. According to the provisional data released by Census India, rural population of India is: 68.84% and urban population in India is 31.16% and level of urbanization increased from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16% in 2011. And this Urbanization leads to massive movement of people from rural to urban areas in search of work and making better money. When this happens there are few people left to tend to the fields or the labor is inadequate to do agriculture. In a country like India where rural areas have been neglected both in economic and development terms, people are coerced to move to urban cities and towns. Urbanization leads to the demand for the land (non renewable/ precious resource) to build new houses, industries, parks etc to cater to the increasing population in the urban regions so the agricultural lands are decreasing day by day in India. So the present extent of farming is dependent on such smalland marginal farmers, whose land holdings are below 2 hectares, constitute almost 80% of all Indian farmers, and more than 90% of them are dependent on rain for their crops. The World Bank estimates that India is one of the highest ranking countries in the world for the number of children suffering from malnutrition. India is one of the fastest growing countries in terms of population and economics, sitting at a population of 1.2 billion and growing at 10–14% annually (from 2001–2007). Despite India’s 50% increase in GDP since 1991, more than one third of the world’s malnourished population live in India.One of the major causes for malnutrition in India is increasing urbanization and decreasing land holdings. Due to the low financial status of Indian farmer, their diet often lacks in both quality and quantity. Women who suffer malnutrition are less likely to have healthy babies. In 288 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” India, Poor labour class generally lack proper knowledge and resources in feeding children; therefore Urbanization and decreasing land holdings are major cause of Malnutrition in Cities of India. Today, agriculture is faced with many problems including fast depleting natural resources and declining growth rate in productivity. These problems are further compounded by climate change. The intensive agricultural practices in last few decades ignited by green revolution have led to hysterical use of chemicals, thus adding to land degradation and environmental pollution, ultimately affecting our health. Thus, a sustainable agriculture production system which could improve input use efficiency is pre-requisite to sustain crop production without soil. In such scenario hydroponics seems to be most potent cultivation system which is future agriculture. Hydroponics can be defined as ‘Cultivation of plants in nutrient-enriched water, with or without the mechanical support of an inert medium such as sand or gravel. Fertilizer solution is pumped through the system periodically. As the plants grow, concentration of the solution and frequency of pumping are increased. A wide variety of vegetables and florist crops can be grown satisfactorily in gravel. And high quality crop plants are produced’.It is a more efficient way to provide food and water to plants. Plants don’t use soil – they use the food and water that are in the soil. Soil’s function is to supply plants nutrients and to anchor the plants roots. Hydroponics is not a newly invented practice, it is actually in use since thousands of years, one of the seven wonder of world - the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon are one such example. In present time it has developed to level of highly sophisticated science. Their are six basic types of hydroponic systems and there are hundreds of variations (and combinations) of these hydroponic systems, but all hydroponic systems are based on these six system types. By understanding what makes these systems work you can understand how all variations of hydroponic systems work. These Hydroponic systems are fairly simple in concept, and if you understand how the systems work, building your own Hydroponic system wont be hard and can even be fun. These six different types of hydroponic growing systems, are: Aeroponic, Drip system, Ebb- Flow, Nutrient film technology (N.F.T.), Water Culture and Wick system. Aeroponic system The aeroponic system is probably the most high-tech type of hydroponic gardening. Like the N.F.T. system the growing medium is primarily air. The roots hang in the air and aremisted with nutrient solution. The mistings are usually done every few minutes. Because the roots are exposed to the air like the N.F.T. system, the roots will dry out rapidly if the misting cycles are interrupted.A timer controls the nutrient pump much like other types of hydroponic systems, except the aeroponic system needs a short cycle timer that runs the pump for a few seconds every couple of minutes. drip system Drip systems are probably the most widely used type of hydroponic system in the world. Operation is simple, a timer controls a submersed pump. The timer turns the pump on and nutrient solution is dripped onto the base of each plant by a small drip line. In a Recovery Drip System the excess nutrient solution that runs off is collected back in the reservoir for re-use. The Non-Recovery System does not collect the run off. ebb and flow (flood and drain)system The Ebb and Flow (Flood and Drain) system works by temporarily flooding the grow tray (root zone) with nutrient solution and then draining the solution back into the reservoir. This action is normally done with a submerged pump that is connected to a timer.When the timer turns the pump on, nutrient solution is pumped into the grow tray. When the timer shuts the pump off, the nutrient solution flows back into the reservoir. The Timer is set to come on several times a day. Like in any hydroponic system the timer settings vary depending on the size and type of plants, the temperature and humidity, the type of growing medium used, as well as many other variables. The Ebb & Flow (Flood and Drain) system is a versatile system that can be used with a variety of growing mediums. n.f.t. Nutrient Film Technique System -This is the kind of hydroponic system most people think of when they think about hydroponics. N.F.T. systems have a constant flow of nutrient solution so no timer requiredfor the submersible pump. The nutrient solution is pumped into the growing tray (usually a tube) and flows over the roots of the plants, and then drains back into the reservoir.There is usually no growing medium used other than air, which saves the expense of replacing the growing medium after every crop. Normally the plant is supported in a small plastic basket with the rootsdangling into the nutrient solution. N.F.T. systems are very susceptible to power outages and pump failures. 289 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Water Culture system The water culture system is the simplest of all active hydroponic systems. The platform that holds the plants is usually made of Styrofoam and floats directly on the nutrient solution. An air pump supplies air to the air stone that bubbles the nutrient solution and supplies oxygen to the roots of the plants.Water culture is the system of choice for growing leaf lettuce, which are fast growing water loving plants, making them an ideal choice for this type of hydroponic system. Very few plants other than lettuce will do well in this type of system. Wick system The Wick system is by far the simplest type of hydroponic system. This is a passivesystem, which means there are no moving parts. The nutrient solution is drawn into the growing medium from the reservoir with a wick. This system can use a variety of growing medium. Perlite, Vermiculite and Coconut Fiber are among the most popular. The biggest draw back of this system is that plants that are large or use large amounts of water may use up the nutrient solution faster than the wick(s) can supply it. Significance of Hydroponics Growing plants hydroponically is a strategy for producing fruits, flowers, and vegetables in areas where the soil is unsuited for gardening or where space is at a premium. On a commercial scale, hydroponics is used to grow tomatoes and other crops out of season in large greenhouse operations. It is also an enjoyable hobby for the home gardener which also encourages healthy food habits. Hydroponics is a convenient means of cloning hybrid cultivars that would otherwise not grow trueto-type from seed. sustainability of hydroponics – Hydroponics growing practices have the following environmental benefits: Integrated Pest Management Practices (IPM) : Farmers canpractices an intensive Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program that uses beneficial insects to eliminate pests and stimulate healthy plant growth. In fact, hydroponics is a leader in the IPM movement that results in naturally-perfect produce. Water is conserved and recycled Despite being nourished by a nutrient-rich water, Hydroponic growing actually uses less water than field growing, due to two factors: In open field cultivation water is used only once and has to go through the soil before reaching the plant roots, resulting in water loss, whereas 100% of water is used and further conserved by this practice. This water is sterilized, recirculate and delivered to plants four times before it leaves the greenhouse and is further used in open field cultivation. soil conservation - In an enclosed indoor garden, there is no depletion of soil nutrients because soil isn’t used in the growing process! This also means that soil erosion is impossible. Instead, the plants are rooted in a reusable coconut fiber that is a sustainable by-product of coconut production. land conservation. Hydroponic farming yields 20-30 times more product per acre than conventional field production utilizing far less water per pound. This high yield means fewer acres needed for growing and more open space left to nature. Farmers plants the same indoor area every growing season. Thus there is no need to clear more acres to find rich soil or leave fields fallow to let the soil “recover.” Other benefits of hydroponics include: - It’s a very profitable practice for low income families. Marginal farmers and city people can plant a Simple hydroponics (SH) which is not even costly and provide the farmer a good quality and quantity of product. Hydroponics is soilless cultivation so a marginal farmer and city people need to to worry about the land management. It is easy and too efficient method of cultivation. One can do hydroponics cultivation by making slabs in their home with the involvement of his family. Hydroponicsproduceshigh quality product thatfetches high price in the market. 290 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Conclusion: Looking to present scenario of Indian agriculture and increasing level of urbanization, hydroponics, seems to be an important type of agricultural technology as it minimizes the use of limiting land here. Although the cost of setting up is high, we believe that the future of India’s agriculture industry lies with this hi- tech farming system and alsothat crops produced through this system shall be enough to sustain India’s population in a few more years without the help of external food imports. references www.homehydrosystems.com/hydroponic-systems/systems.html‎/‎date 15/2/14 time 12:23am www.stuifbergenbulb.com/significance-of-hydroponics-gardening‎/‎date 15/2/14 time 12:37am www.future-agricultures.org/.../1560-small-farm-commercialisation-in-af. /‎date 15/2/14 time 12:49am www.agro.basf.com/agr/AP-Internet/en/content/competences/.../index‎/‎date 15/2/14 time 12:53am articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com › Collections › Farmers‎/‎date 15/2/14 time 12:55am www.plantmethods.com/content/9/1/4/abstract‎ sustainablog.org/2012/10/hydroponic-garden-sustainable/‎/‎date 15/2/14 time 12:29am en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnutrition_in_India‎/‎date 15/2/14 time 12:59am gghydroponics.blogspot.com/2009/09/conclusion.html‎/‎date 15/2/14 time 01:09pm hydroponics.about.com/od/glossary/‎/‎date 15/2/14 time 12:32am www.unicef.org/india/children_2356.htm‎/‎date 15/2/14 time 01:06pm 291 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-VIII ComPAtiBiLity studies on the deveLoPment of finger miLLet fLour BAsed PAstA Amir gull, P. Kumar and K. Prasad* Department of Food Engineering and Technology, S. L. I. E. T., Longowal – 148106, Punjab, India (Email: dr_k_prasad@rediffmail.com) Abstract Convenience and palatability make the pasta more popular worldwide and very recently it is gaining popularity among the common man in India too. This traditional cereal based food is a result of dough or moisture enriched flour, shaped in various forms. Spaghetti, macaroni and vermicelli are the popular pasta forms. Normally, this product is high in starch but low in dietary fiber, minerals, vitamins and phenolic compounds. Increased concern for health consciousness, nutritious pasta products rich in fibre and various essential micronutrients having low glycemic index may be of preference. Finger millet is an extensively grown tiny millet grain and found rich in dietary fibre and essential minerals. High polyphenol content of seed coat gives this millet a dark brown tinge. Addition of finger millet flour to semolina in making the pasta not only improves the nutritional properties but also found an attractive colour and thus affected the appearance. The extent of tinge may thus be considered as an indicator of finger millet addition and reflects the nutritional enhancement. Physical, chemical, cooking rheological and sensory evaluation was carried out for the developed pasta and found the optimal cooking time lesser than control pasta with softer texture. Therefore, quality pasta by substituting semolina with finger millet flour could be developed, which not only enrich the pasta with various phytochemicals but also give variety to the range of pasta and options to use the millet in value addition. Key words: Finger millet, phytochemicals, semolina, cooking quality, texture and sensory. introduction Pasta is a general term for fresh or dried dough with various shapes. It is usually made from durum wheat to get an elastic texture. Pasta consumption is steadily increasing around the world mainly due to convenience. These products are normally high in starch but low in dietary fiber, minerals, vitamins and phenolic compounds. With an increasing concern by the health conscious population, more nutritious pasta products rich in minerals, phenolic compounds and dietary fiber become the subject of prior significance. Emphasizing on this, an effort was put forth to develop pasta supplemented with finger millet (Eleucina coracana) flour which are rich in vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. As small millet it is commonly known as ragi or mandua in India. It has assumed a status of important staple food in East and Central Africa and in India (Jenkins et al., 1982). India is the major producer of finger millet contributing nearly 60% of the global production (Shukla and Srivastava, 2011). Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and parts of North India witness the production at the larger scale (Vijayakumari et al., 2003). It is consumed generally by a as porridge and roti. The tiny millet grain has a dark brown seed coat, rich in polyphenols compared with other continental cereals such as barley, rice, maize, and wheat. Use of finger millet in pasta may thus reflect the nutritional enhancement and to give variety to the range of pasta and options to use the millet in value addition. materials and method Semolina and finger millet were procured from local market Sangrur, Punjab. The samples were grounded to flour in an electric grinder and passed through 60 mesh sieve. Semolina and finger millet flours were used in a ratio of 100:0, 20:80, 40:60, 60:40, and 80:20 to make the pasta using the extruder. Pasta was prepared from a mixture of semolina and finger millet dough with 30 ml of water. Mixing and kneading the mass for 15 min was done to produce stiff, plastic, homogeneous dough. The dough was then passed through an extruder fitted with an adjustable die. The extruded pasta was cut into pieces of uniform size with a knife moving over the outer die surface. Extruded samples were dried in cabinet drier at 45 °C for 2hr and packed in commercially available low density poly ethylene pouches (Badwaik et al., 2014; Singh et al. 2004). Proximate analysis of semolina and finger millet flour was carried out and hardness of the uncooked and cooked pasta was carried out using Kramer Shear Cell of a texture analyzer. Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA) was used to determine the pasting properties. Optimum cooking time for each type of pasta was determined (AACC, 2000). For the determination of solid loss and water absorption, ten gram of pasta was weighed and cooked it in 250 ml boiling water for optimal cooking time. The cooked sample was taken out from water and cooking water was drained into 250 ml volumetric flask and volume was made up to 250 ml. 25 ml of cooking water was evaporated in an hot air oven at 100 °C to determine the weight of residue. The sensory analysis of freshly cooked pasta was carried out and average values are reported. 292 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1: Pasting characteristics of flour admixture of finger millet and pasta flour Flours Raw flour Pasta flour * Peak Viscosity Trough Viscosity Break down Final Viscosity Set Back Peak Time Pasting Temperature F0:S100 3384 2558 826 4659 2101 5.67 83.15 F20:S80 3586 2457 1129 4311 1854 5.80 74.20 F40:S60 3343 2386 957 4257 1871 5.73 75.00 F60:S40 3592 2544 1048 4452 1908 5.8 75.05 F80:S20 3336 2433 903 4437 2004 5.67 79.90 F0:S100 1985 1634 351 3713 2079 5.80 87.15 F20:S80 2206 1713 493 3416 1703 6.00 88.05 F40:S60 1833 1516 317 3102 1586 5.93 89.55 F60:S40 2160 1721 439 3299 1557 6.07 88.85 F80:S20 1519 1181 338 2373 1192 7.00 92.80 Viscosity in centi poise, S – Samolina flour, F – Finger millet flour table 2: Cooking and sensory characteristics of pasta Sample Cooking Time Water absorption (/10g) Cooking loss (%) Sensory Appearance Sensory Firmness Sensory Texture Sensory OAA F0:S100 7.20±0.26 177.33±8.15 14.66±0.57 8.65±0.54 8.23±0.83 8.42±0.54 8.08±0.73 F20:S80 4.33±0.10 161.30±0.70 11.02±0.05 8.02±0.71 8.04±1.03 8.23±0.81 7.63±0.57 F40:S60 5.31±0.10 148.10±0.56 10.01±0.03 6.85±1.04 7.02±0.74 7.01±0.76 7.21±0.82 F60:S40 5.55±0.10 115.80±0.47 14.66±0.57 6.26±1.33 7.03±1.11 7.09±1.73 7.24±1.31 F80:S20 6.52±0.20 113.77±0.68 14.33±2.30 5.68±2.05 6.86±1.38 6.42±1.92 6.62±0.56 table 3 Firmness of raw and cooked pasta Sample Uncooked Cooked F0:S100 50.13±6.35 6.86±0.00 F20:S80 44.56±8.64 6.04±0.14 F40:S60 27.46±4.02 7.60±0.40 F60:S40 27.46±6.41 6.99±0.29 F80:S20 47.57±9.42 8.38±1.83 result and discussion The semolina and finger millet flour were found to have the moisture content of 9.43 and 12.06%; while the protein content was 12.37 and 7.63%; fat content 1.81 and 2.33% and the ash content found were 0.71 and 2.13%, respectively. The pasting properties of semolina and finger millet flour admixture clearly indicate the partial gelatinization of starch during the pasta making (Table 1). As per reduction in all kinds of viscosities with the increase in the peak time and pasting temperature further confirms the facts. The cooking performance of pasta variants in terms of optimal cooking time, water absorption and solid loss are presented (Table 2). It was found that optimal cooking time (OCT) decreased as finger millet content was increased (p≤0.05) with the durum wheat semolina. The optimal cooking time of pasta from durum wheat semolina (DMS) and finger millet flour (FMF) ranged from 7 to 4 minutes. Pasta prepared from 100% DMS required maximum cooking time i.e. 7 minutes to reach the optimal cooking, where as lowest OCT was shown by the pasta prepared from 80:20 (DMS) and (FMF). Water absorption of pasta prepared from different blends was in the range of 113.73 to 177.33% depending upon the cooking time. Water absorption was maximum in the control sample being 177.33% after 7 minutes of cooking, respectively (Table 2) .With the increase in cooking time, water absorption of pastas prepared from different levels of FMF decreased (p≤0.05) for 80 and 60% use of finger millet, respectively. However, for a given cooking time water absorption decreased as the FMF concentration increased from 40- 80%. The total solid loss of control pasta was found as 14.66% after 7 minutes of cooking. It was observed that as the cooking time was increased from 5 to 6 minutes there was substantial increase in total solid loss. They reported that the total solid losses in the range of 6.1 to 12.9% with the increase in cooking time from 293 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 10 to 25 minutes. Control raw and cooked pasta had the firmness value of 50.13 and 6.86 kg (Table 3) and observed the change in the firmness on substitution of semolina with finger millet flour. Variation in the firmness of the pasta linked with the sensory score revealed that acceptable quality pasta with nutritional enhancement can be prepared by substituting the semolina till 60 % level. references American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) (2000). Approved Methods of the AACC (10th Ed.). AACC Method 44-15A, One Stage Moisture-Air-Oven Method; AACCMethod 08-01, Ash – Basic Method; AACCMethod 46-13,Micro-Kjeldahl Method; AACCMethod 22-10A; AACCMethod 16-50; Pasta Cooking Time- 66–50, AACC, St. Paul, MN. Badwaik, L. S., Prasad, K. and Seth, D. 2013. Optimization of ingredient levels for the development of peanut based fiber rich pasta, Journal of Food Science and Technology, 10.1007/s13197-012-0779-8. Jenkins, D. J. A., Ghafari, H. and Wolever, T. M. S. (1982). Relationship between the rate of digestion of foods and postprandial glycaemia. Diabetologia 22:450–455. Singh, S., Raina, C. S., Bawa, A. S. and Saxena, D. C. (2004) Sweet potato based pasta product: optimization of ingredient levels using RSM. Int J Food Sci Tech 39:191–200. Sukla, K. and Shrivastava, S. (2011). Evaluation of finger millet incorporated noodles for nutritive value and glycemic index. J Food Sci Technol DOI 10.1007/s13197-011-0530-x Vijayakumari, J., Mushtari, B. J., Shamshad, B. and Sumangala, G. (2003).Sensory attributes of ethnic foods from finger millet. Paper presented at CCSHAU, Hisar. Recent trends in millet processing and utilization: 7–12. 294 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-IX studies on PhysiCoChemiCAL And PhytoChemiCAL PArAmeters of sPinACh JuiCe stored With thermAL And ChemiCAL PresevAtion gurpreet Kaur, Poonam Aggarwal and Amarjit Kaur Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab 141004 Abstract Spinach is considered as a super food all over the world. It acts as a natural agent for purifying the blood and maintaining healthy cell activity, which may inhibit cancer. It plays an important role in neutralizing acids in the body, as its natural alkalinity lowers pH levels. This cool season and highly perishable vegetable can be made available for the consumers in off seasons also in the form of juice. The juice can be made shelf stable by using chemical additives and heat treatment. So, the aim of the experiment was to compare the effect of chemical additive namely Sodium benzoate, open vat sterilization and autoclaving on physicochemical and phytochemical parameters and antioxidant activity of Spinach juice. The storage was done for 6 months at room temperature and the analysis was conducted at the interval of one month. For the physicochemical parameters like TS, TSS and b values, very slight but non-significant change was observed. Color values (L & a), titratable acidity, Vitamin C, Total Phenols and Antioxidant activity changed significantly (p≤0.05). Considering all the parameters, samples treated with Sodium Benzoate maintained the maximum nutrient stability. Keywords: Spinach, Phytochemicals, Antioxidant activity, Storage, Correlation introduction Spinach has been cultivated for its healthy traits in Asia and Iran as far back as 2,000 years ago. It has long been known as a natural agent for purifying the blood and maintaining healthy cell activity, which may inhibit cancer. Evidence also suggests that the benefits of spinach juice include oral health, such as prevention of diseases like pyorrhea or gum inflammation and bleeding. Spinach contains 13 different types of antioxidant compounds that are known to prevent free radical damage of cells in the body.. Spinach is a cool season crop and during the harvesting season, large quantities get spoiled due to excess production. This is a highly perishable commododity. So a quick and Long term preservation method is required that could be useful to prevent spoilage of Spinach such that it could be consumed in off seasons as well. For such reasons, Spinach can be processed into juice in order to increase its shelf stability. Keeping in view, the present study was conducted to process and preserve the Spinach juice. Therefore, effect of chemical additive i.e. Sodium benzoate and open vat sterilization and autoclaving on physicochemical and phytochemical parameters and antioxidant activity of Spinach juice. materials and methods The study was conducted in the Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Spinach was procured from the vegetable science Department. P.A.U Ludhiana only. Fresh Spinach were washed and chopped and juice was extracted in a juicer extractor (Kalsi: 9001-2008). The juice was pasteurized at 83°C for 3 min. Citric acid @ 0.15% was added and further treatments were given. The pre-sterilized glass bottles were filled with the hot juice and corked for T1 and T2. Sample Treatment T1 Na-benzoate @ 3000ppm T2 processing at 100°C for 20 min in boiling water bath and cooled T3 Autoclaved for 20 min at 15 psi/121°C These processed juices were kept for storage at room temperature for six months. physico-chemical and phytochemical analysis Spinach juices were analysed at regular interval of one month for the parameters like Total solids, Titratable acidity using AOAC methods. TSS was taken using hand refractometer(ERMA, Japan), color using Minolta Hunter colorimeter. For phytochemical parameters, Vitamin C was determined by the titrimetric method using dichlorophenol indophenol dye [Ranganna 1986]]. Total phenolic content was determined by Folin-ciocalteau reagent [Singleton and Rossi 1965]. 295 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” The % Antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) method [Brand-Williams 1995]. The results were evaluated by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s post hoc tests using Systat statistical program version 16 (SPSS Inc., USA). results and discussion The samples were studied for the effect of different chemical additives on Physicochemical [TS, TSS, Acidity, Color (L, a, b)], Phytochemical (Ascorbic acid, Total phenols) and % antioxidant activity for the storage period of 6 months. effect on total solids and tss TS and TSS increased non-significantly (p≤0.05) in all the samples during the storage. An increase in soluble content of apple pulp was reported during storage when preserved with chemical preservatives [Kinh et al]. The treatments had no significant effect (p≤0.05) on Total solids as well as TSS. effect on acidity According to the results, chemical additives as well as storage has a significant effect (p≤0.05) on acidity of the Spinach juice (Table 1). A increase in titratable acidity was also found during storage of papaya products (Kulwal et al. 1985). The acidity of the sample T2 increased more as compared to other samples and the change was least in Sodium benzoate (T1) sample. These results are in agreement with the findings of Muhammad et al. (2011) effect on Color (l a b values) Color is one of the most important visual attributes for juices. The L value varied significantly (p≤0.05), both for storage as well as treatments. On the day of preparation, the lightest sample was T3 followed by T2 and T1. At the end of 6 months, T3 remained the lightest and T1 was found dull than the other samples. The ‘a’ value changed significantly (p≤0.05) (Table 2) but the b values changed non-significantly (p≤0.05). On the whole, sample T1 with Na benzoate retained the best green color of all the samples Tomato juice with Na benzoate seems to be more stable than the other preservatives during 6 months of storage and developed lesser off color and turbidity [Hossain et al 2011]. effect on Vitamin C content Vitamin C is light and heat sensitive, the concentration of Vitamin C follows first order kinetics and thus storage time affects Vitamin C content [Heldman and singh 1981]. Spinach is a good source of Vitamin C. According to the results, treatments have significant effect (p≤0.05) on Vitamin C content. Also the Vitamin C content decreased significantly (p≤0.05) during the storage (Table 3). Out of the treated samples, the sample with Na benzoate as chemical additive retained the maximum Vitamin C. In a finding, during the preservation of beverages with sodium benzoate the loss of added ascorbic acid was much lower than in thermally treated samples (Cvetković and Jokanović 2009). effect on total phenols The phenolic content was found more in chemically treated sample (T1) than the heat treated sample. But both the treatments and storage affected the Total phenols significantly (p≤0.05)(Table 4). According to the findings, a decrease in total polyphenol content of tomato juices after 3, 6 and 9 months of storage were reported [vallverdu-Queralt et al 2011]. effect on Antioxidant activity Antioxidants delay the oxidation process, inhibiting the polymerization chain initiated by free radicals and other subsequent oxidizing reactions (Halliwell and Aruoma, 1991). According to the results, on the day of preparation, percent Antioxidant activity for samples T1 to T3 was found to be 56.03, 49.92 and 47.95 respectively (Table 5). Significant (p≤ 0.05) decrease in antioxidant activity was found during storage for 6 months. At the end of 6 months, the percent antioxidant activity decreased to 32.73, 23.95 and 27.69 percent respectively. Also, the percent antioxidant activity for the three treated was different significantly at the end of 6 months. However, the decrease was found to be least in sample T1. It has been reported that the decrease in antioxidant activity may be linked to a decrease in total phenolic content and vitamin C during storage [Klimczak et al 2007]. According to them, antioxidant activity of orange juices decreased by 45 percent after 6 months of storage at 28°C. But in case of Spinach, the vitamin content is relatively high. So the reduction of antioxidant activity is mainly associated with significant decrease in vitamin C content (Fig. 1). Vitamin C and % antioxidant activity shares linear relationship Conclusion The experiment was to compare the effect of different chemical additives on the storage stability of Spinach juice. In this study, it is evident that Sodium benzoate proved to be a better preservation method than the vat sterilization and 296 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” autoclaving for the stability of physicochemical and phytochemical parameters and maintaining the antioxidant activity of the Spinach juice. table 1: effect of storage period (months) and treatments on titratable acidity (%) of spinach juice* 2 1 4 0 T1 0.365 T2 0.262eC 0.271deC 0.295 cdC 0.326cB 0.351 bB 0.375 aA 0.496 aA T3 0.326 0.331 0.339 0.349 0.362 0.378 0.391aB dB aA 0.369 cdB aA 3 6 treatments 0.371 cdB aA 0.375 bcB aA 5 0.378 abAB aA 0.382 abA aA 0.389 aB table 2: effect of storage period (months) and treatments on the color values (L a b) of spinach juice* treatments L a b 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 T1 35.23 T2 32.84 aAB 32.12 aB 31.43 abB 30.86 abcB 30.06 abcB 29.23 bcB 28.26 cB T3 30.61 29.83 29.11 28.37 27.46 26.62 cdC 25.88 dB T1 -1.85eB -1.8 deB -1.72 deB -1.58 edB -1.42 bcB -1.27 abB -1.11 bA T2 -1.96 eB -1.88deB -1.78cdeB -1.67cdB -1.55bcB -1.39abB -1.22aB T3 -1.37 -1.31 -1.23 -1.14 -1.02 -0.89 -0.73aA T1 0.55 aA 0.52 abB 0.47 abA 0.41 abA 0.32 abA 0.23 abA 0.13bA T2 0.78 0.75 0.71 0.65 0.58 0.49 aA 0.41 aA T3 0.64 aA 0.35 aA 0.27 aA aA aB dA aA 34.88 aA abB dA aA 0.61 aA 34.12 abA abcB edA aA 0.56 aA 33.64 abA abcdB bcdA aA 0.5 aA 33.04 abA bcdC bcA aA 0.43 aA abA 32.57 31.73bA abA table 3: effect of storage period (months) and treatments on Ascorbic acid content (mg/100g) of spinach juice* Treatments 0 2 T1 43.51 T2 40.67 aA 36.19 aA 32.98 abA 27.63 bcA 23.39 cdA 19.03 dAB 15.84 dAB T3 39.75 aA 37.28 abA 34.79 abcA 32.07 abcdA 29.68 bcdA 27.17 cdB 24.63 dB 1 aA 38.76 abA 4 3 34.37 bcA 29.86 cdA 6 5 28.14 cdA 25.95 dA 22.65 dA table 4: effect of storage period (months) and treatments on total Phenols (mg/100g) of spinach juice* treatments 0 1 2 3 4 5 T1 68 aB 66aB 63 abA 59 bcB 55 cdB 51 deB 46 eB T2 64 61 57 45 38 30 fA T3 65 aA aAB abAB 63 abA bA 51 60 bcA cAB 57 cdA dAB 52 dA 6 eAB 48 eA 42 fA table 5: effect of storage period (months) and treatments on % Antioxidant activity of spinach juice* Treatments 0 T1 56.03 T2 49.92 aB 46.47 abB 42.02 bcB 38.68 cdB 33.26 deAB 28.06 efAB 23.95 fAB T3 47.95 aB 44.23 abB 41.86 abcB 38.17 bcB 35.72 cdB 31.42 deB 27.69eB 2 1 aA 53.42 aA 49.89 3 abA 45.12 4 bcA 41.07 5 cdA 37.13 6 deA 32.73eA * Data is expressed as means of three readings and values followed by different upper case or lower case letters are significantly different (p≤0.05) within columns and rows respectively referenCes AOAC (2000) Official Methods of Analysis. 17th ed. Association of official Analytical Chemists, Washington. DC. Brand-Williams W, Cuvelier ME, Berset C(1995) Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity. LWT-Food Sci Technol. 28: 25-30. Cvetković B R and. Jokanović M R (2009) Effect of preservation method and storage condition on ascorbic acid loss in beverages.Acta periodica technologica APTEFF, 40: 1-220. Halliwell B and Aruoma OI (1991). DNA damage by oxygen derived species: its mechanism and measurement in mammalian systems. FEBS Letters. 281: 9-19. 297 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Heldman DR, Singh RP (1981) Food Process Engineering. AVI Publishing Co., New York. Hossain MN, Fakruddin M, Islam MN (2011) Effect of Chemical additives on the shelf life of Tomato juice. Amer J Food Technol. 6: 914-923. Kinh SAEH, Dunne CP, Hoover DG (2001) Preparation and preservation of apple pulp with chemical preservatives and mild heat. J Food Protect 28: 111-114. Klimczak I, Matecka M, Szlachta M, Gliszczynska- Swiglo A (2007) Effect of storage on the content of polyphenols, Vitamin C and the antioxidant activity of orange juices. J Food Compos Anal. 20: 313-22. Kulwal LV, Patwardhan MV and Sulladmath UV (1985). Studies on chemical changes and corrosion in canned products of papaya. Indian Food Packer 39: 33-37. Muhammad A, Ayub M , Zeb A , Durrani Y, Ullah J and Afridi SR (2011) Physicochemical analysis of apple pulp from Mashaday variety during storage Agric. Biol. J. N. Am. 2: 192-196 Ranganna S (1986) Handbook of Analysis and Quality Control for Fruit and Vegetable Product. Tata McGraw Hill Pub Co. Ltd., New Delhi, India. Singleton VL, Rossi JA (1965) Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid reagents. Amer J Enol Viticul 16: 144–53. Vallverdu-Queralt A, Arranz S, Medina-Remon A, Casals-Ribes I, Lamuela- Raventos RM (2011) Changes in phenolic content of tomato products during storage. J Agric Food Chem. 59: 9359-9365. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-benefits-of-spinach-juice.htm 298 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-X AdvAnCes in the ProduCtion teChnoLogy of pHAlAenOpsIs narender negi, s. r. dhiman and *B. s. dilta Department of Floriculture & Landscaping, Dr Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan - 173 230 *balbirsinghdilta@gmail.com, thobal.narender@gmail.com Orchidaceae, the perennial family of monocots, includes about 800 genera and 25,000-35,000 species and has to its credit of being the one of the largest assemblage of flowering plants. The family Orchidaceae accounts for above seven per cent of the species of flowering plants of the world (Pijl and Dodson, 1966). They are either epiphytic, terrestrial or lithophytes; a few are saprophytic, subterranean or semi-aquatic. Phalaenopsis and their related hybrids are the most common commercially produced flowering pot orchids. It is also called as the moth orchid. It is derived from the Greek words ‘Phalaena’ and ‘opsis’ meaning ‘resembling moth’. Phals are short stemmed monopodial orchids i.e. they exhibit indeterminate nature of growth without lateral branching. Phalaenopsis do not produce pseudo bulbs, but grow from a single rhizome from which new leaves are continually being produced at the apex. These leaves are thick, fleshy and broad. Phalaenopsis or moth orchids are epiphytic, Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants. Phalaenopsis are epiphytic by nature and cling to the tree trunks with stout, flattened aerial roots which will grow to several feet in length. Roots are with spongy tissues called velamen, which helps in absorption of moisture; tips of roots have chlorophyll thus contributing to photosynthesis (Rittershausen, 1979). It is a long, arching raceme with an indeterminate growth habit. The inflorescence usually emerges from the 3rd or 4th node. It stays on plant for 2 to 4 months (Bose et al., 1999). It has a zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetric) flower; a characteristic feature of the family Orchidaceae. The three sepals are similar is shape, size and colour. Petals are three in number; two are similar and the third petal is modified into labellum or a lip. The genus Phalaenospis has around 80 species and over 40,000 man-made hybrids, i.e. over 25 per cent of orchid hybrids are contributed by Phlaenopsis alone. Based on floral characters, Phalaenopsis can be broadly classified as grandiflora (cut flower) and multiflora (pot plant) types. Grandiflora types have long, arching inflorescence with large flowers, whereas, the multiflora types have short multiple inflorescence with numerous smaller sized flowers. Every year new cultivars/ hybrids of Phalaenopsis are adding to its group. For successful cultivation of Phalaenopsis different type of growing structures are used. Fan and pad system is suitable for tropical and subtropical area where summer temperature exceeds 35 ºC while growing Phalaenopsis in sub tropical to temperate region its requires heating system to protect plants from winter cold when temperature reduce beyond 10 ºC. Rajeevan (1995) reported that Kerala is one of the few places in the world where sophisticated infrastructure is not required for orchid cultivation. Negi (2012) studied the effect of two growing structure (top ventilated rain shelter and fan and pad system) on vegetative and floral characters and found that number of leaves, leaf number, leaf area were higher in top ventilated structure while percentage of flowering was higher in fan and pad system. Kaveriamma (2012) evaluated two varieties each of pot plant and cut flower under rain- shelter and fan and pad systems of greenhouse. Significant differences with regard to vegetative growth were observed between growing systems. Phalaenopsis are propagated in laboratories by tissue culture, and are usually grown in sealed flasks for 10 to 12 months under low light. Most commercial growers mix their own growing media and most of the mixes still contain bark, but they also have one or more other materials such as perlite, sphagnum peat, sphagnum moss and coconut husk chips, etc. that absorb water. Growing pots play very important in Phalaenopsis cultivation. Size of pots, opacity of pots, and type of pots are to be considered while selecting pots for Phalaenopsis cultivation. Plastic pots are convenient for handling and they last very long.The plants are held in centre position in empty pots and the substrate is then poured in around them. When potting the plants, it is important to ensure that they are vertical, located in the centre of the pot and planted at the correct height. Phalaenopsis requires a period of exposure to relatively moderate temperature (<26 °C) to trigger the initiation of the inflorescence or spiking. Phalaenopsis orchids remain vegetative above 27 °C to 29 °C and can tolerate temperature as high as 32 °C to 35 °C for short periods before exhibiting signs of heat stress. The inhibition of flowering when the day temperature was 29 °C and the night temperature was 17 °C or 23 °C suggests that a warm day temperature inhibits flower initiation in Phalaenopsis (Blanchard and Runkle, 2006). But temperature had little or no effect on spike length or 299 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” flower size (Robinson, 2002). Light intensity should be controlled throughout the Phalaenopsis production cycle. Lower than desirable light levels result in long thin leaves. Photoperiod has no effect on flowering of most large to mediumflowered Phalaenopsis hybrids, although for some smaller flowered hybrids flowering may occur slightly earlier under short days. During the flowering phase, between 1,000 and 1,500 foot-candles (200 to 300 μmol·m–2·s–1) of light is recommended. Plants may tolerate up to 2,000 foot-candles or higher if the temperature is not too high (25 °C) (Lopez et al., 2007). Growing good orchids requires skillful and attentive watering. The succulent phalaenopsis roots should dry slightly before being wet again. Orchids with pseudobulbs (enlarged stem), such as cattleyas, store water and can withstand periods of drought. However, phalaenopsis lack pseudobulbs and, therefore, are intolerant of extended dry conditions. Phalaenopsis have succulent leaves that do not show signs of stress until several days’ water deficiency (Wang, et al., 2008). Phytohormones regulate diverse processes in plants, such as development and the response to biotic and abiotic stress. For Phalaenopsis, cytokinins [e.g. benzylaminopurine (BA)] stimulate flowering, and auxin suppresses the BA effect; gibberellin is not effective when applied alone but when added in combination with BA seems to accelerate the BA effect slightly (Hew and Clifford, 1993). Phalaenopsis are susceptible to a variety of diseases and insects. To minimize the threat of infection and the spread of disease, benches, pots and cutting tools should be sanitized. In addition, media should be free of insects and pathogens. Fungal diseases such as fusarium, rhizoctonia, pythium and phytophthora can also be problematic when cultural conditions are substandard. When conditions are cool and humid, botrytis petal blight can develop quickly as small brown spots on flower buds and open flowers. Mealy bugs, spider mites, scales, thrips, slugs and snails can also be problematic on Phalaenopsis. The branches are harvested when the last flower is still in bud. Next, the branches are placed in a water bottle. Subsequently, the flowers are stuck together appropriately using adhesive tape in a box with paper wool and stored at a temperature between 7°C and 10°C. The vase life varies between 5 days and 6 weeks and is strongly dependent on the climate and variety. The Phalaenopsis cut flowers are packed into window gift boxes that have the dimensions: 100 x 15 x 11.5 cm. Depending on the number of flowers per branch, 25 or 30 flowers are packaged per box. Phalaenopsis is very important cut flower as well as pot plant in the international world market but in India it is grown by few farmers in coastal Kerala and Karnataka but it can be exploited to other parts of the country by providing sufficient cooling and heating system in tropical and temperate areas of the country respectively. This will be helpful to boost floriculture sector in the country. references Blanchard M G and Runkle E S. 2006. Temperature during the day, but not during the night, controls flowering of Phalaenopsis orchids. J. Exptal . Botany. 57(15):4043-4049. Bose T K Bhattacharjee, S. K., Das, P. and Basak, U. C. 1999. Orchids of India. Naya Prokash, Kolkotta, 487p. Hew, C.S. and Clifford, P.E. 1993. Plant growth regulators and the cut flower industry. Plant Growth. Regul. 13: 231-239. Kaveriamma, M. M. 2012. Regulation of flowering in Phalaenopsis orchi. Ph.D thesis, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur. 156p. Lopez L., Runkle E., Wang Y T., Blanchard M and Hsu T. 2007. Growing the best Phalaenopsis. Part 3: Temperature and light requirements, height, insect and disease control. Orchids 182-187. Negi, N. 2012. Standardisation of agrotechniques in Phalaenopsis orchids. MSc. thesis, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur. 136p. Pijl, L. V. D. and Dodson, C. H. 1966. Orchid Flower: Their Pollination and Evolution. Univ. Miami Press, Coral Gables, Fl. Rajeevan, P. K. 1995. The scenario of orchid industry in Kerala: Retrospection of a decade. J. Orchid Soc. India, 9(1-2):1-5. Rittershausen, B. W. 1979. Orchids in colour. Blanford Press Ltd. Poole, Dorset, 192p. Robinson, K. A. 2002. Effect of temperature on the flower development rate and morphology of Phalaenopsis orchid. MSc. thesis, Mich. State Univ., East Lansing, USA. Wang Y T., Blanchard M., Lopez L and Runkle E. 2007. Growing the best Phalaenopsis. Part 2: Media, Transplanting, Water and Nutrient Requirements. Orchids 106-111. 300 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-XI hArnessing PotentiALs of seABuCKthorn for eCoLogiCAL And eConomiCAL deveLoPment of CoLd deserts of himAChAL PrAdesh h.P sankhyan rajan Bawa and d.P sharma Dr. Y.S Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry, Nauni, Solan- 173 230 (Himachal Pradesh) E-mail : rbawauhf@yahoo.co.in introduction Cold deserts in India cover an approximate area of 74,809 sq km under 12 block (of total 131 deserts area blocks in India) located in Leh and Kargil districts of Jammu & Kashmir, and Lahaul and Spiti districts with some parts of Chamba and Kinnaur districts of Himachal Pradesh. These areas have very difficult terrains with ice fields, perpetual snow covered peaks and hostile climate. Cold deserts of Himachal Pradesh lack sustainability due to a variety of factors like, immature soils, extreme climate, low precipitation, high velocity winds, one growing season, high incidence of Ultra Violet and Infra Red radiations etc. Choice of forest trees and species for agroforestry is very limited in cold deserts. Seabuckthorn (Hippophae species) also called Sallow thorn belonging to the family Elaeagnaceae is a deciduous shrub with yellow or orange fruits. It rapidly develops an extensive root system and is therefore, an ideal plant for preventing soil erosin . Seabuckthorn has also been used in land reclamation for its ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen and conserve other essential nutrients . It can withstand temperatures from -43 to 40oC . Although it is considered to be drought resistant , irrigation is needed in regions receiving <400 mm of rainfall per year for better growth . Legends about Seabuckthorn tell us how the ancient Greeks used it in a diet for race horse, hence its botanical name Hippophae - shiny horse derived. Accordingly to another legend, Seabuckthorn leaves were the preferable food for flying horse-Pegasus. One more legend describes Hippophae as meaning giving light to a horse of supposed power to cure equine blindness. The name Seabuckthorn might be related to fact, that in England the spiny shrubs and trees (it can grow either way, depending on the soil and climate) of Seabuckthorn used to grow in sand dunes along the sea beaches. Similarly, the German name for Seabuckthorn- sanddorn may be translated as sand spine. Taxonomically there are three major Hippophae species : H. rhamnoides Linn : H. salicifolia D. Don and H. tibetana Schlecht . A fourth species, H. neurocarpa Liu & He, was described in 1978 . Seabuckthorn is distributed widely in the Himalayan regions in Asia, Russia, Germany, China, France, Romania, Central Asia, Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan nd India. The plant is dioecious and so both male and female plants must be grown in order to obtain fruits. Cross-pollination occurs through wind. The fruits of Seabuckthorn represent one of the important vitamin sources for people living in cold and long winter regions of the world. Because of its multiple uses, Seabuckthorn is known as wonder plant. Botany The Seabuckthorn plants are spine scent shrub or small tree up to 10 m in height with rough brown bark. Leaves small, linear-lanceolate, covered on very small, greenish or yellowish, appear with new leaves; male in axillary clusters, female solitary with a diameter of 6 mm, orange-yellow or scarlet in colour and sour to highly acidic in taste. Seeds single, oblong with shiny testa. The root system makes it suitable even in fragile slopes. A five –year-old plant will have a tap root of about 5 meters deep, with horizontal roots spreading six to ten meters. Cultivation and distribution in india Seabuckthorn plants naturally growing in Lahaul & Spiti of Himachal Pradesh are locally known as a Sarla, Sutz, Chharma, Tirku –wonder plant. It has the potential of greening the cold desert by large scale plantation. The plant grows on a wide range of soil conditions and is distributed wild over the four of the five valleys of Ladakh i.e. Nubra, Indus, Suru and Zanskar, in a large area. Besides Ladakh, it is also found in Lahaul and Spiti, Kinnaur and Chamba region in Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal and in Sikkim. Flowering generally occurs in May-June and ripening sets in by late August September. Dr. Y.S Parmar, University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni-Solan (HP) has initiated an extensive study on the propagation and utilization of this wonder plant. It is found that Seabuckthorn can be propagated by sexual (seeds) as well as asexual (suckers and cuttings) methods. Asexual method is preferred since desired sex plants can be propagated. For 301 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” sexual propagation, seeds are soaked in water for 6-7 days to enable softening of the beds under partial shade. The ideal time for sowing seeds is mid May in Spiti. The root system of the plant not only can penetrate poor soil, but also has an ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen: a typical plant fixes 180 kg of nitrogen each year in the soil per hectare. harvesting Harvesting of fruit is difficult, 8-20 kg fruit can be harvested by one person in a day. Care is taken not to damage the vegetation. There is a higher internal ethylene concentration in seeds which help in ripening of fruit. External application of ethylene might decease the force required to detach the fruits. Before sunrise fruits can be harvested without causing damage to plant. On an average 600 g ripe fruit is harvested from a well developed plant. It can be several kilos (6-25) depending upon the age of the plant and the care taken. Chemical composition Seabuckthorn fruits are rich in carbohydrates, protein, organic acids, amino acids and vitamins . These components vary with fruit maturity , fruit size , species) and geographic locations . As shown in Table 1, the fruit contains 16 to 28 mg carotenoids/100 g of fruit, 310 to 2100 mg flavonoids /100g dry leaves, and 120 to 1000 mg/100 g fruit, 310 to 2100 mg flavonoids/ 100g dry leaves, and 120 to 1000 mg/100 g fruit, respectively. The reported total volatile oil in the fruit is 36 mg/kg, dry matter is 24.6% to 33.8%, and oil extracted from seeds ranges from 8 to 12 % (w/w) and from pulp it is 2-4 % Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids are 47 to 53% of the fat from the fruit pulp and 21 to 39% of fat from the seed, respectively. The essential fatty acids (EFA) content in Seabuckthorn oil extract is 80-95%. Major EFA’s are oleic and linoleic. Others are pentadecenoic, palmitoleic, heptadecenoic, linolenic, eicosenoic, eicosadecenoic, erucic and nervonic. The vitamin C (ascorbic acid) concentration (Table 2) ranges from 360 mg/100g fruit in European species. Thus, concentration of this vitamin in fruit of Seabuckthorn is higher than in straweberry (64mg), kiwi (100-470 mg), orange (50 mg), tomato (12 mg), carrot (8 mg), and hawthorn (100-150 mg) . It also contains vitamin B1 (0.04 mg/100g), vitamin B2(0.56 mg/100g) and organic acid (2-4%). As shown in Table 3, vitamin E content in seabuckthorn (202.9 mg/100g fruit) is also higher than that in wheat embryo (144.5 mg), safflower (3.3 mg), maize (34 mg) and soybean (7.5 mg). Seabuckthorn is also high in protein, especially globulins and albumins and fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic .). It is a good source of various free amino acids (Table 4) and microelements such as iron, potassium, calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, cobalt, selection, molybdenum etc. utilization Seabuckthorn can be used for many purposes (Figure 1) and has considerable economic potential. The fruits are used from ancient times in its native places, Europe and Asia as a source of herbal medicines, health foods and natural skin care. Recently, it has attracted considerable attention from researchers around the world, including North America, mainly for its nutritional and medicinal value. medicinal Clinical tests on medicinal uses were first initiated in Russia during 1950s. Seabuckthorn oil obtained from the juice surface of fruits was formally listed in the pharmacopoeia in 1977 and clinically tested in Russia and china. The references to medicinal uses of Seabuckthorn were also found in Ancient Greek Text attributed to Theophrastus and Diskorid in Classic Tibetan medicinal texts including “ The RGyud Bzi” (the Four Books of Pharmacopoeia) dated to the times of Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD). The most important pharmacological activities attributed to Seabuckthorn oil or pulp oil include : anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, pain relief and the promotion of tissue regeneration. Seabuckthorn oil is also recommended as a treatment for oral mucositis, rectal mucositis, vaginal mucositis, cervical erosion, radiation damage, heat burns, scalds, duodenal ulcers, gastric ulcers, chilblains, skin ulcers caused by malnutrition, poorly healing wounds and other skin damage . More than tendifferent drugs have been developed from Seabuckthorn in Asia and Europe and are available in different forms, such as liquids, powders, plasters, films, pastes, pills, ointments, suppositories, and aerosols . 302 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 1: Chemical components of seabuckthorn fruits Component(s) Content Carotene and carotenoid 16-28 mg/100g fruit Flavonoids (fruit) 120-2100mg/100 g fruit Flavonoids (leave) 310-2100 mg/100 g fruit Volatile oil 3.6 mg/100 g fruit Dry matter 24.6-33.8 % Oil (seed) 8.0 -12.0 % Saturated fatty acid (fruit) 47.0% Saturated fatty acid (seed) 21.0% Unsaturated fatty acid (fruit) 53.0% unsaturated fatty acid (seed) 39.0% Hippophae tibetana table 2: vitamin C content (mg//100g) of seabuckthorn and other fruits fruit vitamin C (mg/100g) H. rhamnoides subsp rhamnoides 360 H. rhamnoides subsp sinensis 250 Strawberry 64 Kiwi 100-470 Orange 50 Tomato 12 Carrot 8 Hawthorn 100-150 Hippophae rhamnoides table 3: fatty Acids, vitamin e, and B-Carotene in seabuckthorn and other plant products Material Linoleic and Linolenic Acid (%) Vitamin E (mg/100g) B-Carotene (mg/100g) Seabuckthorn 64.6 201.9 248.9 Wheat embryo - 144.5 - Safflower 81.4 3.3 - Maize 48.3 34.0 0.8 Soybean 62.8 7.5 0.1 Cosmetics According to an unconfirmed report from China, on a study with 350 patients, beauty cream made with Seabuckthorn oil had positive therapeutic effects on melanosis, senile skin wrinkles, dryness and freckles . Seabuckthorn oil extract is beneficial for skin and facial care, used to restore, improve and nourish healthy skin. One of the most well recognized properties of Seabuckthorn oil is nourishing revitalizing and restorative action on the skin and mucous. It is known to improve gum condition, combat gum bleeding and eczema. High content of fat soluble vitamins (A and E) and nutrients (EFAs, phytosterol) make Seabuckthorn indispensable as restorative, anti ageing and revitalizing agent for skin care. Various skin care and cosmetic products made of seabuckthorn produced by M/s Flora leads GR are popular in different parts of the world. Besides, Seabuckthorn oil extracts obtained with olive oil, Floraleads GR produce almond oil Seabuckthorn extracts valued as an exclusive facial care product and “Rocasea” – obtained by direct extraction of Rose and Calendula petals into Seabuckthorn oil. The seed oil, which is an unsaturated oil and shows promise, because of its light absorption and emollient properties as an ingredient in cosmetics, phytopharmaceuticals or UV skin protectant preparations. The Seed oil absorbs strongly in the UV-B range (290-320 nm) and may therefore, be used as a natural sunscreen absorber . A beauty cream based on Seabuckthorn oil is reported to have positive therapeutic effects on many skin disease, and clinical 303 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” trails in Shantow Tropical Diseases Hospital, Nepal and Shanxi Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Nepal indicated that Seabuckthorn extract can improve metabolism and retard skin maturation Skin can be made smooth and softer, baldness can be retarded, and hair growth improved. nutraceutical Seabuckthorn oil is also used as a dietary supplement taken to dietary supplement taken to improve the conditions of the mucous membranes and as a natural source of carotenes, phytosterols and EFAs. Tincture (M/s Floraleads GR) made of Seabuckthorn oil combines the properties of dietary supplement and digestive system aid. The tincture was traditionally used to improved sluggish digestion and stimulate lazy stomach by Tibetans. Nutritional value of tincture is related to the high content of flavonoids, vitamin K and tannins. Several Tibetan medicinal texts (including Shel-lrang) describe the use of Seabuckthorn to help improve stomach function and maintain proper activity of gastro intestinal tract. Recent studies indicate that the Seabuckthorn flavonoids help maintain circulatory system. Figure1. Potential uses of components from different parts of Seabuckthorn value –Added Products The flavour of fruits is like a sharp lemon. Numerous products have been made from it including tea from leaves, beverages, jam and pickle from fruits; fermented products from pulp; and animal fees from leaves, pulp and seed residues . The fruit pulp remaining after juice removal provides for extraction of “Seabuckthorn yellow’, a pigment that has potential use as a food coloring material. Technologies have been developed for extracting juice from Seabuckthorn and converting the same into a ready to serve health drink (beverage), sauce, jam as well as squash. The technology has already been transferred and the products are commercially available under the name Leh Berry. The juice can be preserved by high temperature and short time (HTST) thermal processing at 80-90oC for a few seconds. This is a preferred method because it is preferred method because it is delicate, loses flavour and develops off flavours if heated beyond these conditions and vitamin C is destroyed. The retention of vitamin C is enhanced by HTST conditions. Seabuckthorn leaves are nutritive fodder for the cattle and sheep/ goats, as they are a rich source of proteins (18-22%), fat (4-5%) and other micronutrients. The flavonoid content of leaves ranges from 310-2100 mg/ 100g of air dried leaves. Numerous products are made from the leaves such as leaf extract tea, tea powder and animal feed. Apart from this, 18 tonnes of fuelwood are produced from a hectare of forest. 304 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” table 4: Amino acid content of seabuckthorn fruit Amino acid Mg/100g Amino acid Mg/100g Aspartic acid 426.6 Glutamine 19.4 Proline 45.2 Isoleucine 17.4 Threonine 36.8 Glycine 16.7 Serine 28.1 Histidine 13.7 Lysine 27.2 Tyrosine 13.4 Valine 21.8 Arginine 11.3 Alanine 21.2 Cysteine 3.3 Phenylalnine 20.0 Methionine 2.3 (Zhong et al, 1989) Conclusion Seabuckthorn capable of growing in harsh climate of high altitudes. Cold deserts and poor soil with almost no care has been found to possess unparallel combination of useful plant components. Besides checking soil erosin, fixing atmospheric nitrogen and improving soil fertility. Its leaves are an excellent source of animal feed and tea beverage. Fruits are the storehouse of vitamins, flvonoids, minerals, protein, fats etc. Some of then are excellent antioxidants and free radical scavengers. The preparation of certain wonder drugs and drinks in Russia China, Canada and European countries. The properties of products listed in the text make it a “ WONDER PLANT”. It has also been referred to as Sanjivini plant. Pharmacists etc. of the country should join hands to make best use of this gift of God to overcome/ avoid several health problems both in man and animal beside improving economic conditions in the tribal belt of Indian Himalayas. Seabuckthorn is a plant that gives adequate benefit to the rural people within the shortest time. The multiple benefits from Seabuckthorn plants are attractive as its cropping can be done with minimum cost and high return in remote area. This versatile plant can be managed as a bush or a tree and possesses many qualities like Nitrogen fixing, fodder, fuel, timber, biofence, fruit, medicinal etc. At present, its use in agroforestry is limited. Seabuckthorn is only option and choice in transforming the ecology and economy of the cold deserts suggesting new production systems for integrating this plant in the local agricultural practices. Seabuckthorn can be planted in different systems and designs for its integration with agriculture crops, horticulture crops, medicinal plants etc., for socio-eco –economic development in India in general and Himachal Pradesh in particular . Department has standardized nursery raising , plantation technology and fruit harvesting methodology beside, evaluation of seed and pulp oil for physical and chemical charactertics and documentations of major gene pool areas of seabuckthorn for ecological and economical development of cold desert as choice of species in cold desert is limited and seabuckthorn is only the right choice and suitable option. Keywords: Seabuckthorn, Cold desert, Ecology, Production system, Sustainability. 305 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-XII deveLoPment And ConservAtion of BAmBoo resourCes for environmentAL sustAinABiLity in himAChAL PrAdesh h.P sankhyan and n.B singh Deptt. of Tree Improvement & Genetic Resources , College of Forestry, Dr. Y.S Parmar University of Horticulture & Forestry, Nauni, Solan- 173 230 (Himachal Pradesh) E-mail: sankhyanhp@gmail.com Key words: Bamboo, Status, Thrust area, Strategies. Bamboo with its multifarious utility play an important role in food and nutritional security besides its industrial value. There are 5 genera and 14 species of bamboo found in the Western Himalaya and 8 species are reported in Himachal Pradesh. Current supply in India is 13.47 million tonnes, where as current demand is 26.96 million tonnes for various purposes. There is great demand in pulp and paper, conservation and handicraft industries and maximum demand is in rural areas for environmental sustainability, agricultural growth and food security. Bamboos are the livelihood source and 10 million people depend on bamboo as a livelihood source. Bamboos are most useful in Agroforestry systems being fastest growing woody plant, more cellulose than average wood and wide adaptability. It is suitable for intercropping, wind break, planting in homestead and field bunds etc. It provides timber, forages, edible shoots , fiber craft wood and yields value added products. It also provides fodder during lean period. Bamboo has fibrous root system. Therefore, bamboo checks the soil erosion effectively. Bamboos are, thus planted along the stream bank and on eroded soil for stabilizing the soil. Bamboos are sparsely grown in Himachal Pradesh and only eight species have been reported, out of which three are indigenous and two are cultivated, both on common as well as private lands. The other 4 to 5 species have been introduced over the years for cultivation but these are restricted in distribution and are economically less important. Bamboo species in himachal Pradesh Dendrocalamus strictus (Vern. Bans, Bainji, sota bans). This tropical bamboo forms moderately dense to thickets in the tropical dry deciduos forests and conforms to Champion & Seth’s Forest Types (Dry Bamboo Brakes, 5B/E9). This is usually known as Male Bamboo. Flowers gregariously at interval of several years but a clump here and there can be found in flower during cold season every year. Gregarious flowering of Bamboo was observed in early fifties in Kutlahar Forest of Una district and then in year 1996-1997, after an interval of 40 to 42 years. This bamboo is found pure as well mixed with dry deciduos species in Siwalik formation between 300 to 1000 m in Solan, Una, Kangra, Bilaspur, Hamirpur & Sirmour districts of Himachal Pradesh. The culms vary in length in between 5-15 m and in girth from 2.5 to 8 cm. Arundinaria falcata (syn Chimnobamboosa falcata Vern. Nirgal) This montane bamboo forms moderately dense to dense undergrowth in temperate (Ban/Deodar) forests and conforms to champion and Seth’s Forests Type. “ Montane Bamboo brakes (12/DSI). It flowers gregariously. It occupies moist shady situation between altitudes 900 to 2500 m. Occurs in Sirmour, Shimla, Kangra, Kullu, Chamba, Mandi and Kinnaur districts. The stems are used for hooka pipes and basket making. Arundinaria spathiflora (Syn Thamnocalamus spathiflora) Vern. (Nirgal) This bamboo forms moderately dense to dense undergrowth in temperate forests (fir/spruce/Kharsu) and conforms to Champion and Seth’s Forest Type “Montane Bamboo brakes(12/DSI). It occupies moist shady situations between altitude 2200-3600 m. Occurs in Sirmour, Shimla, Kangra, Kullu, Chamba, Mandi and Kinnaur districts. Cultivated Bamboo species Besides indigenous bamboos which are found both on government and private land in HP, some bamboo species have been introduced over the years for cultivation and have become naturalized. The important cultivated species are:Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Vern. Maggar, Pharglu Maggar, Mohr): This bamboo is native of tropical Eastern Himalayas and Nepal. It has been cultivated in Himachal Pradesh for so ling and 306 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” put to so many uses. It is cultivated on a domestic scale from 350 to 1400 m altitude with 1500-2800 mm. annual rainfall. It is fast growing, high yielding, provides nutritive fodder for cattle in winter, culm 10-25 m long and 9-18 cm in diameter. Prefers open light and moist rich acidic (pH 5.5-6.5) soil. Cultivation is mostly in private land in district Kangra, Hamirpur & Bilaspur. However, the villagers have planted this bamboo on government land under “ Tree patta scheme”. It has also been introduced on a small scale on government land by Forest Department. Bamboosa nutans (Vern. nal) Indigenous to central (Yamuna east wards) and eastern ( Bangal, Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh) sub-himalayan tract. It is cultivated in Kangra, Hamirpur and Bilaspur districts. Its cultivation especially around Palampur is since the turn of the century. In its natural habitat, this bamboo is found between altitudes of 600-1500 m. Average length of culm is 14.5 m, girth varies from 6 to 29 cm. This bamboo species is known for its strength and flexibility. phyllostachys reticulata (Chinese bamboo) Introduced about two decades ago and planted at a few places in the mid-hill region. This monopodial bamboo is quite fast growing and has good potential. utilisation small timber and raw material for Cottage Industries Bamboo is an important building/construction material in lower parts of state and is used in making purlin, shuttering, supports, beams, doors and windows frames scaffoldings, ladder making etc. besides, large number of people find employment in different cortege industries dependent on bamboo as raw material. There is a community in village which is largely dependent on bamboo as raw material for making baskets, handles for agricultural tools and implements, furniture gets, frames of rustic umbrellas walking sticks tent-poles, containers/bins for storing grains sieves for winnowing grains, props and supports for plants, fencing material, frames of machanns cradles, hand-fans etc. Bamboosa nutans is especially used for making props/supports for Dolies and Palkies in villages. Therefore, it will not be out of place to mention here that bamboo finds use right from cradle to coffin in rural areas. Fodder Besides, growing bamboo for meeting demand of small timber and raw material for cottage industries, it is grown for meeting the demand of green fodder in winter months. Lopping is done from October to February. D hamiltonii provides very palatable and nutritious fodder. Quality-wise Maggar is almost as good a fodder as Grewia optiva (Ver. Beul). The nutritive qualities of this fodder are as under : Species Crude Protein Crude Fiber Tannins (%age in (%age in (%age DM) DM) in DM) Digestibility (%age in DM) (Kg/100 Kg live weight) Dry Matter (DM) Crude Protein (%age in DM) Dry matter intake Grewia optiva 20 21.4 - 57 72 3.6 Dendroca-lamus hamiltonii 17.9 28.3 0.4 50 72 3.6 Fuel wood It is an important source of fuelwood also. All dry and malformed culms are removed/cut from the clumps and used as fuelwood. The lopped material of branches left after using leaves by cattle find extensive use as fuelwood. Income generating source After meeting domestic requirement, the villagers sell the surplus bamboos to buyers and earn handsome amount. The sale of bamboo is done as per approved felling programme. The surplus bamboos are generally exported outside HP for use as raw material in pulp and paper industries and for other uses. On an average a family earns about 6000-8000 every 4th year. Weed control Lantana camara is spreading fast in lower parts of H.P. and has invaded the forest private and grazing lands. Bamboo is one of the fast growing species and is quite effective in suppresses of growth of Lantana camara. Basa Haryala plantation 307 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 1996-97 of Nurpur Forest Division is an example of a success story in this regard. soil conservation Bamboo has fibrous root system. Therefore, bamboo checks the soil erosion effectively. Bamboo are thus planted along the stream bank and on eroded soil for stabilizing the soil landscaping Montane bamboos are used for landscaping and aesthetic purpose in high hills. Experiential field for the selection of different bamboo species Areas for Bamboo research - Research works for the selection of different bamboo species suitable for different ecological zone the region for population enhancement. Market survey to understand the edible bamboo consumption and preparation of their detail inventory of species. Evaluation and conservation of economically important bamboo germplasm. Establishment of planting stock for farmers/growers. Nutritive value analysis of young edible bamboo shoots. Development of agro-techniques for already identified bamboo species for higher yields. Bamboo plantation in watersheds to boost the production and income of small landholders. Establishment of a ‘Bambusetum’ in each state of the region, representing the local bamboo flora. strategies of Improvement of Bamboo resources The local genetic resources of the bamboos are not very rich. There is need to introduce and test species from the tropical and sub- tropical areas of the country. The aim should be to introduce such species which will encourage cottage industry bases opportunities at the rural level. Bamboos are an eco friendly material and have wide application and uses at the domestic and industry level. The state of Himachal Pradesh has vast areas classified as temperate and there are no commercial bamboos in this region. The farmers in the temperate parts are very keen to grow bamboos but there is no choice of species available. There is urgent need to introduce temperate species from countries like China and Japan. Phyllostachyus is such a genus which has many species growing in areas with temperature of -25 in winter, so there is need to focus on this genus far introduction. There is also urgent need to undertake genetic improvement programme as practically very little effort has been made in this direction uptil now. There is need to select and test fast growing clones. The planting stock improvement programme far the commercial species should be started to make superior planting material available to the farmers as well as State Forest Department. Value addition can go a long way in increasing returns from bamboo plantations. The rural youth should be given training in the manufacture artistic bamboo products and eco friendly decoration pieces for export to enable them to obtain returns through self-employment. 308 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Distribution of seedlings to public Bamboos have got multiple uses and source of income to farmers. The farmers have taken up the cultivation of bamboos on their lands. The farmers are to be supplied bamboo plants of suitable species from the planting. For this purpose modern nurseries are to be established at suitable places. training - Local artisan needs to be trained at suitable centers for value added utilization of bamboos. Officers/officials dealing with bamboo management need also be given suitable exposure/training within India or even abroad. setting up a bamboo based industry At present there is no bamboo-based factory in public or private sector in H.P., where the surplus bamboo, which are being exported outside the state, can be utilized. There is ample scope of setting up such factory in the state. In this way we will not be only proving employment to the local people and earn revenue for the state but also benefiting the growers by ensuring reasonable prices of bamboos. The area under bamboos in Himachal Pradesh is very less as compared to some commercial and agroforestry tree species and there is lot of potential for bamboo cultivation and management. There is need to test a large number of species and provenances suitable for different agro-climatic zones. The nursery and plantation techniques need to be standardized for large scale production of planting stock of genetically superior material. We need to evaluate species keeping in view the end-use i.e edible, small timber, fodder, basket making, ornamental, paper pulp, small scale industry or cottage industry. There are no suitable species available for the temperate areas and there is urgent need to introduce cold-tolerant bamboos especially species of Phyllostachyus for testing in such areas. Also there is need to involve the rural people in bamboo cultivation and management through Join Forest Management so that they earn money through royalty. The department has developed, cheap, simple and easy technology for propagation for bamboo resources in Himachal Pradesh and quality germplasm of bamboo is available with the department so as to use in different situation of land. University has established bambusetum of many bamboo species, which are commercially and industrially important and can be used for environmental sustainability in Himachal Pradesh in different systems and designs. 309 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-XIII roLe of fLoriCuLture in sustAinABLe deveLoPment of soCio-eConomiC stAtus of indiAn fArmers tamasi Koley1, Arvind Kumar verma2, Wineet Chawla3 Assistant Professor, Agriculture Department, Baba Farid College Deon, Bathinda 2 Scientist Indian Council of Agricultural Research E-mail: tamasi.koley2011@gmail.com 1,3 Abstract Flowers are luxurious products with high social and economic value. Flowers enhance the quality of life and influence human feelings more than words or other gifts. Globalization, cultural exchanges, and celebrations enhancing fraternity and weddings have induced people globally to use flowers as a means of sharing their feelings. In many countries, diversification into high-value agricultural exports has become a key means of linking the world’s developing nations to global product markets. Over the last decade, these exports have generated significant amounts of foreign exchange, contributed to upgrade agricultural production skills, and created substantial opportunities for waged employment and self-employment. The export of flower product is about 423.43 crore by the end of 2012-13. It accommodates 10-25 or even 30 workers per hectare and is more than any other agro-industry offers. This figure is possibly between 20-30 % more for indirect jobs in transport, plastic, construction, commercial etc sectors. The floriculture industry were taken as a solution for economic development and gained in the generation of employment during the last 30 years in developing countries. Floriculture is a means of sustainable livelihood income generation for poor women in urban and rural areas in India. Specialist growers, both professional and amateur, also maintain collections of plants for cultivation, including, increasingly, native plants. Many endemic plants are found in habitats, which are naturally fragmented, such as mountaintops, cliffs, sand-dunes and islands can be preserved through eco-tourism for ecological sustainability Keyword: Floriculture, economy, social, natural sustainability introduction Floriculture can be defined as “a discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry” (Getu, 2009). It can also be defined as “The segment of horticulture concerned with commercial production, marketing, and sale of bedding plants, cut flowers, potted flowering plants, foliage plants, flower arrangements, and non-commercial home gardening.” India has a long floriculture history and flower growing is an age old enterprise. The growing demands of flowers in the domestic as well as the export market will require a concerted effort on the part of the government as well as the private entrepreneurs to develop floriculture on scientific lines. Paying attention to the input needs, better resource management and making various policies entrepreneur friendly would lead to a balanced growth of the industry. This will help the urban poor women to take up floriculture as a sustainable livelihood income generating activity to mitigate poverty. Present status of floriculture industry in India Floriculture is considered as a sunrise sector of agriculture and its has huge potential to generate income and employment. There are no reliable data on area under individual floricultural crops. However, the available literature on floriculture reveals various estimates on area at different points of time. It was estimated that the area under floriculture in India was 4,000 hectares in 1962 and 7,500 hectares in 1976 [National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) 1976]. Recently, the National Horticulture Board (NHB) provided more reliable data on floriculture. According to this, the area under floriculture at all India level had increased from 53,000 hectares in 1993-94 to 88,609 hectares in 1999-2000 with an increase of 35,607 hectares. Total area under floriculture in the area 2012-2013 is about 272,010 hectares (NHB, 2013) with a production of 1.676 million tonnes loose flowers and 75413.05 million numbers of cut flowers which is concentrated mostly in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal. With the increasing in the purchasing power of peoples the demand of the flowers increasing day by day. The country has exported 27,121.88 MT of floriculture products to the world for the worth of Rs. 423.46 crores in 2012-13 with a growth of 16.6 per cent over the corresponding period in the previous year (APEDA, 2013). USA, Netherlands, Germany, United Kingdom, Japan, Canada and Japan, South-East Asia and Middle-East countries are the major importing countries of Indian flower and floriculture products. 310 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Floricultural exports from India comprise fresh cut flowers (to Europe, Japan, Australia, Middle East and USA), loose flowers (for expatriate Indians in the Gulf), and dry flowers (to USA, Europe, Japan, Australia, Far East and Russia), cut foliage (to Europe) and potted plant (limited countries). Indian exports mostly target the major floricultural important events like Christmas day (December), New Year Eve, Valentine Day and Mother’s day (May). Due to unfavourable weather condition during winter in Northern hemisphere limits the production which opens the markets for Indian floriculture produce during such event. The export basket comprises dry flowers (71%), fresh cut flowers (18%), live plants (9%), fresh bulbs (1%) and foliage (1%). Floriculture export from India * For the first 11 months between April 2012 to February 2013 states Area (000 ha) TAMILNADU Production Loose flower(000 MT) Cut flower(lakh Numbers) Karnataka 29.22 211.54 10388.00 Andhra Pradesh 66.06 400.68 7092.32 Maharashtra 22.00 119.00 7914.00 Punjab 2.11 10.38 0.07 Haryana 7.21 70.90 1266.95 West Bengal 23.92 63.91 25042.10 Gujarat 15.96 135.50 0.00 Uttar Pradesh 14.78 28.14 4313.00 Orissa 7.52 26.16 5990.00 Jharkhand 1.60 22.03 1711.00 Chhattisgarh 9.65 38.62 0.00 Delhi 5.50 5.70 1038.00 Rajasthan 5.30 12.29 2.69 Himachal Pradesh 0.86 35.29 1948.06 Pondicherry 0.06 0.46 0.00 Bihar 1.13 11.36 1360.00 Madhya Pradesh 16.39 158.20 0.00 Uttrakhand 1.54 1.81 3567.56 Andaman &Nicobar 0.04 0.35 0.00 Tamilnadu 39.37 295.32 126.56 Total 272.01 1676.98 75413.05 State-wise area and production of flowers (NHB, 2013) 311 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Role of flower in social and cultural sustainability Flower has played a significant role in our life from the birth to death. The arrival of a new-borns is rejoiced with flowers, the sick are wished speedy recovery by offering flowers, while the dead are bidden farewell with flowers along with tears of sorrow in every religion and society. Floral ornaments, bouquets, or flower arrangement also find a pride of place in social gatherings, birthday parties, welcoming a homecoming friend or relative and honouring dignitaries. Though many people are nostalgic about floriculture, there are others who brush away the idea as a luxury or even wastage of money. Even those who dismiss floriculture as a luxury cannot afford to do without flowers when the occasion comes. Significance and the importance of floriculture cannot be ignored so lightly. People all over the world realize that flowers enhance the quality of life and influence human feelings more than words or other gifts. Globalization, cultural exchanges, and celebrations enhancing fraternity such as New Year, Valentine’s Day, Memorial Day, Mothers’ Day, Fathers’ Day, Christmas, and weddings have induced people globally to use flowers as a means of sharing their feelings. Above all, these celebrations have acquired one-to-one pairing with flowers in some cases, e.g. roses to Valentine’s Day and Poinsettia and carnations to Mother’s Day. Increased use of flowers and ornamental plants makes marketing of flowers a lucrative business (Belwal and Chala, 2008 ). Even each and every flower symbolizes social feelings like; purity, beauty, peace, love and passion etc. To a Japanese flower arranger each flower expresses one or more meanings. To an Indian, especially to Hindus, flowers have a much greater significance. A devoted Hindu needs flowers every morning for religious offering to the family deity. It is estimated that about more 30 per cent of the total flower consumed in the city of Kolkata are used for worship . The aesthetic value of flowers in our daily life cannot be over- emphasized. In our society no social function is complete without the use of flowers. Floral garlands, gajras and venis are needed for marriage ceremonies. The use of gajra and veni is not limited to such occasion as marriage only; these are also related with social and cultural tradition of India. Floral gajras and venis are used as hair adornment by women of South India all through the day and it is also essential accessory in Indian classical dance; Bharatnatyam and Rabindranritya. floriculture in economic sustainability According to Getu (2009), flowers are luxurious products with high social value and rarely used for food. The demand for these luxurious products has increased in the international market in recent years. Most developing nations which have geographic advantage take it as a solution to achieve rapid economic growth. (Frank and Cruz, 2001). According to Frank and Cruz (2001) the floriculture industry were taken as a solution for economic development and gained in the generation of employment during the last 30 years in developing countries. Floriculture, a green sunrise industry which generates economic, social and ecological benefits, is labour, capital and technology-intensive venture. Developing the floriculture industry is of strategic significance in adjusting the agricultural cultivation structure, creating an urban-style modern agriculture, promoting urban and rural development, building a new socialist countryside and increasing the wealth of farmers. In terms of economic development the flower industry is important since it’s creating many jobs due to the labour intensive production pattern. It accommodates 10-25 or even 30 workers per hectare and is more than any other agro-industry offers (Gudeta, 2012). Approximately 190,000 people in developing countries are employed in the cut flower business, mainly women (PANUPS, 2002). This figure is possibly between 20-30 % more for indirect jobs in transport, plastic, construction, commercial etc. sectors (David, 2002). In India, floriculture is emerging as an important commercial crop. A lot of importance has been given to this sector due to its multiple uses, satisfying the aesthetic needs of the people, creating more employment, ensuring higher rate of returns to rural people and facilitating earning more foreign exchange. More specifically, they are being used as raw materials in the manufacture of essence, perfumes, medicines and confectioneries for direct consumption by the society. Traditional flower cultivation The domestic consumption of loose flowers has been increased tremendously. The most commonly used flower as loose flowers are rose, marigold, jasmine, tuberose, crossandra, barleria, balsam, china aster etc. Area under traditional flowers has increased significantly. About more than 90% area of total flower crop is under traditional flower. Based on information for other developing countries, it is estimated that floriculture has a potential to generate direct employment for about 20 workers / ha. Traditional flower cultivation, harvesting, and marketing is required a huge number labour which can generate employment for rural youth. 312 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” hi-tech/ Protected Cultivation The cut flowers, which are being exported from India, are from these hi-tech floricultural units. Protected cultivation, although is in limited area, only 5% of total flower crop area but it contributes significantly in floricultural export. At present there are about 110 export-oriented floricultural units (EUOs) in operation, covering an area of about 800 ha (Singh, 2009). These units are growing mostly roses about (90% of area), but can be diversified into chrysanthemum, orchids, anthurium, gladiolus, gerbera and tuberose as the demand for flowers increasing worldwide (Desh Raj,2011). India has all three types of climate and all types of flowers can grown in these climate therefore India has great potential to increase the acreage under intensive production and ultimately to increase the floricultural exports. Dry flower Dry flowers constitute more than two-third of total floricultural exports from the India. Dry flower is become so popular because of its novelty, longevity, aesthetics, flexibility and year round availability. Indian dry flowers constitute nearly 19% of total global dried flower products business. The demand for dry flowers is increasing at an impressive rate of 8-10% and therefore there is a great scope for the Indian entrepreneurs (Desh Raj, 2011). India is one of the richest rich sources of such natural wild flora which are used for dry flower making and these can be easily collected from forest, Himalayan region anywhere in the country. Some flowers like Dahlias, marigold, delphinium, larkspur (Consolida ambigua), lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), strawflower (Helichrysum bracteatum), cornflower (Centaurea cyanus), and paper flower (Acroclinium roseum) are can be cultivated for making dry flowers. There are about more than 50 private companies who are exporting these dried ornamental which are situated in Tuticorin, Kolkata and Mumbai. flower seed production Seed production of seasonal flower crops is a lucrative business and is practised in considerable area in Punjab, Haryana, Maharastra, Karnataka and west Bengal. This offers higher returns from per unit area. Alone Punjab total area under flower seed is more than 450 ha with production over 1200 quintals seed and export over Rs. 60 million (Desh Raj, 2011). Alone Biocarve Seeds covers more than 400 acre of area in Patiala (Rang, 2014). Of late, demand is increasing in domestic market also. Some private companies like Indo-American Hybrid Seed Company are exporting hybrid seed of petunia, nicotiana, geranium and antirrhinum. nursery industry Lack of quality planting material is the major hindrance for not realizing the full potential of floriculture in India. Plant material of various kinds (seedlings, budded plants, rooted cuttings, bulbs, tubers, corms, annual seed etc) required for commercial flower production, pot plant production (for rental purpose), for adding to home garden and for landscaping (corporate landscaping, bio-aesthetic planting). micro-propagation unit: In India about 122 tissue culture labs with a capacity over 245 million plants per annum have been set up maximum in Maharastra (28), Tamil Nadu (12), Andhra Pradesh (10) and Kerala (9) up to 2000-2001. Kumar Gentech, Cadila Tissue Culture, A. V. Thomas, Indo American Seed Company is important micro-propagated plants. Gerbera, carnation, anthurium, orchids, rose, chrysanthemum and foliage plants are commercially produced by these companies. These units can employ a large number of skilled and unskilled labours. essential oils Essential oils and perfumery from natural sources are in great demand. In India, flower crops grown for essential oil production are limited and include mainly rose, jasmine, tuberose etc. Rosa damascena is exclusively cultivated for extraction of essential oils in certain pockets of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The total global production of jasmine concrete is about 10 ton and India’s share is about 2.4 ton (Desh raj, 2011). natural dyes Natural dyes isolation from flower has been standardized and these are safe for human consumption. Natural can be isolated from flowers are carotenoids, anthocyanins, xanthophylls, betalin etc. Marigold pigments are widely used in poultry industry to enhance the colour of the meat and yolk of the eggs. Another carotenoid derived from marigold, lutein is used for treatment of age related macular degeneration. AVT Natural Product, a company alone exports about Rs 220 crore in which 70 % is from marigold pigments (Sharma, 2014). Flowers pigments are also used in food and textile industries. These become important avenues for diversification of floriculture, source of income generation and mean of employment to the youth. 313 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” vallue added products Value added products like rose water, gulkand, pot pourries, paper bags, greetings etc. are prepared from flowers. As the polythene bags are banned in many cities of India so, waste material from flowers can be used for making hand bags. floriculture related industry Floriculture is a labour-intensive activity, wage payment forming roughly one-third of the costs of production. Availability of skilled manpower gives India major comparative advantages in the international trade in floriculture. The indirect employment generation in the wide production chain covering plastic, paper, carton, pots, foam, growing media, plumber, agro-chemicals, transport and other services’ is in a 1:2 ratios. It indicates, that even a modest floriculture programme can generate millions of jobs, predominately for young man, quite apart from significantly, contributing to national income. A National Thrust Programme - “A Million Jobs for youth every Year’ needs be formulated. floriculture in women empowerment The need for floriculture is more in rural and urban slums where women suffer due to lack of income and end up doing undignified jobs. Agriculture is considered as a potential source of livelihood in India. India’s agriculture and allied industrial sectors employ 89.5% of total female labour force (FAO, 2008). Floriculture has been neglected or rather not focused on. The potential of floriculture as an industry has not been exploited properly in India. Floriculture is an intensive type of agriculture & income per unit area from floriculture is much higher than any other branch of agriculture (Randhawa & Mukhopadhyay, 1986). A woman can earn more than 100 rupees per day from flower selling, flower cultivation or nursery production which is a little less can the earnings from working as a servant. But, this is a respected job rather than being servant. The floriculture on the other hand gave the impoverished tribal farmers, especially women, tremendous opportunities to improve their income significantly through floriculture development within a short period of time. The small-scale floriculture in rural areas undoubtedly energized and empowered tribal women to enhance their livelihoods, economy and local biodiversity therefore it has the potential to contribute significantly to India’s sustainable development in future (Govindasamy and Minna, 2012). Though women’s have limited ability to own land and property but their ability to participate in producer groups, receive income for their labour, and benefit from agricultural services (Ellis et al., 2007). The women will have enough time to earn from other sources, as floriculture requires less time, may be an hour in the morning. ecological sustainability and floriculture India is endowed with unique biodiversity. It is one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries of the world and harbours in excess of recorded 47,000 flowering and non flowering plant species (12% of recorded world’s flora) and 81,000 animal species (Upadhyaya,2009 ). With only 2.4 per cent of the world’s land area, it holds 7-8 per cent of the global biodiversity on an overall basis. Endemism of Indian biodiversity is significant. About 4,900 species of flowering plants or 33 per cent of the recorded flora are endemic to the country. These are distributed over 141 genera belonging to 47 families. These are concentrated in the floristically rich areas of North-Eastern India, the Western Ghats, North- Western Himalayas and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalayas are reported to have 1,600 and 3,500 endemic species of flowering plants respectively. These areas constitute 2 of the 18 hot spots identified in the world. These plants can be conserved and maintained by eco-tourism and this area can be marked as sacred groove with the local tribes of the area. The endangered species can be maintained by amateur gardener or by establishing in eco-park. references Anonymous (2013). Report of apeda. Govt of India, Ministry of Agriculture. Anonymous, (1976). Report of National Commission on Agriculture. Govt. of India, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation. Anonymous. (2013). Report of national horticulture board. Govt of India, Ministry of Agriculture. Belwal, R. and Chala, M. (2008): Catalysts and barriers to cut flower export: A case study of conduct, Friedrch Ebert Stiftung. 72 p. David, T. (2002): The Bloom on the Rose, Looking into the Floriculture Industry Environmental Health perspectives 110: 240-247. Desh Raj, (2011). Floriculture at a glance. Kalyani Publishers: Ludhiana,New Delhi, Kolkata. 15-31. Ellis, A., Cutura, J., Dione, N. Gillson, I., Manuel, C. and Thongori, G. (2007). Gender and Economic Growth in Kenya: Unleashing the Power of Women. Washington, D.C., World Bank. Ethiopian floriculture industry. International Journal of Emerging Markets. 3: 216-235. 314 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Frank, B. and Cruz, E. (2001): Flower for justice, implementing the international code of Getu, M. (2009): Mizan Law Rev: Ethiopian Floriculture and its Impact on the Environment. Govindasamy Agoramoorthy and Minna J. Hsu. (2012). Impact of floriculture development enhances livelihood of India’s rural women. Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics. 113: 69-76. Gudeta, Degytnu Tilahun. (2012). Socio-economic and Environmental Impact of Floriculture Industry in Ethiopia. M.Sc thesis. Ghent University (Belgium). Department of Rural Development. Pesticide Action Network Updates Service (PANUPS), (2002): Floriculture: Pesticides, Worker Health and Code of Conduct, June 12. R.C. Upadhyaya, (2009). Socio-economic implications and opportunities for women in floriculture. Floricuture Today. Randhawa G.S. and Amitabha Mukhopadhyay. (1986). Floriculture in India. Allied Publishers P Ltd, Mumbai. :p:656 Rang Allah.(2014). Farmers can be happy if only they adopt crop diversification. Floriculture Today. Media Today, New Delhi.p:28-29 Singh, H.P. (2009). Floriculture industry in India: the bright future ahead. Indian Horticulture. 54(1). 3-10. Sharma Naveen. (2014). China giving tough competition to Indian marigold extract exporter. Floriculture Today. Media Today, New Delhi.p:51-52 315 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-XIV sPAtiAL temPorAL vAriAtion in AgriCuLturAL ProduCtivity in PunJAB imrozpreet singh, maninder Kaur, ram sharn Agriculture geography is the branch of economic geography that studies the territorial distribution of agriculture and the factors and laws related to that distribution, this paper studies the nature and degree of inter district variation of crop yield in the Punjab state. After adoption new agriculture technology in the mid 1960’s Punjab made tremendous progress and within a few years state emerged as a heartland of India’s successful green revolution strategy. The new technology led to for reaching changes in the state’s agrarian structure. introduction Agriculture plays a significant role in rural economic development especially in case of a country like India where 50.2 % of population is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. Agricultural and allied sectors contribute nearly 17.8 and 17% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India. Moreover, agriculture fetches substantial amount of valuables foreign exchange. Agriculture which mostly covers farming practices is one of the potential endowments for some regions .As Indian agriculture is mainly rain-fed in nature, so farming is a risky business. Farmers face risk coming from natural as well as economic factors. The natural factors are difficult to control, but an economic factor related to changes in price commonly occurs and such risks are inevitable. study Area Punjab is located in northwestern India, and has an area of 50,362 km2. It extends from the latitudes 29.30° North to 32.32° North and longitudes 73.55° East to 76.50° East. It is bounded on the west by Pakistan, on the north by Jammu and Kashmir, on the northeast by Himachal Pradesh and on the south by Haryana and Rajasthan. Important Geographical characteristics of study area Most of the Punjab lies in a fertile plain, alluvial plain with many rivers and an extensive irrigation canal system A belt of undulating hills extends along the northeastern part of the state at the foot of the Himalayas. Its average elevation is 300 meters above sea level, with a range from 180 meters in the southwest to more than 500 meters around the northeast border. The southwest of the state is semiarid, eventually merging into the Thar Desert. The Shiwalik Hills extend along the northeastern part of the state at the foot of the Himalayas. The soil characteristics are influenced to a limited extent by the topography, vegetation and parent rock. The variation in soil profile characteristics are much more pronounced because of the regional climatic differences. Punjab is divided into three distinct regions on the basis of soil types: southwestern, central, and eastern. Punjab falls under seismic zones II, III, and IV. Zone II is considered a low-damage risk zone; zone III is considered a moderate-damage risk zone; and zone IV is considered a high-damage risk zone. Climate Punjab’s climate is characterized by extreme hot and extreme cold conditions. Annual temperatures in Punjab range from 1°C to 46°C (min/max), but can reach 49°C in summer and 0°C in winter. The northeast area lying near the foothills of the Himalayas receives heavy rainfall, whereas the area lying further south and west receives less rainfall and experiences higher temperatures. Average annual rainfall ranges between 960 mm in the sub mountain region and 460 mm in the plains. punjab has three seasons Summer (April to June), when temperature typically rise as high as 49°C. Monsoon season (July to September), when the majority of rainfall occurs. Winter (December to February), when temperatures typically fall as low as 5°C. There is a transitional period between winter and summer in March and early April, as well as a transitional season between monsoon season and winter in October and November. Flora and fauna There are no natural forests in the plains; extensive tracts occur covered only with grass, shrubs and bushes. The mango fruit is largely cultivated in the southeast of the Punjab and attains a high degree of perfection about Multan and Hoshiarpur. 316 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cultivated fruit trees, such as orange, pomegranate, apple, peach, fig, mulberry, quince, apricot, almond, and plum are abundant in the region. The Shivalik area is the richest area of Punjab in terms of floral and faunal diversity, and has been identified as one of the micro-endemic zones of India. Amongst the angiosperms, about 355 species of herbs, 70 tree species, 70 species of shrubs or under shrubs, 19 of climbers and 21 species of twines have been recorded from the area.. The area is also rich in faunal diversity, including 396 species of birds, 214 species of Lepidoptera, 55 species of fish, 20 species of reptiles, and 19 species of mammals.[34] here are a number of wetlands, bird sanctuaries and zoological parks across Punjab. These include the Hari-Ke-Pattan National Wetland and Wildlife Sanctuary at Harike in Tarn Taran Sahib District, the Kanjli Wetland, the Kapurthala Sutlej Water Body Wetland, the Ropar Zoological Park, Chhatbir, Bansar Garden, Sangrur, the Aam Khas Bagh, Sirhind, the Ram Bagh Garden Amritsar, the Shalimar Garden, Kapurthala and the Baradari Garden at Patiala. objective The present study has mainly examined the Spatio-temporal variation of agricultural productivity in different districts of Punjab which shows the changes in the total cropped area of the various crops in Punjab. Spatial pattern of crop production would be the tools for future planning in case of diversification. The objective of the study is to analyze the existing cropping pattern and the changes, to find out the reason for the changes in the cropping pattern. database and methods In the present study, describe the production, area and yield for the selected major crops in Districts of Punjab State were estimated for each period to study the changes in land use, the growth in area, production and yield of these crops. The data was comprised for the period 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001and 2011. The necessary data for the selected crops was purely based on secondary source which is taken form Statistical Abstract of Punjab. Statical technique used for the compilation of data and graphical presentation through bar graph and chorochromatic technique used for the spatial distribution of productivity. Changes in the Agrarian structure Since the introduction of the green revolution technology, the agrarian structure of Punjab has witnessed interesting changes. In the first phase extending up to 1980-81, the number of marginal and small holdings declined sharply, while those in the higher-size categories showed a modest increase. These changes occurred primarily due to three reasons. First, with the onset of the green revolution technology, crop production activities became economically attractive, which created an active land market for leasing and selling land. Secondly, progress of agriculture under the green revolution technology created additional employment opportunities in the non-farm sector. These encouraged many marginal farmers either to sell their land or lease it, to earn higher incomes from non-farming jobs. Finally, the new technology turned out to be more attractive to the large farmers, mainly because the mechanical inputs associated with it were indivisible, and thus uneconomic for use in smaller-size farms. In the second phase beginning from 1980-81, when profitability in farming started falling and growth of employment opportunities in the non-farm sector became limited, the absolute number of holdings in the state increased, although there was no significant decline in the total operated area. Consequently, the average holding size in the state fell sharply from 4.01 hectare in 1980-81 to 3.61 hectare in 1990-91. All categories except the small farmers registered a decline in average land-holding size. The number of marginal farmers increased steeply from 197,000 in 1980-81 to 296,000 in 1990-91 (an increase of more than 50 per cent), while their operating land base, during the same period, increased from a total of 126,000 hectare to around 164,000 hectare (i.e. an increase of about 30 per cent). Small farms too increased but marginally, with more than a proportionate increase in their total operated area, primarily due to progressive subdivision of medium and large farms under the law of inheritance. These negative developments in Punjab agriculture appear to have been slightly arrested now. Data from the 1995-96 agriculture census indicated that the average holding size in the state had improved to nearly 3.80 hectare, though it still remained considerably below the level attained in 1980-81. However, except for small and marginal farms, the number of holdings in all other categories of farms has considerably increased. As a result, the average operating land base for all categories of farms has declined, except for the marginal ones. Apparently, the Serious unemployment situation in the state has had a telling effect on its agrarian structure. Cropping pattern Cropping pattern simply means the proportion of area under different crops at a point of time, where us change in cropping pattern refers to the change in proportion of area under different crops at two different points of time. The structural changes have been observed in the land-use pattern for raising different crops due to Globalization. But fragmented small land holding and poverty among the farmers severely limit the cultivation of crops for the market. The infrastructures 317 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” for storage, transport, processing, grading and rating Quality Standards are under developed. Farmers are ignorant of the sophistication of global markets as their experience is limited to primitive operations. Changes in the Cropping pattern The green revolution brought significant changes in the cropping pattern of Punjab. In 1970-71, about 41 per cent of the gross cropped area was under wheat, which increased to nearly 44 per cent in 1990-91 and hovered around 42-43 per cent thereafter. Similarly rice, which occupied around 6.8 per cent of the gross cropped area in 1970-71, increased to over 25 per cent in 1990-91, and then rose to around 33 per cent in 2000-01 then rose further 36 per cent in 2010-2011. shift in CroPPing PAttern in PunJAB (in percentage) CroPs 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 riCe 6.87 17.49 26.86 32.92 35.85 WheAt 40.49 41.58 43.63 42.95 44.53 BAJrA & JoWAr 3.73 1.03 0.16 0.8 0.6 Cotton 6.99 9.6 9.34 5.97 6.13 sugArCAne 2.25 1.05 1.35 1.52 0.89 mAize 9.77 4.5 2.44 2.07 1.69 grAm 6.3 3.81 0.8 0.08 0.1 rePeseed & mustArd 1.81 2.01 0.92 0.69 0.65 Source: Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 1971, 1981,1991,2001,2011 The increase in wheat cultivation has been at the cost of gram, rapeseed and mustard, while that of rice has been obtained through shift in the area from maize, groundnut and millets. 318 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 319 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 320 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 321 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 322 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Area under pulses has recorded a sharp decline. Gram, which used to be the most important pulse crop in the state during the sixties, declined from a level of nearly 360,000 hectares in 1970-71 to less than 10,000 hectares in 2001. Areas under legumes and foliage crops too have declined considerably. Areas under crops such as sugarcane, sunflower, potato, etc., have not remained stable. Area under cotton has been adversely affected due to water logging in the cotton belt and pest attack. It is, however, encouraging to see that productivity of most crops has been increasing over the years except for bajra, which in any case is a very minor crop. An examination of district-wise data reveals an interesting pattern in the variability in crop yield. Crops such as wheat, rice, cotton and sugarcane, which have now become important in the state, have generally lower inter district variability in their respective crop yields than those which have been marginalized, such as oilseeds, pulses, bajra and maize. Source: Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 2000 CATEGORY 2000 WHEAT RANGE HIGH 4629-5148 MODERATE 4110-4629 LOW 3591-4140 For instance, wheat yield ranges from a lowest of 3,591 kg per hectare in Hoshiarpur district to a highest of nearly 5,148 kg per hectare in Fatehgarh Sahib district. Similarly, 323 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Source: Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 2010 CATEGORY 2010 WHEAT RANGE HIGH 5165-5494 MODERATE 4836-5165 Source: Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 2000 324 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” LOW CATEGORY 2000 RICE 4507-4836 RANGE HIGH 3351-3611 MODERATE 3091-3351 LOW 2831-3091 rice yield varies from around 2,831 kg per hectare in Gurdaspur district to a high of nearly 3,679 kg per hectare in Fatehgarh Sahib district. Source: Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 2010 CATEGORY 2010 RICE RANGE HIGH 3826-4376 MODERATE 3276-3826 LOW 2726-3276 Similarly yield level of cotton, gram, sugarcane, pulses, bajra and maize crops, which too have been marginalized in the state, have recorded wide inter-district variations. Thus we find that the cropping pattern in the state has got confined to those crops which have lower variability in yields and fetch relatively better prices so that farmers have more or less assured returns from these crops. 325 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Any effort to diversify state’s agricultural economy will bear results only if the alternative crops being suggested have stable yields and more remunerative prices so that farmers have better and assured returns from the alternative cropping patterns being suggested by the agricultural scientists. Mere lecturing to the farmers is unlikely to have any impact on them and their decisions will be dictated by economic considerations. impact of green revolution Punjab 1970-71 2010-11 1970-71 2010-11 1970-71 CroPs AREA (000,ha.) AREA (000,ha.) PRODUCTION (000,MT) PRODUCTION (000,MT) YIELD ha.) riCe 450 2826 920 10819 2044 2010-11 (Kg/ YIELD ha.) (Kg/ 3828 WheAt 2336 3510 5618 16472 2405 4693 mAize 548 133 857 491 1564 3693 Cotton 475 483 1030 1822 369 641 sugArCAne 103 70 403 417 3913 5952 Source: Statistical Abstract of Punjab, 1971, 2011 Loss of diversity Diversity is a central principle of traditional agriculture in the Punjab, as in the rest of India. Such diversity contributed to ecological stability, and hence to ecosystem productivity. The lower the diversity in an ecosystem, the higher its vulnerability to pests and disease. 326 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” The Green Revolution package has reduced genetic diversity at two levels. First, it replaced mixtures and rotations of crops like wheat, maize, millets, pulses and oil seeds with monocultures of wheat and rice. Second, the introduced wheat and rice varieties came from a very narrow genetic base. Of the thousands of dwarf varieties bred by Borlaug, only three were eventually used in the Green Revolution. On this narrow and alien genetic base the food supplies of millions are precariously perched. Conclusions Punjab is a small state with only 1.53 per cent of country’s geographical area but it is producing 22.6 per cent of wheat, 10.8 per cent of rice and 12.9 per cent of the total food grains in the country. Food grain production in the state jumped from around 3 million tons in 1960-61 to more than 25 million tons by 2000-01. Our study shows the spatio temporal change in agricultural productivity in Punjab. Shifting cropping pattern of crops drastically change specially in the case of rice which is 6.87% to 35.85% in the year of 1971 to 2010 respectively. Average per hectare yield of wheat and rice increased from 401 kg/hectare and 481 kg/hectare respectively in the year of 2000 and 2010. Spatial pattern of high wheat and rice productivity concentrated on central and south eastern Punjab in 2010. references Bhardwaj, Krishna and Das, P.K., (1975) ‘Tenurial Conditions and Mode of Exploitation: A Study of Some Villages in Orissa’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. X, Nos. 5-7. Chadha, G.K., (1986) The State and Rural Transformation: The Case of Punjab 1950-85 (Sage Publications, New Delhi). Ghosh, Jayati and Amit Thorat, (2003) Corporate Agriculture: Implications for Indian Farmers, paper presented at All India Conference on Agriculture and Rural Society in Contemporary India held at Barddhman, West Bengal from December 17-20. Sidhu H.S. (2004). production conditions in contemporary Punjab Agriculture. Government of India, (2000) Cost of Cultivation of Principal Crops in India, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi. Government of India, (2002) Census of India, Series 4 Punjab, Paper 3 of 2001, New Delhi. Government of Punjab, (1971) Statistical Abstract of Punjab, Chandigarh Government of Punjab, (2001) Statistical Abstract of Punjab, Chandigarh Government of Punjab, (2011) Statistical Abstract of Punjab, Chandigarh 327 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-XV rurAL tourism: tooL for environment ConservAtion And mAnAgement Arminder singh Assistant Professor, Baba Farid College(Deon),Bathinda.Punjab introduction Tourism is usually viewed as being multidimensional, possessing physical, social, cultural, economic and political characteristics. However, tourism is the temporary movement of people to destinations out of their normal home and workplace. Activities undertaken during the stay, and the facilities created to cater for their needs are based on interaction among tourists, tourism suppliers host government, host communities, origin governments, universities, colleges, and nongovernmental organizations (NGO). On the other hand tourism has the potential to create multiplierbeneficial effects on environment protection, employment generation and wealth gain. It is a way to raise awareness of environmental values and it can serve as a tool to finance protection of natural areas and increase their economic importance. Tourism can contribute directly to the conservation of agricultural ,sensitive areas and habitat through hierarchical interactions. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council tourism is the world’s largest and fastest growing industry, generating 12% of the global gross national product and it employs around 200 million people worldwide (WTTC Report2011).The current growth rate is 4%, mostly the natural areas tourism become center of attraction for tourists which are the most rapidly growing segment of tourism and the WTO estimates it generates approximately 20% of all international travel expenditures. (WTO, 2001b). It becomes important sector of the economy and contributes significantly in the country’s GDP as well as Foreign Exchange Earnings with its backward and forward linkages with other sectors of the economy like employment, conservation, preservation and wealth. Tourism in India is the largest service industry, with a contribution of 6.23% to the national GDP and 8.78% of the total employment in India(Tourism India Report2002-03). According to World Travel and Tourism Council, India will be a tourism hotspot from 2009–2018, having the highest 10-year growth potential Despite short- and medium-term setbacks tourism revenues are expected to surge by 42% from 2007 to 2017(T &T Report 2007). India’s thousands of years of history, its length, diversity and the variety of geographic features as the case in Punjab also make its tourism basket large and varied. So tourism has the potential to not only be the economy driver, but also become an effective tool for integrated rural farm development. Punjab is a congregation of numberless tourist attractions includes Forts, famous religious shrines, palaces, ancient, historical embodiments, Gurudwaras, Pilgrim Centers, Monuments, Archaeological Sites, Wetlands, Cultural Festivals and many others. Punjab is also famous for its handicrafts, woodcrafts and intricately designed in rich traditional patterns and motifs include needlework products. However these are much sought after by the domestic as well as foreign tourist. Though Punjab as a state has been considered largely as a transit point by the domestic and foreign tourists visiting Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh rural tourism need of an hour The declining fortunes of the primary sector in advanced economies by confronting the impacts of globalization, Population is increasing in developing countries and changing population dynamics from rural to urban areas has created a complex climate. On the other hand International Fund for Agricultural Development predicts that climate changes due to environment degradation could put an additional 63 million people at risk of hunger by 2020(SOE Report Punjab2007) . Thus this disastrous upcoming future requires the efforts of third world nations to gain a position on the ladder of physical economic and social development at local as well as national level In the last five years, the production of food grains in Punjab has increased by only 2%as against 8.6 % rise in its population. As a result contribution of agriculture sector to the state’s GDP has declined from 46.13% in 1993-94 to 37.07% in 2004-05. Agricultural growth rate in Punjab has also slowed down from 5.0% in 1980s to 2.4% in 1990s and to 1.9% in 2000s. Even more than 66 per cent population lives in rural areas and agriculture & allied sector contributes about 40 percent of SGDP in 2009-10 as compared to more than 50 percent in 1950-51.(Economic Times,2010) Due to industrlization pace of urbanization is also escalating which resulting deteriorating the environment of the cities is. The rural areas are losing their areas to the expanding cities. The rural inhabitants are also migrating to urban areas in search of employment opportunities. Moreover, many sociologists and intellectual expressed their concerns for various 328 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” types of crisis in Punjab and suggested various alternatives for sustainable development. Thus rural tourism in Punjab required major attractions can provide larger scope for the development of rural areas. The promotion of rural areas is one such strategy which can help the rural people to find employment opportunities in their respective areas under multiplier effect on economy as discussed earlier. rural tourism potential The tourism sector witnessed substantial growth in India in 2010 as compared to 2009. The Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTA) in India during 2010 was 5.58 million as compared to the FTAs of 5.17 million during 2009, showing a growth of 8.1%. The growth rate during 2009 over 2008 was 2.2Infrastructure development holds the key to India’s sustained growth in the tourism sector. The domestic Tourist arrivals to Punjab increased from 3.28 Lakhs in 1995 to 4.74 Lakhs in 2001. tourist Arrivals – Punjab year (in numbers) domestic foreign total 1995 328652 5415 334067 1996 365638 12196 377834 1997 380263 12684 392947 1998 384066 12690 396756 1999 232424 6387 238811 2000 385682 3854 389536 2001 474305 3258 477563 Source :Tourist Statistics 2001 – Ministry of Tourism, Govt. of India The flow of both domestic and foreign tourists to Punjab is given in Table. The inflow of domestic tourists to Punjab was at an annual compound growth rate of 3% for the period 1995 to 2000. The inflow of foreign tourists has reduced over the years. The growth of tourists has increased 13%in year 1995-96 to 22% in2000-01. estimated share of tourism in sgdP year domestic (in Crores) foreign (in Crores) total (in Crores) share of tourism in gdP(%) 2001-02 706.51 19.89 726.39 1.63 2002-03 728.41 20.96 749.37 1.61 2003-04 750.99 22.1 773.09 1.60 2004-05 808.15 32.34 840.49 1.67 2005-06 871.91 35.49 907.4 1.74 2006-07 940.75 38.95 979.7 1.80 2007-08 1015.09 42.75 1057.8 1.87 2008-09 1095.36 46.93 1142.3 1.94 2009-10 1182.06 51.52 1233.6 2.02 2010-11 1288.59 115.13 1403.7 2.21 Source: Report On Tourism Under 11 five year Plan th In 2001-02 the share to GDP was 1.63percent with 726.39 crores from domestic and foreign tourists but through fuctuaions it is increased to 2.21 percent with total increase of 1403.7 crores in 2010-11.The urban areas which are famous now a days are just because they started their growth under rural tourism and become growth centers and then emerged as agglomeration cites. It is believed that an investment of Rs. 10 Lakhs in tourism results in creation of 89 jobs compared to 45 in agriculture and 13 in manufacturing. Further, it is believed the visit of one foreign tourist provides employment to one person. Similarly 17 domestic tourists generate one job in the country. So estimated employment generations in rural areas of Punjab is shown below rural tourism and sustainable development The rural areas of geographical and historical with versatile agricultural farms can be planned as center of attraction for the tourists. It will help in improving the physical and socio economic environment of the area.Rural tourism can be broadly 329 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” estimated growth of employment in Punjab year 2002-11 source: report on tourism under 11th five year Plan defined “as forms of tourism that is made to be friendly to the environment and to respect social and cultural values of the communities, and which allow both hosts and guests to enjoy positive and worthwhile interaction and shared experiences” (Wearing & Neil, 2000, p38). Rural tourism also fosters the involvement of local people in the decision making process and includes them in the tourism development process. Using these criteria, rural tourism exceed purely a concern for the physical environment that typifies green tourism, to include economic, social and cultural considerations. “Thus rural tourism can be viewed as being synonymous with the concept of sustainable tourism development” (Holden, 2000, p137). In other words “The concept of sustainable development results from the observation that current generations are imposing too great of a demand upon the natural environment to allow it to continue to reproduce and maintain itself at its previous level of stability”(Butler et al, 1998, p557). Sustainable tourism therefore seeks to sustain the quantity, quality and productivity of both human and natural resource systems over time, while respecting and accommodating the dynamics of such systems (Reid, 1991). Sustainable tourism is developed and managed together with the principles of sustainable development (Hunter and Green, 1995). These principles of sustainable development are based on the theory of carrying capacity (Butler et al, 1998). Although it is an ecology term, carrying capacity has been applied to humans and, more specifically to tourists. It has been defined for this purpose as “the maximum number of people who can use a site without an unacceptable alteration in the physical environment and without an unacceptable decline in the quality of the experience gained by visitors” (Mathieson and Wall, 1982, p168). Thus it is “the maximum capacity of a site or area to sustain tourist activity without deterioration in the quality of the visitor experience or of the environment.” (Medlik 1993, p. 27) Attraction factors and elements of regional destination at rural Level: The ‘rural traveller’ seeks authentic experiences; International travellers are seeking REAL tourism experience which means Rewarding,Enriching,Adventuresome and Learning. So in the context of Punjab, rural tourism also seeks attention for authentic and real experiences. It is only possible with sustainable development of attraction factors and elements according to the need of tourists at domestic and international level. Thus it becomes important component for plan formulation for rural tourists, which further means to improve the tourism facilities in the rural areas thereby increasing the tourist inflow. 330 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future”  Natural Beauty & Climate  Cultural and social characteristics Attraction Factors  Attitudes towards tourists  General infrastructure and tourist infrastructure  Accessibility of the destination  Price levels  Shopping and commercial facilities  Sportive, recreational and educational facilities Rural Tourism in Punjab  Religious Tourism   Farm House Tourism Elements  Leisure Tourism  Food Tourism  Eco- Tourism Price  Culture and Heritage Tourism  Adventure Tourism  Youth Tourism  Tourism  Highway Sports Tourism   Educational Tourism  Special Interest Tourism (Border, Dam, etc.)  Handicraft Tourism elements of rural tourism under integrated rural development religious tourism The places ofreligious importance in Punjab have always attracted large crowds based on their significance. During fairs and festivals in rural areas, the number of tourists increases manifold. These places require tourist infrastructure and services in sustainable manner. So up gradation of parking facilities at various Gurudwaras, other public utilities at the sites is required for example ChhapaarMela, Village Chhapaar (Ludhiana), Ram Tirath, Amritsar. Cultural and heritage tourism It has everlasting impacts on the minds of tourists because, it refers to a form of tourism in which local people are closely involved. They design and organize the tours, show tourists features of the area in which they live and of their daily life. During the tours, local people often show their development projects, like irrigation and soil conservation activities or income generating projects of women’s groups Heritage places famous for monuments, museums, fairs and festivals, 331 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” handicrafts or archaeological sites are the potential spots for development of heritage tourism. The state also has a rich culture of dance, music and festivals. This type of tourism is based on the idea of conserving and maintaining the unique identity of the place and the people, which involves the village tour to the areas of concerned theme. Participative tourism Participative Tourisman approach to develop the community-based tourism that directly benefits the villagers. It will help in developing cultural understanding among the tourists. The concept is based on to develop further model villages on similar pattern. The accommodation facility needs to be designed in the traditional style with; provision of special meals and local folk dance and music can become a part of the product. For example Chhatbir Village in Patiala district can be developed under this theme. This village is close to Chandigarh (96 Kms), Patiala and also not very far from Delhi (225 Kms) and can be promoted to attract tourists. educational tourism Most of the schools, universities and colleges in urban areas take their students for project work, picnic or outing . Most of these proposed as study tours, picnics etc of at least one night stay. In rural areas of Punjab, there are various destinations, which have places of Geographical and historical importance Preference could be given to destinations, which can offer leisure and education for sustainable development. This can include destinations like Nangal, Ropar and HarikePattan or wetland areas. These tours could be arranged with discount offers for students and should be organized in the lean tourist seasons. highway tourism Punjab is an ideal state to promote the highway tourism. In general, the roads are good and have excellent connectivity with rural areas throughout the state. This concept will be an effort to identify and promote the state’s best rural area roads for their scenic, cultural, historic and natural qualities. The existing attractions along the main Highways can be developed with the help of following initiatives. - Farm houses along highways connecting rural areas. Local food and products based refreshment facilities. Water parks at hotspot tourism areas with entertainment facilities Product of local handicraft with sale counters. Adventure tourism Adventure Tourism involves tourists engaging in physically and personally challenging and sometimes dangerous activities. These include safaris, river rafting, water surfing, etc. Adventure activities like Motor Boating, water skiing, fun-rides, fishing can be developed and promoted in the state in areas near water bodies- Satluj water body (Ropar), and Maharaja Ranjit Singh Dam. Leisure tourism A detailed analysis of tourist infrastructure of the destinations in Punjab shows that there is a lack of entertainment avenues at most of the places which includes all types of Leisure and entertainment activities at the tourist destinations. So the number of spot based entertainment facilities can be developed. These include: Ropeway at Maharaja Ranjit Singh Hill near villages of Rupnagar ,tourist cottages, picnic spots in rural areas ,river front development with provision of leisure and entertainment facilities in wet land regions, Golf course in submountaineous regions of Punjab etc. food tourism Food tourism can be initiated in rural areas with improvement and development of Dhabas which are -originally a waysideeating place to the world or in the homes of local people. These such places can be vegetarian and non-vegetarian .Food Festivals are suggested at the major localities of rural areas which can be clubbed with peak tourist seasons and other major events/cultural festivals. handicraft tourism There are several rural areas in the State, which are known for their handicrafts and other craftsmanship. Similarly, there are number of fairs and festivals throughout the year where these products become market for the huge tourists. But it needs to be systematically promoted and marketed among the domestic and foreign tourists.There are wide options for promoting 332 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” special interest tours or thematic tourism in rural areas of Punjab. These areas can be related to wetlands of national and international significance, Traditional art and handicraft ,archaeological sites of Ghuram and Sanghol,organised tours to Dams and Hydel Power Units like Nangal , Retreat at Wagha Border and Hussainiwala Border. It is also known as thematic tourism which emphasizes on learning and experiencing particular features of an area for example Martyrs day of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev&Rajguru on23rd march.The major districts with potential of rural tourism are discussed in table below which provides a clue shown that there is a large scope to study on tourism as a whole but shortage of time and data availability this paper confined upto a depth study of a district Ludhiana and one wet land study of Hari-ke-pattan district Tarn-Taran One of the fact known about Punjab is that it is the natural habitat for a variety of flora and fauna. There are a number of wetlands, bird sanctuaries and zoological parks all over Punjab. So, even in this land of myriad cultural colours, tourist can enjoy the model of rural tourism in sustainable manner in these areas. important wet land area of Punjab are discussed below. hari-ke-pattan- national Wetland & Wildlife sanctuary,tarn-taran It is one of the most important lakes in India. The lake turns into a heaven for nearly 350 species of migratory birds the winter season (November-onwards). A number of colorful and exotic birds fly in from as far as Siberia. It is also one of India’s leading in-land sweet water fish market and home of varied wild life. The nearest villages of Harike, township and districts Tarn-Taran, Kapurthala and Ferozepur have the great potential for rural tourism.Punjab has so many areas of natural interest but good potential for developing nature-based tourism is available at Tarn-Taran(HarikePattan Wetland), Ropar(Ropar wetland) Kapurthala(kanjli wetland) and Mohali (Chhatbir Zoological Park) in village chhat . Eco tourism type of nature based tourism promotes responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment , sustains the wellbeing of the local people and further leads to sustainable development . eco tourism Punjab has good potential for developing nature-based tourism at Tarn-Taran, Ropar and Kapurthala districts. Ecotourism has been universally recognized as a specific type of nature based tourism which promotes responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the wellbeing of the local people. “Ecotourism is environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and any accompanying cultural features - both past and present) that promotes conservation, has low negative visitor impact, and provides for beneficially active socioeconomic involvement of local populations.” The advantages for the development of ecotourism are: 333 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” • Contributes to conservation of biodiversity. Sustains the well being of local people. Includes a learning experience for tourists. Involves responsible action on the part of tourists and the rural tourism industry. It is primarily related to small groups by small-scale businesses. It requires the lowest possible consumption of non-renewable resources. Stresses local participation, ownership & business opportunities, particularly for rural people. Ecotourism has great potential for development. Ecotourism internationally is growing at a rate of 15 percent annually, which is higher than the growth rate in global tourism. Boating in natural areas, nature trails with guides to explain about the flora, fauna and ecology, educational camps, camping and other activities can be organised as part of the product. Improved travel conditions to wetlands of national and international significance is envisaged as part of Eco tourism development. Ludhiana Ludhiana is known as Manchester of India and is not claimed to be famous because of its commercial enterprises alone. It is an important pilgrimage center as there are many historic Gurudwaras and other places of interest in rural areas of Ludhiana. Centers of Attraction for domestic and international tourists GurudwaraCharanKamal ,machhiwara The GurdwaraCharan Kamal is located in village Machhiwara, Ludhiana district. The GurudwaraCharanKanwal is named after the Guru’s lotus feet. When Aurangzeb’s army attacked the fortress of Chamkaur Sahib, Guru GobindSinghji rested at that place. During the month of December and January JargMela is being celebrated at GurudwaraCharanKamal ,Machhiwara; GurudwaraManjiSahib,Alamgir. It starts from the 19-21 December and extends to 13 January. This mela starts at Anandpur Sahib and ends at Mukteshwar.(Maki Mela) in between it passes through Ropar, Chamhar Sahib, Machhiwara, Fathegarh Sahib, Alamgir, Raikot, Takhatpur, Dina Nagar . Gurudwaramanji sahib, Alamgir Another famous GurudwaraManji Sahib is in village Alamgir, 10 kilometres from Ludhiana.There is a ten feet deep tank near the Gurudwara where, according to a legend, Guru Gobind Singh ji shot an arrow into the parched land, which miraculously yielded water. 334 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ancient site, sunet village(ludhiana) The ancient village site lies about 6 km from Ludhiana bus stand and about 1 km south from Ludhiana -Ferozpur road. The excavation revealed a sequence of six cultural periods. Gurudwarananaksar sahib- jagraon Situated near Jagraon in village Nanaksar at a distance about 38 Kms from Ludhiana on Ferozepur Road, the gurdwara was founded by Baba Nand Singh and is known as a model of thelegance and architecture. At GuruduraNanaksar Sahib the “barsi” is being celebrated during the month of August or 13 Bhadon. It is attended by nearly one-lakh devotees from different part of India and overseas. museum of rural life of punjab The museum is the only one of its kind in India and reminds the charms of ancient Punjab. The museum is situated near Punjab Agricultural University. The museum building is built after a thorough study of traditional building in the old town of Punjab. The building is double storied and the main entrance depicts the archaeological finds of Punjab. These include pottery of various periods like Harapan, Aryan, Gupta and Mediaeval antiquities in terracotta, speciments of old coins. rural sports of Kila raipur In February national fair is organised in , Kila Raipur, 6 kms from Ludhiana This meet is a fair that exemplifies the special Punjabi spirit that never says die, ingenious for finding competition and pleasure from ordinary things of life. Bullock carts and other animal races, awe inspiring feats of strength and danger, the traditional wrestling, cock-fighting, kabbadi etc. made the occasion. The meet is wound up by the electrifying dances of the Punjab, the Gidha and the Bhangra. Challenges for “rural tourism and sustainable Development” The major challenges are need to preserve the environment and natural resources, the need for education, proper understanding for both tourists and local people, and the need to generate a democratic movement which helps people at all levels to participate in tourism development. Also they need to focus on occupation training, handicraft promotion, and improvement of both the landscape and the basic infrastructure, to increase the villagers’ quality of life by creating a healthy environment. But like any other sectors of government, semi government or private sector tourism also facing various types of challenges as discussed earlier ,few are listed below * * * * * * * * * * * Threats to ecosystems and biodiversity by loss of wildlife and rare species, habitat loss and degradation of environment. Deforestation for development of infrastructure which leads to loss of forests for fuel wood and timber by the tourist industry. It also impact on soil and water quality, bio-diversity integrity. Water will be overused because of tourism / recreational activities e.g. adventure tourism, participative tourism etc., and tourist consumption in farm houses and hotels. Congestion and overcrowding of tourists lead to community problems, increased vehicle traffic and resultant environmental impacts will increase air, noise pollution, and health impacts, Excessive production of wastes, litter and garbage. The effect of globalization will effect Customs, traditions, handicrafts and folklores. This greatly affects the thinking and attitudes of the people, particularly, the young generation. Attitude towards eco-tourism sites and development of culture heritage is not good in rural community of Punjab. State owned facilities for “rural tourism and sustainable development” are not maintained properly Publicity of destinations related with rural tourism and awareness of sustainable tourism products is not good as comparable with the best in the country (e.g. Natural and Heritage Properties of Rajasthan) Lack of effective policies for rural tourism and sustainability. Lack of appropriate information for the tourists about sustainable rural tourist centers. recommendations It is clearly early days for the rural tourism, predominantly as far as bringing prosperous enterprises and livelihood impacts on the ground are concerned. Nevertheless, some important recommendations for laying the foundations for rural tourism and sustainable development are : 335 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” In context of Wetland areas * Signage’s- direction, locational and descriptive. * Unique street and monument lighting * Management of the services (tidying up and not making it underground) such asremoving the clutter of disorganized electrical wires by reorganizing them through provision of poles, new wires and cables, brackets etc. * Community based programs of waste management * Floors cape- pavers and organizing steps and platforms in front of public buildings, public spaces and forecourts to important buildings * Capacity building and training of guides * Development of visitor cum site interpretation center at wetland * Development of embankment for the storage of water * Development of parking area for tourist * Development of check post to regulate tourist movement and for easy control * Development of office for staff and guard quarter for the security of the wetland * Development of signage system in the wetland area for proper interpretation for the tourist. * Development of boards walks along the wetland to experience the birds not in the core area but the buffer areas. recommendations in General * To ensure sustainable development interventions do not deplete ground water, pollute the water table, or emit large amounts of carbon * Availability of affordable micro irrigation in farm houses and on other rural tourist spots with technologies and suitable designs that use renewable energy to efficiently pump water. So rope and treadle pumps are manually operated, requiring no carbon-based fuels should be used at sites of tourist interest. * Workers often need motorized pumps to irrigate larger plots efficiently, exploring pump options that use renewable energy. Solar thermal can be a promising choice for replacing petroleum in mechanized pumps. * Recognizing that access to technology alone is not sufficient, also trains farmers on technology use and proper water scheduling and application. Drip irrigation is particularly effective in ensuring “more crop per drop.” * Setting up of more number of information outlets includes centers and complexes in rural areas for sustainable development. * Eco friendly local conveyance includes CNG based autos and taxis need to be promoted. * Sustainable Development should be phased on the basis of destination prioritization and tourist trends in rural areas. * Government expenditure should be under the proper policies for all areas of “rural tourism and sustainable development”, not only limited to promotion and some major projects. * Environment cell should be constituted which will be responsible for creating environmental awareness, monitoring and assessment of environmental issues related with the present and proposed tourism activities/ projects for rural areas.it will provide solutions to these activities as well. * Carrying capacity should be maintained in rural areas . * Legislative factors regarding tourism development/No Development Zones (NDZ), Heritage sites, Forest and sanctuary area should be considered before planning for development in eco-sensitive areas. * Selection of the location for tourism activity should be based on such parameters that it does not interface with the lifestyle, culture and occupation of the locals. * There should be restriction on huge growth to prolong depletion of resources in rural areas. * Community participation should be encouraged to understand well the demands of local peoples which includes promotion of local culture, heritage, and handicrafts at all destinations. 336 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Conclusion Rural tourism will emerged as an important instrument for sustainable human development Including agriculture management, poverty alleviation, employment generation, environmental regeneration and development of remote areas with advancement of women and other disadvantaged groups in the country apart from promoting social integration and international understanding. The government should promote rural tourism to ensure sustainable economic development and positive socialchange. As a growing sector tourism infrastructure facing many challenges disastrous effects of environment deterioration threatens the survival of many of the world’s poorest rural agricultural based peoples. Rural tourism is a tool which has the potential to create beneficial effects on the environment by contributing to environmental protection and conservation. Rural tourism can contribute directly to the conservation of sensitive areas. So for present day and future there is no doubt that the Rural Tourism and Sustainable Development has great scope because it provides an opportunity for marginal farmers and labor class. Thus the tourism industry will be the biggest industry/sector of the world in 21st century. But the setting of objectives and the final tourism development plan needs caution. For better results the whole range of the stakeholders has to participate in the planning stage. So policy makers/planners of tourism industry needs to special take care of basic infrastructure for tourism sector at micro level i.e rural level with a great concentration on environmental sustainability. refrences 11th five year plan of India. Report on World Tourist Organisation,2001b State Of Environment of Punjab 2007 www.indiabusiness.nic.in www.wttc.org ETB (1991) ‘The Green light: a Guide to Sustainable Tourism’, London (1994) ‘Rural Tourism as a Factor in Rural Community Economic Development for Economies in Transition’ Journal of Sustainable Tourism. Mann, S. (1998) ‘Plans to rebuild tourism, Country Report: Uganda – on the ascent’, ACP-EU Courier, pp. 38-39, No. 170, Brussels. 337 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-XVI ComPArAtive study of PhysiCAL ProPerties of AmBient And Cryoground CoriAnder PoWder sakshi1, s. Balasubramanian2, B. s. Khatkar3 Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology, Longowal-148106, Punjab 2 Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering- Regional Centre, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu- 641 003, India 3 Guru Jambeshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar -125001,Haryana e-mail: dietsakshi.2007@gmail.com 1 introduction The present study was carried out to measure the physical properties viz. bulk density, true density, porosity and color value of ambient and cryoground coriander powder. The effects of grinding temperature (ambient and cryoground) on the properties of both varieties RCR-41 and ACR-1 were studied individually. Bulk density and true density were found to be higher for cryoground coriander powder of both the varieties, however, porosity was found to be higher for coriander powder ground at ambient condition. Higher L, a, b color values were observed for cryoground coriander powder. Statistical analysis showed that physical properties viz. bulk density, true density, porosity and color value of ambient and cryoground coriander powder varied significantly at 1% level of significance. Keywords: ambient, cryogenic, bulk density, true density material and methods Coriander seeds of two different cultivars RCR-41 and ACR-1 were obtained from NRCSS, Ajmer (India). The seeds were cleaned manually to remove stalks, chaff, dust, foreign unwanted matter and immature seeds. The coriander seeds of two cultivars RCR-41 and ACR-1 with moisture content of 6.1 (wb) and 6.4% (wb) respectively were subjected to grinding (ambient/cryogenic) process. A pin mill (Hosakowa Alpine, Germany) made of stainless steel (SS 304) was employed for the grinding of coriander seeds. The grinding was done with a feeder screw (3 rpm; DC motor, 240V) and pin mill speed (10,000 rpm; DC motor, 400 V). The ambient grinding was carried out at room temperature (27 ± 2oC). Similarly for cryogenic grinding, coriander was subjected to LN2 (using compressor) in the precooling section to bring the feed material to low temperature (-50 ºC). After that, grinding was continued in a similar manner as for ambient conditions in the pin mill. The ground coriander (ambient/cryoground) retained on sieve number viz., 50, 85, and pan i.e. grade I, II and III respectively were considered for study of its properties. Bulk density (ρb) Bulk density was determined using the standard method by filling a measuring cylinder of 100 ml with the coriander powder from a constant height. (1) True density (ρt) True density was determined using gas (nitrogen) pycnometer (model2: Hymipyc and make IQI, USA). Porosity (ε) The porosity of coriander powder was calculated from the values of true density and bulk density using the relationship given by Mohsenin (1986) as follows: ε = × 100 (2) where, ρt and ρb are true density and bulk density of seeds respectively. hunter colour value For the purpose of colour determination, Hunter lab Mini scan EZ (Hunter Associates Laboratory Inc., Reston, Virginia, USA) is used which gives L, a and b value, where L value varies between 0 and 100. The colour was measured in four replications in terms of L (lightness), a (redness) and b (yellowness). 338 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bulk density of coriander powder obtained using ambient (shaded marker) and cryoground (unshaded marker) for cultivar RCR-41 ( )and ACR-1 ( ) True density of coriander powder obtained using ambient (shaded marker) and cryoground (unshaded marker) for cultivar RCR-41 ( ) and ACR-1 ( ) a value of coriander powder obtained using ambient (shaded marker) and cryoground (unshaded marker) for cultivar RCR-41 ( ) and ACR-1 ( ) b value of coriander powder obtained using ambient (shaded marker) and cryoground (unshaded marker) for cultivar RCR-41 ( ) and ACR-1 ( ) Porosity of coriander powder obtained using ambient (shaded marker) and cryoground (unshaded marker) for cultivar RCR-41 ( ) and ACR-1 ( ) L value of coriander powder obtained using ambient (shaded marker) and cryoground (unshaded marker) for cultivar RCR-41 ( ) and ACR-1 ( ) 339 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” result and discussions Bulk density Bulk density of coriander powder under ambient and cryoground condition for cultivar RCR-41 and ACR-1 and their grades (I, II and III) is presented in Figure1. The bulk density of cryoground coriander powder was found to be higher than that ground at ambient condition for cultivar RCR-41 and ACR-1. In case of ambient grinding due to rise in temperature product becomes gummy and sticky due to release of oil from cells, so product obtained after grinding is not so fine. Difference in bulk density of coriander powder of cultivar RCR-41 and ACR-1 was also observed. This may be due to difference in textural properties of coriander seeds of both cultivars which might have resulted in product with different fineness. The bulk density of coriander powder under ambient and cryoground conditions was found to increase in order grade III>II>I. This may be due to higher fineness and hence more mass retained in same volume for grade III followed by II and I. true density True density of coriander powder under ambient and cryoground condition for cultivar RCR-41 and ACR-1 and their grades is presented in Figure 2. The true density was observed to be higher for cryoground coriander powder than that ground at ambient conditions for cultivar RCR-41 and ACR-1. An increase in true density was observed as grade III>II>I for coriander powder under ambient and cryoground conditions for both cultivars. porosity Porosity of coriander powder under ambient and cryoground condition for cultivar RCR-41 and ACR-1 and their grade (I, II and III) is presented in Figure 3. Porosity was found to be lesser for cryoground coriander powder compared to that ground at ambient condition for cultivar RCR-41 and ACR-1. The reason may be due to more uniform packing of cryoground product due to more fineness compared to product obtained after ambient grinding. A difference in porosity of cultivar RCR-41 and ACR-1 was also observed for coriander powder under ambient and cryoground conditions. Higher porosity value was observed for grade I> II> III for coriander powder under ambient and cryoground conditions for cultivar RCR-41 and ACR-1. Hunter color value Hunter color value of coriander powder under ambient and cryoground conditions for cultivar RCR-41 and ACR-1 and their grades (I/II/III) is presented in Figure 4a, 4b, 4c. L, a and b value were found to be higher for cryoground coriander powder in comparison to that ground at ambient conditions. Cryogenic grinding has improved the yellowness index also whereas, ambient grinding produced darker color product. Similar results with improved yellowness indices for cryoground black pepper powder have been reported by Meghwal and Goswami (2010) and also stated that color is an important quality attribute to accept or reject the spices as it has direct effect in mind of consumer. The reason for lower L, a and b values for coriander powder ground at ambient condition may be the heat generated during conventional grinding process which might have produced darker color product. Conclusion Physical properties reveal that product with more fineness can be obtained using cryogenic grinding having better quality and handling of the product. Fineness of cryoground coriander powder also avoids flake formation during cooking. references Meghwal, Murlidhar, and Goswami, T.K. (2010). Cryogenic grinding of spices is a novel approach whereas ambient grinding needs improvement. Continental Journal of Food Science and Technology, 4: 24-37. 340 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” DO-XVII some ProBLems ConCerning sustAinABiLity of AgriCuLure Balwinder singh Brar Department of Applied Sciences, Baba Farid College of Enggineering & Technology, Bathinda. E-mail: hodas.bfcet@yahoo.com Abstract Our country is basically an under-developed region of the world. The overall economic development can be pushed forward, if there is balanced development of the three basic sectors of the economy, viz, heavy industry, small scale industry, and agriculture. There is an organic relation among the development of the three basic aspects of the economy. The agriculture is the basis factor; heavy industry is the leading factor; and the small-scale industry is the bridging-factor between the agriculture and the heavy industry. Advancing on these lines, the over-all economic development of our country can be pushed forward in a satisfactory way. Such an economic development will certainly be sustainable. Central thrust of sustainable development is to develop, maintain, and advance the quality of human-life on a continuous basis. Sustainable agriculture is organic part of overall sustainable development. Central thrust of sustainable agriculture is to develop, maintain, and advance the quality of human-life of broad masses of peasantry, and hence of rural-life on a continuous basis. The factors on which crop productivity depends are : role of manure and chemical fertilizers; role of developing the local varieties/landraces ; putting more emphasis on bio-insecticides, bio-weedicides, bio-fungicides; enthusiasm of broad masses of peasantry; use of local resources; need for combining agro-ecological knowledge of both scientists and peasants; proper utilization of Nature, not degradation of Nature, moreover enrichment of Nature; conservation of water and soil; integrated concept in agriculture; and so on. There should a correct balance of the two aspects---- presence of organic matter and humus; and use of chemical fertilizers. Instead of developing high yielding varieties from our own original varieties/landraces, which were well-adapted to our own climate and environment over centuries, varieties were developed from foreign genotypes. The use of exotic high yielding varieties/hybrids required more and more irrigation and use of chemical fertilizers on the one hand, and on the other hand, being more prone to diseases due to quite different environment of our country, the crops grown from the use of such varieties needed more and more insecticides, pesticides, and fungicides. As a result, the soil-chemistry changed and problem of pollution of water and soil has become serious. Soil has become degraded leading to damage the productivity of soil. Cost of production has increased many-fold. Way out lies in developing the high yielding varieties/landraces from our own local varieties/landraces; striking a correct balance between organic matter and chemical fertilizers, restricting the use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides, pesticides, and fungicides as far as possible: putting more emphasis on bio-insecticides, bio-weedicides, bio-fungicides as compared to chemical-insecticides, chemical-weedicides, chemical-fungicides, or a combination of both; generating enthusiasm of broad masses of peasantry by implementing Land-Reforms thoroughly. introduction Our country India is basically an under-developed region of the world. Here, national industrial development is too low, whole industrial sector is dominated by small scale industry, and this vast region is predominantly agrarian. For our country, the overall economic development can be pushed forward, if there is balanced development of the three basic sectors of the economy, viz, heavy industry, small scale industry, and agriculture. There is an organic relation among the development of the three basic aspects of the economy. The agriculture is the basis factor; heavy industry is the leading factor; and the small-scale industry is the bridging-factor between the agriculture and the heavy industry. Advancing on these lines, the over-all economic development of our country can be pushed forward in a satisfactory way. Such an economic development will certainly be sustainable. The World Commission on Environment (1988) defined sustainable development as development which meets the requirements of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own requirements. The World Conservation Union (1991) defined sustainable development as improving the quality of human-life while living within the carrying-capacity of supporting eco-systems. Therefore, central thrust of sustainable development is to develop, maintain, and advance the quality of human-life on a continuous basis. Sustainable agriculture is organic part of overall sustainable development. The Technical Advisory Committee of the Consultative Group of Internal Agriculture Research (CGIAR) defined sustainable agriculture as successful management of resources for agriculture to satisfy changing human-needs while maintaining or enhancing the quality of environment 341 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” and conserving natural resources. Here also central thrust of sustainable agriculture is to develop, maintain, and advance the quality of human-life of broad masses of peasantry, and hence of rural-life on a continuous basis. Sustainability of overall development will assist the process of developing sustainability of agriculture; on the other hand, sustainability of agriculture will become the basis for advancing the process of sustainability of overall economic development. Present situation and Question of sustainability of Agriculture The factors on which crop productivity depends are : role of manure and chemical fertilizers; role of developing the local varieties/landraces; putting more emphasis on bio-insecticides, bio-weedicides, bio-fungicides; enthusiasm of broad masses of peasantry; use of local resources; need for combining agro-ecological knowledge of both scientists and peasants; proper utilization of Nature, not degradation of Nature, moreover enrichment of Nature; conservation of water and soil; integrated concept in agriculture; and so on. Due to various factors it may happen that there may be deficiency of various inorganic substances in the soil. As a result, to compensate this deficiency we require the addition of these in the form of chemical fertilizers. But there should a correct balance of the two aspects---- presence of organic matter and humus; and use of chemical fertilizers. The importance of manure is contained in the peoples wisdom in the form of an ancient Tamil proverb: “No fodder, no cattle; no cattle, no manure; no manure, no crop”. During these last 45 years since the beginning of Green Revolution until now, instead of developing high yielding varieties from our own original varieties/landraces, which were well-adapted to our own climate and environment over centuries, varieties were developed from foreign genotypes. The use of exotic high yielding varieties/hybrids required more and more irrigation and use of chemical fertilizers on the one hand, and on the other hand, being more prone to diseases due to quite different environment of our country, the crops grown from the use of such varieties/hybrids needed more and more insecticides, pesticides, and fungicides. As a result, the use of chemical fertilizers became more and more at the cost of organic matter and humus. The ruthless and one-sided use of chemical fertilizers, (ignoring and neglecting organic matter and humus), began to destroy the balanced soil chemistry. As a result, the soil began to become acidic or alkaline. The chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, and fungicides used on a large scale began to seep into the earth, to mingle with the ground water, and as a result the ground water began to get polluted on a large scale. The pollution of water and soil began to kill the friendly micro-organisms present in the soil, resulting in damaging the continuity of the transformation of organic matter into humus, which ultimately decomposes to give useful inorganic compounds to be assimilated by the crops. With the development of local varieties/landraces, the yield increases slowly and steadily, but without side-effects. As a result, soil also gets enrichment. It is observed that with the development of varieties from foreign genotypes, the yield increases not slowly and steadily, but increases with a sudden jump, but on reaching a certain stage, yield becomes stagnant. Also so many side-effects are involved. As a result, soil becomes degraded leading to damage the productivity of soil. Sideeffects are: soil-erosion, lowering of water-table, growth of plant-diseases, increased cost of production, change of soil chemistry (either acidic or basis or both), indebtedness of peasantry, environmental-pollution leading to human-diseases and animal-diseases. Conclusion and Way-out As a result of all this, Indian agriculture has become stagnant, and broad masses of the peasantry have ruined or going to be ruined. Way out lies in: - - Developing the high yielding varieties from our own local varieties/landraces; Striking a correct balance between organic matter and chemical fertilizers, taking organic matter as the basis factor; Restricting the use of chemical fertilizers as far as possible; use of these must be need-based and not ruthless, these must be applied on the basis of concrete analysis of soil and the requirement of the crop/crops to be grown in various areas; Restricting the use of insecticides, pesticides, and fungicides as far as possible, develop these according to our concrete needs, so that the friendly micro-organisms would not be destroyed on a large scale. Putting more emphasis on bio-insecticides, bio-weedicides, bio-fungicides as compared to chemical-insecticides, chemical-weedicides, chemical-fungicides, or a combination of both. Generating enthusiasm of broad masses of peasantry by: 342 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” (a) (b) (c) (d) by providing adequate land to the peasants; by providing loans at reasonable low interest-rates; by abolition of money-lenders (abolition of usury loans); by providing cheap agriculture inputs like chemical fertilizers, chemical-insecticides, chemical-weedicides, chemical-fungicides, petroleum products (diesel, lubricating oil, mobile-oil etc), machinery, and electricity. For this, national development of agro-industry is necessary. National development of agro-industry means that it should be independent from imperialist exploitation in any form and control. Otherwise due to the drainage of national-wealth via super-profits of imperialists will hinder the national development of agro-industry. (e) by making land-rent reasonable and not to be influenced by speculation. (f) by implementing Land-Reforms thoroughly; complete elimination of feudal relations of production; and abolition of landlordism in all old and new forms. Need to organize the best optimal use of our resources including our rich and diverse flora and fauna in the context of limitations and constraints of land, water, and climate. To make agriculture sustainable, there is also need to organize the major management practices effectively: soilmanagement; water resources management; rain-water management; integrated pest and disease management; and integrated weed management. references Lekhi, R.K. and Singh, Joginder (2006): “Agricultural Economics”, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhinana, 5th edition (2006). Reddy, SR (2008): “Principals of Crop production”, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhinana, 3rd edition (2008). Surekha, K. and Rao, K.V. (2009): “Direct and Residual Effects of Organic Sources on Rice Productivity and Soil Quality of Vertosols”, JISSS (Journal of the Inidan Society of Soil Sciences), vol. 57, No. 1, March. 2009, p. 53-57. Ghose, Kunal; Nayak, D. C. and Ahmed, Nayan (2009): “Soil Organic Matter”, JISSS (Journal of the Inidan Society of Soil Sciences), vol. 57, No. 1, March. 2009, p. 494-501. Rao, DLN and Patra, A.K. (2009): “Soil Microbial Diversity & Sustainable Agriculture”, JISSS (Journal of the Inidan Society of Soil Sciences), vol. 57, No. 4, Dec. 2009, p. 513-530. Sharma, K. L. and Mandal, Biswapati (2009): “Soil Quality and its Relevance for Sustainable Agriculture, JISSS (Journal of the Inidan Society of Soil Sciences), vol. 57, No. 4, Dec. 2009, p. 572-586. Dhillion, Hardial S. (2010): “Restoring Soil Fertility in Punjab”, published in The Tribune, 10th June 2010. Gill, Anita(2011): “Save Farmers From Debt Trap”, published in The Tribune, 19th February, 2011. Sharma, Vibha (2011): “Agriculture At Crossroads: Capital investment Needed”, published in The Tribune, 26th February, 2011. Lohumi, Bhanu P (2011): “Experts: Rise in GDP Rate Not Helping the Poor”, published in The Tribune, 11th March, 2011. Chhina, SS(2011): “Growth Without Jobs”, published in The Tribune, 11th November, 2011. Singh, SS and Singh, AK(2013): “Agronomic Research and Technological Development for Improving Agricultural Productivity in Eastern India”, published in Indian Farming, 63(9):3-7, December, 2013(A Journal of ICAR). Pooniya, Vijay; Choudhary, AK; Bana, RS; Puniya, MM (2013): “Biofertiliser As Low External Input for Sustainable Agricultural and Environmental Quality”, published in Indian Farming, 63(9):3-7, December, 2013(A Journal of ICAR). Johl, SS(2014): “Sir Chhotu Ram: Messiah of Peasants”, published in The Tribune, 04th February, 2014. Singh, Sukhpal(2014): “Making Direct Payments To Farmers”, published in The Tribune, 08th February, 2014. 343 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” 344 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-1 identifiCAtion of QtLs for riCe grAin size And shAPe in ems induCed riCe (OryzA sAtIVA L.) vAriety nAginA 22 AmandeepKaur* yogeshvikal and Kuldeep singh School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004 E-mail: *amandeepbhangu96@yahoo.com Abstract Grain size is the major determinant of yield and this trait can be exploited in breeding for development of high yielding rice varieties.In the present investigation to understand the genetics of EMS induced short grain mutant, N22_SGM, a cross was made between N22_SGM (short grain mutant) and IR64 (long grain)to generateF2 mapping population. The parents IR64, N22_SGM and N22 had grain length of 6.85, 4.33 and 5.59 mm and grain width of 2.02, 2.68 and 2.38 mm respectively. The range of grain length of F2 population fall between 4.47-7.56 mm whereas the grain width ranged from 1.57-2.80 mm.GL and GW in the F2 population exhibited a normal distribution, suggesting that both traits were controlled by polygenic gene loci. Parental polymorphism was surveyed using a set of 404 SSR between N22, N22_SGM and IR64. A total of 121 (29.95%) were polymorphic out of which 70 SSR markers were genotyped on 85 F2plants. Both phenotypic data and genotypic data was analyzed to generate linkage maps and the total map length was 867.5cM.TwoQTLs for grain width (qGW3.1, qGW3.2) found on chromosome 3 and three QTLs for grain length (qGL3.1,qGL3.2 and qGL7.1) were found on chromosome 3 and 7. The others QTLs for various agronomic traits were also found like percent fertility, fertile grains per panicle, sterile grains per panicle, panicle size on different chromosomes. The identified QTLs can be further fine mapped and dissected to candidate genes for exploitation in breeding programs to bred high grain yield. Keywords: Oryzasativa, SSR markers, QTLs Ap-2 mArKer-Assisted introgression of OpAQue2 gene into non-QPm mAize inBred Lines s Lata1*, sK guleria1, tr sharma1, Kalpna thakur1 and reena Kumari1 1 CSKHPKV, Palampur-176062, Himachal Pradesh, India E-mail:slatasharma@gmail.com Abstract Development of the medium maturity QPM inbreds for the production of QPM hybrids with higher level of lysine and tryptophan content. Normal inbred of promising medium maturity hybrid, EHL 161708 (BAJIM-08-27) was targeted for conversion into high quality protein maize (QPM). The cross was attempted between BAJIM-08-27 (non-QPM) and CML193 (QPM donors) to get heterozygous plants (F1). Foreground selection of the F1’s was done using phi057 SSR marker. The selected heterozygotes were backcrossed with recipient parent to generate backcrossed population. Biochemical analysis for tryptophan content in endosperm protein was determined using method given by Mertz et al. (1975). The marker phi057 identified 98 heterozygotes in a population of 215 BC1. The selected single recombinants were subjected to whole genome background selection in BC2F1. The plants showing 90% recurrent parent genome recovery were selfed to generate BC2F2 generation and surveyed for homozygous opaque2( o2) locus and then selfed to get BC2F3 generation. The BC2F3 seeds were phenotypically evaluated for kernel modification and tryptophan concentration. Kernels with less than 25% opaqueness were selected over 25–50% and more than 50% opaqueness. The tryptophan concentration in endosperm protein was significantly enhanced as compared to original recipient line. An integrated strategy of phenotypic selection for endosperm modifiers coupled with marker-assisted selection for o2 allele significantly reduces time for the conversion of non-QPM line into QPM line. 345 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-3 mArKer-Assisted imProvement of BACteriAL BLight resistAnCe in hur 4-3, A high yieLding PoPuLAr riCe CuLtivAr of uttAr PrAdesh PrAKAsh singh1*, rAvi P. singh1, o.n. singh2, h.B. singh3, C. mohAPAtrA3 And m. K. singh1 1 Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India, 2 Crop Improvement Division, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha 753006, India, 3 Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India * Author for Correspondence: E-mail: prakash201288@gmail.com Abstract In rice, pyramiding dominant and recessive bacterial leaf blight resistance genes with the help of Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) technique was accomplished to improve conventional susceptible inbred varieties. Therefore, incorporation of resistance genes Xa21 and xa13 through MAS were attempted in the popular fine grain rice cultivar of Eastern Uttar Pradesh namely HUR 4-3. HUR 4-3, is susceptible to bacterial leaf blight (BLB) disease caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae. Pusa 1460, a basmati rice variety, was utilized as the donor for introgressing Bacterial Blight resistance genes xa13 and Xa21 into HUR 4-3 using a marker assisted backcross breeding programme. The markers RG136 (CAPS) or xa13p (gene based SSR) and pTA248 (STS) primer linked to BB resistance genes xa13 and Xa21, respectively, were used for foreground selection. Seventy-eight SSR markers polymorphic between HUR 4-3 and Pusa 1460 were utilized for background selection to recover the recurrent parent genome ranging from 84.14 to 95.20% in the 12 best selected BC2F2 plants. The extent of donor segments in the improved version of HUR 4-3 was estimated to be 0.93 and 2.17 Mb in the genomic regions flanking xa13 and Xa21, respectively in the corresponding genomic regions. Improved lines of HUR 4-3 showed yield advantages of up to 6.94 to 3.93%, respectively. The performance of the BB-resistant version of HUR 4-3 produced by intercrossing the improved lines of Pusa 1460 was on a par with or superior to the original HUR 4-3. Keywords: Genomic region, polymorphic, bacterial blight resistance, SSR marker, Ap-4 the studies on dnA methyLAtion for CroPs imProvement ravindra donde,* Jitendra Kumar, Prakash singh,dr. s. K.dash, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack-753006. Email:*ravindradonde@gmail.com Abstract The new findings shows that changes in the climate are severely affects the crops and organisms developments, adaptation and their gene expression in new environments. In response to studies on the epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation and histone modification, play a crucial role in regulating gene expression in plant responses to environment stress (Razin and Cedar, 1992; Boyko et al., 2007; Boyko and Kovalchuk, 2008). Environmental stimuli such as drought, salinity, cold, high temperature and water stress can cause demethylation at coding regions of certain genes and subsequently activate their expression.Specific gene expression patterns under epigenetic control are reversible and may show transgenerational inheritance (Bender, 2004; Long et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2007).DNA methylation within genes is a common feature of eukaryotic genomes (Tranet al., 2005).DNA methylation is a biochemical process frequently occurs in presence of DNA methyltransferase enzymes.DNA methylation at 5-position of cytosine, yielding5-methylcytosine or the number 6 nitrogen of the adenine purine ring. Under normal conditions, the ratio of methylated to total cytosine’svaries from 20% to 30% in plants (Finnegan et al., 1998), andmethyl cytosine usually occurs in CpG, CpNpG and CpHpH (H=A, T, C) sequences (Cao and Jacobsen, 2002; Zhanget al., 2006). Arabidopsis DNA methyltransferase enzymes, which transfer covalently attach methyl groupsonto DNA, i.e. DRM2, MET1, and CMT3. Both the DRM2 and MET1 proteins also present in mammalian homology methyltransferases i.e. DNMT3 and DNMT1 respectively, whereas the CMT3 protein is unique to theplant kingdom. DNA methyltransferases enzymes torecognize the methylation marks onthe parental strand of DNA and transfers new methylation to the daughter’s strands after DNA replication. DRM2 isthe only enzyme that has been implicated as a de novo DNA methyltransferase. MET1 and CMT3 to be involved in maintaining methylation marks through DNA 346 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” replication.DNA methylation is typically removed during zygote formation and re-established through successive cell divisions during development. DNA methylation suppresses the expression of viral genes. Thus DNA methylation plays crucial role in the crops improvements it directly or indirectly controlled the gene expression i.e. short methylated genes are poorly expressed, and loss of methylation in the body of a gene leads to enhanced transcription. DNA methylation induced epigenetic changes in crops genome can be considered as a very important regulatorymechanism for plants to adopt biotic and abiotic environmental stresses. Key words: DNA methylation, Epigenetic, Gene expression, Crop improvements. Ap-5 Assessment of drought toLerAnCe in sunfLoWer hyBrids vikrant tyagi* and s. K. dhillon Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, PAU, Ludhiana E.mail: *vikranttyagi97@gmail.com Abstract Sunflower is an important oilseed crop and in Punjab it is cultivated as a spring season crop. It is classified as low to medium drought sensitive crop. The present research was carried out at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, during spring season 2011 and 2012. A total of thirteen CMS lines comprising nine different alloplasmic CMS lines (belong to different wild sources) and four CMS lines from cultivated CMS source PET-1 were crossed with four common restorer lines to generate a set of fifty two hybrids (synthesized in offseason 2011 and 2012). These hybrids were evaluated using a randomized block design with three replications to assess their performance for grain yield under two environments (normal irrigation and water stress). In stress environment the irrigation was stopped after the anthesis was complete. The pooled data over the years was recorded on grain yield under both the environments and the stress susceptibility index values were calculated. The analysis of variance revealed significant differences among the hybrids for grain yield under both the environments. Hybrid PRUN-29A × RCR-8297 (1.55) and 40A × P100R (1.55) had the maximum Stress tolerance index (STI) value and hybrid ARG-2A × P69R recorded the lowest value (a high STI rate for the genotype represents its high drought resistance and its high yielding potential). The hybrid ARG-6A × P69R (2.41) recorded the highest value of Stress susceptibility index (SSI), while hybrid E002-91 × RCR-8297 (0.13) recorded the minimum (resistant) value for SSI indicating susceptibility of the hybrid ARG-6A × P69R to drought. In terms of Yield stability index (YSI), the hybrid 40A × RCR-8297 (0.51), ARG-6A × P69R (0.51) and hybrid ARG-2A × P69R (1.18) had the highest and the lowest values respectively (genotypes with high YSI are expected to yield high in stress conditions. Hybrid 40A × RCR-8297 (30.36) and PRUN-29A × P69R (-10.07) displayed the minimum and the maximum values of tolerance index (TOL), a high amount of TOL is a sign of genotype susceptibility to stress. Hybrid PRUN-29A × P69R (1.53) displayed the least extent of yield index (YI), while hybrid ARG-6A × P69R (0.51) and 40A × RCR-8297 (0.51) displayed the highest extent. Correlation coefficients were used to identify the best criterion for selecting drought tolerant genotypes. Results indicate that seed yield was significantly and positively associated with SSI (0.356**), TOL (0.522**), STI (0.834**) and YI (0.524**), while significant negative correlation was observed with YSI (-0.359**) under normal environment. But, under stress environment significant positive correlations was recorded between seed yield and STI (0.901**), YI (1.000**) and YSI (0.581**), while negative association with SSI (-0.585**) and TI (-0.450**). All these indices also observed positive and negative relationship with each other. According to previous studies, a suitable index must have a significant association with yield in both stressed and non-stressed states. Indices SSI, TOL, STI and YI were highly significantly correlated with each other as well as with seed yield under stress and normal environment. The hybrid E002-91 × RCR-8297 was observed stable for both environments, PRUN-29A × P69R good performing under stress environment while, hybrids E002-91 × P100R and ARG-6A × P69R were recorded best performing under normal environment. 347 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-6 groWth And yieLd in ChiCKPeA (CICer ArIetInum L.) genotyPes in resPonse to WAter stress navkiran randhawa*, Jagmeet Kaur, sarvjeet singh and inderjit singh Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 141001, Punjab, India Email: *navkiran.randhawa85@gmail.com) Abstract Field experiment was conducted to investigate the influence of water stress treatments imposed at varied growth stages viz. T1; irrigated, T2; sown with one pre-sowing irrigation, T3; irrigation withholded at flower-initiation, T4; irrigation withholded at pod-initiation in chickpea genotypes. Twenty chickpea (GL21107, GL22044, GL26054, GL26074, GL281137, GL28151, GL28186, GNG1594, GNG1861, DCP 92-3, GG1362, RSG811, RVSSG4, RSG963, RSG957, BGM547, PDG3, PDG4, PBG1, GPF2) genotypes were grown under rainout shelter in field area of Plant Breeding and Genetics Department. Growth parameters were studied at 120 days after sowing, while yield traits were recorded at maturity. Restricted irrigation had prominent effect on plant height, number of branches, biomass, leaf number, leaf area, leaf area index, yield and yield traits viz. 100 seed weight, total number of pods, percentage filled pods, causing significant reduction over control, however genotype and treatment interactions were observed to be non-significant in 100-seed weight and percentage filled pods. Among studied treatments, T2 sown with one presowing irrigation was most adversely affected. The grain yield under stress treatment T2 was reduced by 55.91% over control. Under water stress conditions, genotypes GL28151, RSG963, PDG3 maintained higher growth attributes, yield and yield traits showing their tolerance, while GL22044, RSG1861 and RVSSG4 were identified as water stress sensitive genotypes. Keywords: Chickpea, genotypes, treatments, water stress Ap-7 studies on effeCt of heAt stress on vigour PArAmeters in heAt toLerAnt And susCePtiBLe WheAt vArieties Arun KumAr* And rPs KhArB Department of Seed Science and Technology CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004 Email: *arunphdsst@gmail.com / rpskharb@hau.ernet.in Abstract Wheat is the second most important cereal crop of India. It is a cool season crop. In India wheat is being cultivated on the area of 29.9 mha with a production of 93.9 mt and productivity of 3.14t/ha. The newly developed wheat varieties attained the production potential about 6 t /ha, whereas the national productivity remained at 3.14 t/ha. High seed germination and vigour are pre- requisites for the success of stand establishment of crop plants which leads to higher yield. Generally stress (heat/moisture) has deleterious effect on germination and vigour of crop particularly during reproductive phase. Keeping this in the mind a study was conducted to see the effect of heat stress on heat tolerant as well as susceptible varieties. It was observed that physiological maturity (PM) for late sown for both heat tolerant and susceptible variety have been reached at 145 DAS or 36 DAA and for late sown it was 121 DAS or 34 DAA, means for late sown the PM stage has been reached by some 24 days earlier than normal sown. Vigour is higher for late sown condition in comparison to normal sown condition for both heat tolerant and susceptible variety at PM. However, vigour indices were higher for heat susceptible variety in comparison to heat tolerant variety in both normal and late sown conditions. The study can suggest that if seed production is purpose then it will better to go for late sown condition for both the heat tolerant as well as susceptible variety. 348 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-8 studies on effeCt of heAt stress on vigour PArAmeters in heAt toLerAnt And susCePtiBLe WheAt vArieties Arun KumAr* And rPs KhArB Department of Seed Science and Technology CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004 Email: *arunphdsst@gmail.com / rpskharb@hau.ernet.in ABstrACt Wheat is the second most important cereal crop of India. It is a cool season crop. In India wheat is being cultivated on the area of 29.9 mha with a production of 93.9 mt and productivity of 3.14t/ha. The newly developed wheat varieties attained the production potential about 6 t /ha, whereas the national productivity remained at 3.14 t/ha. High seed germination and vigour are pre- requisites for the success of stand establishment of crop plants which leads to higher yield. Generally stress (heat/moisture) has deleterious effect on germination and vigour of crop particularly during reproductive phase. Keeping this in the mind a study was conducted to see the effect of heat stress on heat tolerant as well as susceptible varieties. It was observed that physiological maturity (PM) for late sown for both heat tolerant and susceptible variety have been reached at 145 DAS or 36 DAA and for late sown it was 121 DAS or 34 DAA, means for late sown the PM stage has been reached by some 24 days earlier than normal sown. Vigour is higher for late sown condition in comparison to normal sown condition for both heat tolerant and susceptible variety at PM. However, vigour indices were higher for heat susceptible variety in comparison to heat tolerant variety in both normal and late sown conditions. The study can suggest that if seed production is purpose then it will better to go for late sown condition for both the heat tolerant as well as susceptible variety. Ap-9 ABiotiC stress mAnAgement in vieW of sustAinABLe AgriCuLturAL ProduCtion 1 navjot singh Brar, 1naval Kishor Kamboj, 1Pravin Kumar sharma, 2Baldeep singh and 2sukhdeep singh 1 Department of Vegetable Science, 2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125004 Email: *singh.navjotbrar@gmail.com Abstract The term stress can be stated to be a set of conditions that cause an aberrant change in physiological process that adversely influence growth. Abiotic stresses such as drought, frost, heat, excess water and salinity result in losses in yield and quality of crops. These stresses also limit the areas that can be cultivated because of yield instability and crop loss. Global warming models predict erratic weather patterns making the impact of these stresses more severe and unpredictable. As per the report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) the net increase in temperature is likely to be 5.8 degrees Celsius by 2100 AD. This is likely to impact a series of inter-related environmental systems like global hydro-eco-systems, sea level, crop production and related agricultural activities. Agriculture, and the techniques of cultivation employed in a particular region also affect the rate outcome of climate change. In fact, agriculture itself is a major contributor to climate change as it involves process 1ike deforestation, desertification, higher use of fuels and fertilizers which might contribute to increase nitrogen concentration in earth’s atmosphere. Two general approaches can be undertaken to develop strategies for sustainable production in a changing climate are: (a) Understanding and exploiting the genetic and physiological variations that exist in the germplasm in relation to abiotic stresses (i.e. mining the germplasm). Study should be aim at identifying physiological and genetic traits that are linked to abiotic stresses. For example a Phytohormones and number of genes encoding proteins such as thermal induced proteins (Heat shock proteins, HSP) Oxidation induced proteins and anaerobically stimulated proteins (Alcohol dehydrogenase, ADH) have been studied in relation to abiotic stress resistance. (b) Develop production practices such as a forestation, drip irrigation system etc., for mitigating the impact of abiotic stresses. Before these approaches can be implemented it is necessary to understand the physiological and genetic mechanisms for plant responses to environmental stresses such as mechanism of injury and survival by abiotic stresses and 349 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” acclimatization to abiotic stresses. Thus, these approaches need to be given utmost priority at this point of time as it will not only provide an insight to the mechanism of plant response to abiotic stresses but they may also provide practical means for sustainable agricultural production. Ap-10 ComPArAtive resPonse of siX WheAt genotyPes to heAt And drought stress shAshi BALA*1, BAvitA Asthir1, n.s. BAins2 1Department of Biochemistry, 2Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141004, India E-mail: shashi.pau@gmail.com Abstract Wheat (Triticum aestivum) represents about 30% of the world’s cereal area, with over 220 million ha cultivated worldwide is often under heat stress. Presently, India contributes approximately 15% of global wheat production but it is anticipated that heat stress accompanied by drought can reduce grain yield by 4 % for every 1°C rise in temperature. The objective of this experiment was to determine the effect of heat and drought stress on physiological parameters in relation to yield. Six wheat genotypes (PBW 621, PBW 175, PBW 343, PBW 550, HD 2967, C 306) were evaluated under heat and drought stress. Raising the crop under late planting conditions leads to terminal heat stress and drought was created by withholding water. Heat and drought stress caused reduction in plant height, tiller no, ear weight and thousand grain weights in all the studied cultivars. Heat stress caused maximum reduction in plant height in PBW 343 and PBW 550 while minimum reduction was in HD 2967 and PBW 621 and C 306. Heat stress caused more reduction in tiller no as compare to drought stress. Maximum reduction in thousand grain weight was in cultivar PBW 343 and PBW 550 while minimum reduction was in PBW 621 and C 306 under drought and heat stress. The results indicated that both the stresses caused significant reduction for all physiological parameters but high temperature has more impact in comparison to drought. Ap-11 vAriAtions Among riCe LAndrACes in terms of ABiotiC stress toLerAnCe At PhenotyPiC And genotyPiC LeveL Bharathkumar s., Pragnya P.J., Jitendra K., Archana B., singh o.n. and reddy J.n. Crop Improvement Division, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack -753006, India Author for correspondence: bharathkumar76@gmail.com Abstract Rice landraces are the groups of lineages that originated and evolved in the field over millennia through selective breeding by generations of farmers. Each landrace has particular properties or characteristics; early maturity, adaptation to particular soil types, resistance or tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses, and in the expected end usage of the grains. India is home to many such landraces and beginning from the 1960s, a large number of these landraces have been replaced with modern varieties introduced over the past four decades. In the present study, number of one hundred-twenty four landraces of rice was screened for detection of tolerance to various abiotic stresses. In submergence screening, from these landraces, we selected a number of 19 landraces as submergence tolerant in the range of 60-100 per cent survival rate. Furthermore, in molecular analysis for checking multiple abiotic stress tolerance, we documented the presence of gene specific alleles which are associated with various abiotic stresses such as salinity, drought, cold and heat in these landraces and we identified the association of a single genotype with more than one stress tolerance. In this analysis, we recorded only a few genotypes (6) associated with tolerance to three or four abiotic stresses (such as submergence, salinity, drought, cold and heat) as well as more number of genotypes for single stress (i.e. 19 genotypes to salinity, 43 genotypes to drought, 54 genotypes to cold and 60 genotypes to heat stress). In this analysis, we found various combinations of stress tolerance in these genotypes i.e. 33 genotypes for cold and heat, 19 genotypes for drought and cold, 15 genotypes for salt and cold, 13 350 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” genotypes for drought and heat, 12 genotypes for salt and heat, 6 genotypes for submergence and heat/submergence and drought, 5 genotypes for submergence and cold/salt and drought, 1 genotype for submergence and salt stress. This analysis is provided the genetic information of rice landraces in order to understand the feasibility for usage as well as combination of QTL/genes to help in rice breeding programme. Key words: Rice landraces, multiple abiotic stress tolerance, gene-specific marker, quantitative trait locus. Ap-12 stABiLity AnALysis in tArAmirA in three environment Conditions (eruCA sAtIVA miLL.) Babu Lal Jat1, m.L. Jakhar2 Ph.D Scholar, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, College of Agriculture, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India Email Id. dudipbg@gmail.com 2 Professor, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Jobner, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India 1 ABstrACt Forty-two genotypes of taramira (Eruca sativa Mill.) were evaluated for genetic parameters of variation and stability of yield and its related traits over three different environments created by three dates of sowing during Rabi 2009–2010. Environment-wise analysis of variance revealed that in first environment significant differences were observed for all the characters except oil content, in second environment significant differences were observed for all the characters except seed yield and test weight, where as in third environment, days to maturity showed non-significant difference. The stability analysis following Eberhart and Russell model revealed that based on stability parameters the genotypes RTM-619, RTM715 and RTM-751 were found suitable for optimum sowing conditions. Genotypes RTM-603, RTM-644,RTM-673, RTM707, RTM-754 and RTM-781 were found stable and desirable, therefore, these genotypes should be used in hybridisation programme to get segregantes, which will also be high yielding. Keywords: Genotype, Genotype x environment interaction, Taramira, Stability. environments Ap-13 sCreening of musKmeLon genotyPes for drought toLerAne through osmoti stress induCed By PoLyethyLene gLyCoL (Peg)-6000 sheshnath mishra* KantiLal solanki*, dr.shekharBhargav and dr. A.K. sharma * Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Plant Breeding, College of Agriculture, SKRAU, Bikaner-334006 E-mail: cool_ajm_121@yahoo.co.in ABstrACt A set of 10 genotypes of CucumismeloL. (muskmelon) were screened for drought tolerance using PEG-6000 under invitro conditions. Seeds were sown in tubes on Paper Bridge, made by using what mannumber two filter paper and saturated with 1/4th MS media and 16/8 hours light/dark photoperiod and 2500-3000 lux light intensity. Stress conditions were created by supplying 10 ml PEG-6000 (8%) to each tube. Observations were taken on root length, shoot length and days taken in germination of seeds. The root length, shoot length an overall decreasing trend with increasing unstressed plants. Simulation of all these parameters indicated that out of ten genotypes of muskmelon only two genotypes IIHR-RM-380 and IIHR-RM-595 showed drought tolerant. 351 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-14 PerformAnCe of PeArL miLLet genotyPes in terms of PhenoLogy And yieLd under different environments Arvind Kumar yadav*, Anil Kumar, r d Jat and K m Choudhary *Ccs Haryana Agricultural Universiyt Hisar Email: yadav.arvind580@gmail.Com Abstract The present experiment was conducted at Research Farm Area of Crop Physiology, Department of Agronomy, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar during kharif seasons of 2011 and 2012 to study the four genotypes viz. HHB 67 Improved, HHB 197, HHB 223, and HHB 234 under two environments viz. rain fed and irrigated were tested in factorial randomized block design with three replications. Results showed that all the phenological events including 50% flowering and maturity were early under rain fed condition than irrigated situation except days taken to emergence and five leaf stage. Among the genotypes, HHB 67 ‘Improved’ was earliest to reach various phenophases than all other genotypes. The grain yield under irrigated condition was higher compared to rainfed environment and increase was 28.4% under irrigated condition. The interaction effect between environment x genotypes for grain yield was found significant. The genotypes behaved differently under two environments. Interaction effect showed that maximum grain yield was recorded by the genotype HHB 223 under the irrigated environment whereas under rain fed situation, this genotype had the lowest yield. Under rain fed situation, HHB 234 (26.72 q ha-1) was highest yielder than all other genotypes. Ap-15 heterosis for yieLd And its AttriButing trAits in CuCumBer (CuCumIs sAtIVus L.) P.s. BrAr*, gurPreet singh, And r.K.dhALL Department of Vegetable Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004 *Email: pau_brar@yahoo.com Abstract Eight genetically divergent inbred lines were crossed in a diallel pattern excluding reciprocal during April-May of 2007. The experimental material consisted of eight inbred parents, twenty eight hybrids and one check (Punjab Naveen) was replicated thrice in a randomized complete block design to check the performance. Cross combination of ACC-1 X ACC-4 and ACC-2 x ACC-6 showed 39.25 and 32.23 heterosis for yield over standard check, respectively. Key Words: Cucumber, Diallel, Heterosis, Yield. Ap-16 heterosis studies for yieLd And WAter use effiCienCy in forAge sorghum [sOrGHum BICOlOr (L.) moenCh] minal goyal, r.K. Bajaj and B.s.gill Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India. email: minalgoyal@rediffmail.com Abstract Sorghum is an important fodder crop of Punjab during Kharif season. There is deficiency of fodder during this season and increase in productivity through hybrid breeding is a viable solution. The topcross offers some advantages over single cross hybrids and are easy to breed. Water stress is one of the major causes for crop losses worldwide, Therefore, the 352 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” present investigation was planned to study the worthfulness of top cross hybrids for the improvement of yield and water use efficiency (WUE) through assessing the extent of heterosis for these traits. For this purpose 15 male sterile lines were crossed to four random mating populations to generate 60 topcrosses and heterosis over respective male parents was estimated for forage yield and physiological traits affecting WUE in 2012. Eighteen crosses exhibited positive heterosis for green fodder yield ranging upto 24.7%. These crosses involved the cms lines viz., 94003A, 940012A, NSS1002A, NSS1007A, 2077A and AKMS-14A with HC308 as pollinator 940056A, 2077A, NSS1007A and NSS1008A with Ramkel as pollinator NSS1008A, NSS1006A, 94003A, 2077A, AKMS-14A, AKMS27-A, NSS1005A and 94002A with RSSV-9 as pollinator. Twenty-two crosses expressed positive heterosis upto 57.4% for dry fodder yield. For relative leaf water content heterosis ranged up to 25.8% and was exhibited by 34 top crosses. A similar trend was observed for leaf area index where 44 top crosses manifested positive heterosis ranged upto 483.0%. Thirty four top crosses showed maximum positive heterosis for photosynthetic capacity upto 46.4%. Heterosis ranged upto 107.3% for specific leaf weight and 425% for proline content manifested by 34 and 39 hybrids, respectively. The presence of considerable amount of heterosis over male parents proved that the top cross hybrids were better than their respective male parents and can be considered for further evaluation in the future breeding programs. Ap-17 genetiCs of some hortiCuLturAL trAits in musKmeLon (CuCumIsmelO L.) nirmal singh*,v.K. vashisht Department of Vegetable Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India *nirmalpau84@rediffmail.com Abstract Muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.) is an important cucurbitaceous crop relished for its sweet taste. The present investigation was aimed at the mode of inheritance of some horticultural traits in muskmelon by evaluating biparental progenies (BIPs) which were developed and statistically analyzed by North Carolina Design-III. The sixteen BIPs of two crosses, IC-274014 × Punjab Sunehri and IC-274014 × MM-28 were evaluated.For node at which first pistillate flower opens, the BIPS of cross IC-274014 × Punjab Sunehri showed that additive genetic variance was highly significant but variance due to dominance was non-significant. The average degree of dominance was less than one. For polar diameter of fruit, both additive genetic variance and dominance variance were significant but the value of additive genetic variance was more than double to that of dominance variance. The average degree of dominance was nearly one but the value of additive genetic variance was highly significant and variance due to dominance was non-significant for equatorial diameter of fruit. The average degree of dominance was less than one.Vine length results were obtained in value of additive genetic variance and dominance variance were highly significant but the value of additive genetic variance was more than the dominance variance. The average degree of dominance was more than one. Similarly, the BIPs of cross IC-274014 × MM-28, exhibited significant additive genetic variance but variance due to dominance was non-significant and the average degree of dominance was less than one for node at which first pistillate flower opens. But additive genetic variance was highly significant and dominance variance was non-significant in case of polar diameter of fruit. The average degree of dominance was less than one. For equatorial diameter of fruit, additive genetic variance was significant and dominance variance was highly significant. The average degree of dominance was more than one but in case of vine length, additive genetic variance and dominance variance were significant but additive genetic variance was higher than the dominance variance. The average degree of dominance was equal to one. 353 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-18 genetiC vAriABiLity, heritABiLity And genetiC AdvAnCe in tomAto (sOlAnum lyCOpersICum L.) genotyPes under ProteCted environment Parveen sharma, yashi sadhwi, vidyasagar, Pardeep Kumar and neelam Bhardwaj* Department of Vegetable Science and Floriculture, CSKHPKV, Palampur – 176062 E-mail: *dr.sharma69@rediffmail.com ABstrACt India is the second largest vegetable producer after China with 11% production share in the world. It is second largest producer of tomato followed by potato at global level. Tomato is a premier vegetable crop of round the year and one of the prominent eco-industrial crops of India generating sizeable employment. Ripe fresh tomato fruit is consumed fresh as salads and consumed after cooking and utilized in the preparation of range of processed products such as puree, paste, powder, ketchup, sauce, soup and canned whole fruits. Unripe green fruits are used for preparation of pickles and chutney. Tomatoes are important source of lycopene (an antioxidant), ascorbic acid and β-carotene and valued for their colour and flavour. Considering the potential of this crop, there is a need for genetic improvement and to develop varieties suited to specific agro-ecological conditions for open and protected cultivation. A thorough knowledge regarding the amount of genetic variability existing for various characters is essential for initiating the crop improvement programme. The present study was aimed to investigate the yield and quality traits in tomato in order to generate information regarding the extent of genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance in Solanum lycopersicum L. The experiment was laid under Randomized Block Design with three replications at CSK Himachal Pradesh Agriculture University, Palampur in 2011-12 to investigate the genetic variability among fourteen hybrids. Analysis of coefficient of variation revealed that magnitude of phenotypic coefficient of variation was higher than genotypic coefficient of variation for all the characters under study. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance was observed for number of marketable fruits per plant, total number of fruits per plant, marketable yield per plant, gross yield per plant, plant height, number of nodes, plant survival and acidity indicates the presence of additive gene action and these traits are likely to respond better to selection based on phenotypic performance. Low heritability in combination with low genetic advance was observed for days to first harvest, pericarp thickness and TSS content which means these characters are more under the influence of non-additive gene action do not respond to selection. For the remaining traits, heritability estimates were high to moderate coupled with moderate to low genetic advance. Ap-19 genetiC vAriABiLity, ChArACter AssoCiAtion And genetiC divergenCe in oKrA (ABelmOsCHus esCulentus L. moenCh.) Pravin Kumar sharma, Amit Kumar Pandey, g.C. yadav and Pankaj rai Department of Vegetable Science, N.D. University of Agriculture & Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad-224 229 (U.P.) India Email: *pravin.veg@gmail.com Abstract The present investigation was executed at Main Experiment Station of Department of Vegetable Science, Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, Narendra Nagar (Kumarganj), Faizabad. During kharif, 2012, to assess variability, heritability and genetic advance for quantitative characters, estimate correlation coefficients among the important economic traits and, find out the direct and indirect effect of yield components on yield by path coefficient analysis and judge the genetic divergence within the genotypes for various quantitative traits. Experiment material for the study was consisted of 24 genotypes including four checks (Pusa Sawani, Arka Anamika, Arka Abhay and VRO-6). The experiment was conducted in Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Each treatments consisted of 18 plants in two row, having spacing of 60 cm x 30 cm. Observations were recorded on ten quantitative characters viz., 354 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” days to 50% flowering, plant height (cm), primary branches per plant, nodes per plant, days to first harvest, fruits per plant, fruit length (cm), fruit circumference (cm), fruit weight (g) and fruit yield per plant (g). The analysis of variance for the design of experiment indicated highly significant differences among the genotypes for all the characters. Based on mean performance of genotypes NDO-29 followed by NDO-52,and NDO-33 were found as most promising genotypes for fruit yield per plant. High magnitude of variability were observed in case of fruit yield per plant followed by primary branches per plant, average fruit weight, fruit length, fruits per plant, plant height and. Days to 50 per cent flowering exhibited low value of variability. High heritability coupled with high genetic advance in per cent of mean were observed in case fruit yield per plant followed by average fruit weight, plant height, fruit length and fruit per plant indicating opportunity for selection response. The fruit weight, fruit length and fruits per plant and primary branches plant showed positive and desirable association with fruit yield and selection of these traits would be effective for yield improvement in okra. The highest magnitude of positive effect showed major contribution towards yield per plant was exerted by fruit weight. While substantial positive indirect effect were exerted by fruit per plant and negative indirect effect exerted by days to 50% flowering towards fruit yield per plant. Ap-20 genetiC diversity in PigeonPeA (CAJAnus CAJAn L.) using rAPd AnALysis grover sheetanshu and grewal satvir Kaur Department of Biochemistry, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India 146004 Email : *sheetanshugrover@gmail.com Abstract 10 pigeonpea genotypes (AL 1770, AL 1495, AL 1747, AL 1735, AL 201, AL 15, AL 1755, AL 1677, AL 1753 and PAU 881) were obtained from Pulses Section, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Young shoots from one-week old seedlings were ground in excess liquid nitrogen and plant genomic DNA was extracted using CTAB method. 20 RAPD primers obtained from Operon Biotechnologies, Germany were used for DNA amplification. The amplified PCR products were resolved using horizontal electrophoresis unit. Resolving powers and Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) values were calculated to test the efficiency of these parameters in identifying primers that could best distinguish the cultivars. 128 bands were produced with 20 primers, out of which 102 are polymorphic, with 81.9% polymorphism. Number of bands produced with RAPD primers varied from 3 to 13, average being 6.4. Ten out of twenty primers gave 100% polymorphism. Jaccard similarity coefficient ranged from 0.38679 to 0.83505. A dendrogram constructed based on the UPGMA clustering method revealed two major clusters. Genetic diversity among pigeon pea cultivars could be exploited further by increasing the number of random primers and by validating it with other available DNA markers. Ap-21 diversity in Agro-morPhoLogiCAL trAits of AmArAnth in the north - Western himALAyA 1 Anju Pathania 1*, s.K.sharma 1, J.C.rana 2 and suman Kumar 1# Mountain Agriculture Research and Extension Centre Sangla, 2 NBPGR Regional Station, Phagli, Shimla, # Senior Research Fellow, * Corresponding author, email: anju_pathania@rediffmail.com Abstract Assessment of genetic diversity helps in identification of diverse parental combinations to create segregating progenies with maximum genetic variability and facilitates introgression of desirable genes from diverse germplasm in to the available genetic base. In the present study, fifty three accessions of amaranth from different parts of India were evaluated consecutively two years at Mountain Agriculture Research and Extension Centre, Sangla, Kinnaur (2590m amsl) to study the genetic divergence among the strains. Morphological characterization revealed differences among accessions for various qualitative traits viz., growth habit, leaf color, inflorescence color, different types of inflorescences, inflorescence 355 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” compactness, stem color and seed color. Correlation studies indicated that leaf length was positively correlated with leaf width and petiole length. Days to flowering and maturity were negatively correlated with seed yield per plant. Multivariate analysis performed to assess the patterns of agro-morphological variation showed that the first five principal components accounted for ~80% of the total variability. Accessions collected from Akola, Maharashtra (280m amsl) have positive values for PC1, were suitable as leafy vegetable, whereas accessions collected from Pauri, Uttrakhand (1650m amsl) have high positive values for PC2 were suitable for seed purpose. The cluster analysis grouped the fifty three accessions of amaranth into five clusters. Diverse strains falling in different clusters were identified which can be utilized in different hybridization programme to develop high yielding varieties. Accessions IC042279-5, IC042282-1, IC042290-20, IC042290-21, IC042310-1, IC042311-6 and IC042312-4 have high seed yield/plant and early maturity and can be exploited in future amaranths breeding programme for north western Himalayan region. Ap-22 Per se PerformAnCe of gArLiC (AllIum sAtIVum) genotyPes for yieLd AttriButing trAits r.K. dhALL and P.s. BrAr Department of Vegetable Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab Email: *dhallrk2007@rediffmail.com Abstract Garlic (Allium sativum) is a commercially important spice vegetable crop grown in India. Garlic has been recognized for all over the world as a valuable spice for food as well as for its medicinal value. In order to identify large size bulbs having large clove diameter, available genotypes were tested during 2011 to find the suitable genotype for the Punjab state. The present study was conducted to investigate performance on the basis of nine morphological characteristics of 24 diverse genotypes collected from different sources. Key words: Clove, Diameter, Garlic, Genotypes Ap-23 simuLtAneous imProvement of grAin yieLd And grAin Protein ConCentrAtion in WheAt (trItICum AestIVum l.) 1 dinisha Abhishek1, silke ruppel2, s.K.sethi1, Chetan Choudhary1 and r.K.Behl1 CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004 2 Institute of Vegetable and Ornamental Crops (IGZ), Theodor-Echtermeyer-weg 1, 14979 Grossbeeren, Germany Abstract Grain yield and grain protein concentration (GPC) are important traits in global wheat breeding programmes. Improving these two traits simultaneously is difficult due to the negative association between grain yield and GPC. We investigated the relationship between grain yield and GPC in 107 F2 plants obtained from a cross between PBW 343 × KRL 19. The data in F2 population were continuous in distribution but deviated from normal distribution. Correlation coefficients revealed no clear association of grain protein concentration (GPC) with grain yield indicating that variation in grain protein is independent of yield and that simultaneous breeding advances in yield and protein are possible. Key words: Wheat, F2 population, grain yield, grain protein 356 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-24 estABLishment of genetiC Purity through BioChemiCAL tests in BArLey 1 d.P.deswal1* ; v.s.mor1; vikram singh2 & Axay Kumar1 Dept. of Seed Science and Technology 2Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding CCS Haryana Agricultural university, Hisar-125004 Email:deswaldp@gmail.com Abstract Establishment of identity and genetic purity are crucial to varietal improvement, protection of plant varieties and maintenance of seed quality in seed production programmes. Therefore, besides the plant morphological characters, the quick reliable and reproducible biochemical identification tests are also important especially of seed testing in laboratory and seed law enforcements regulations. In barley, six biochemical tests were conducted upon 27 varieties to establish the genetic identity. It was observed that the peroxidase enzyme test reaction was present only in BH 885 while in all others, there was no reaction i.e. absent. In Phenol test, brown colour was observed in BH 885, BG-25, BH 935, BH 855, BH 935, DWR 28, RD2668, K-551, BH902, BH 938, BH 933, BH 936, BH 939, and RD 2035. Only one variety BH294 gave dark brown colour.In case of Ferrous sulphate test, dark brown was observed in BH05-9, BH-941, BH 935, DWR 28 and RD 2668 while rest of the varieties (Second group) depicted light brown colour. Thus, biochemical tests would be helpful in genetic purity establishment in addition to morphological characters especially the key characters. Ap-25 evALuAtion of LentiL genotyPes for seed vigour And PrediCtion of fieLd emergenCe And storABiLity through different vigour tests d.P.deswal*1 ; v.s.mor1; rajesh yadav 2 & Axay Kumar1 Dept. of Seed Science and Technology 2Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding CCS Haryana Agricultural university, Hisar-125004 Email:deswaldp@gmail.com 1 Abstract Twenty-four genotypes of lentil were subjected to various viability and vigour tests to find out the reliable vigour test/s for the prediction of field emergence and also to evaluate the relative storability through accelerated ageing (AA) and electrical conductivity (EC) tests and simultaneously evaluate the seed vigour of the genotypes. Significant variability was observed among the genotypes for different seed vigour parameters. It was observed that field emergence (FE) had the significant positive correlation with standard germination (0.965**), AAT-48 (0.951**), seed vigour index I & II (0.898**) and (0.797**) and seedling length (0.412*) while highly negative significant correlation with E.C. (-0.927**). Standard germination (SG) was found highly significantly associated with seed vigour index I & II (VI-I & II), AAT-48h (0.982**), shoot length (Sh.L) and highly significant with E.C.(-0.930**). It is evident from the data that field emergence may be predicted by either of the single test such as SG, AAT, EC, VI-I & II and more precisely by combination of above tests. To assess the relative storability which may be judged by AAT and EC tests, it was observed that EC had the highly significant negative correlation with SG(-0.930**), AAT(-0.911**), VI-I(0.857**), VI-II (-0.710**)etc while the AAT was found highly significantly positive correlation with SG (0.987**), VI-I(0.932**), VI-II (0.810**), S.L(0.472*) and shoot length (0.441*). Thus, AAT and EC are found to be relative predicator of relative storability/longitivity. The genotypes LH09-27, LH09-3, LH09-1, LH09-13 and LH09-4 were observed as vigourous among the 24 tested genotypes 357 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-26 storABiLity BehAviour of seLfed And oPen PoLLinAted inBred Lines of PeArL miLLet in different storAge Conditions * 1 v.s. mor1; ramesh Kumar2; r.C. Punia 1& o.s.dahiya1 Dept. of Seed Science and Technology 2Dept. of Genetics and Plant Breeding CCS Haryana Agricultural university, Hisar-125004 *Email:deswaldp@gmail.com Abstract The seed of two bajra inbred lines (HBL-11 and H-77/833-2-202) was produced by open pollination and selfing under isolation. The freshly harvested seed was air-dried in January, 2012 and kept at three different storage conditions in different packaging material. There was a significant difference in the initial germination and vigour potential of open pollinated seed (90.30% and 1948.8) and selfed seed (80.50% and 1577.2). The open pollinated seed of both bajra inbreds was found superior in viability and vigour status as compared to selfed seed. To assess the suitability of packaging material with respect to storage conditions, the observations were recorded quarterly. The means across the packaging material revealed that the germination of open pollinated inbred lines was maintained above the IMSCS (75%) upto 12 months (77.83%) of storage in ambient condition. Whereas, the germination of selfed seed was maintained above the IMSCS upto 9 months (77.03%) of storage in the same condition. However, the germination potential of open pollinated inbred line was maintained upto 15 months in refrigerator (79.13%) and in incubator 20oC (77.77%). Whereas, the germination of selfed seed was maintained above the IMSCS upto 12 months (76.34%) in refrigerator and upto 9 months (78.33%) in incubator 20oC. Similar trend was also observed for vigour among all the three storage conditions in the seed of both open pollinated and selfed pollinated inbred lines . The means across the storage condition revealed that the germination of open pollinated inbred lines was maintained above the IMSCS (75%) upto 9 months (81.83%) in the cloth bags, whereas the germination of selfed seed was maintained above the IMSCS upto 6 months (76.61%) of storage. However, the germination potential of open pollinated inbred line was maintained upto 15 months in polybin (75.33%), aluminum foil (75.50%), poly bag (77.72%) and super bag (80.33%). The highest germination potential was maintained in super bag (80.33%), upto 15 months. Whereas, the germination of selfed seed was maintained above the IMSCS upto 9 months in polybin (77.28%), aluminum foil (77.89%), poly bag (78.50%), super bag (78.50%). The selfed seed was maintained upto 15 months in super bag (75.72%). Similar trend was also observed for vigour among all the packaging material in the seed of both open pollinated and selfed pollinated inbred line. Overall, it was concluded that to maintain the longevity of both types of seed, refrigerator storage in super bag was the best. Ap-27 in vitro muLtiPLiCAtion of BAnAnA (musA sPP.) Cv. grAnd nAine shahnawaz Ahmed and haseeb ur rehman Division of Fruit Science, SKUAST – J, Chatha,Jammu – 180 002 E-mail : sham_shana@yahoo.com haseebpom@gmail.com Abstract A micropropagation method is described for banana (Musa Spp.) Cv. Grand Naine. Suckers were surface sterilized with HgCl2 (0.1 %) for 6 minutes which gave minimum contamination with maximum culture establishment. Of various treatment combinations, Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium + BAP 4.00 mg/l with IAA 2.00 mg/l resulted in maximum establishment of cultures in lesser time. MS medium + BAP 4.00 mg/l + IAA 2.00 mg/l gave maximum multiple shoots. Maximum rooting was obtained on MS medium (half strength) supplemented with IBA 1.00 mg/l and activated charcoal 200 mg/l. Key words: Micropropagation , Musa Spp, Establishment and Suckers. 358 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-28 imProving nitrogen use effiCienCy in diverse genotyPes of WheAt Balraj Kaur*1, Bavita Asthir1, n.s. Bains2 Department of Biochemistry, 2Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141004, India E-mail: blrj.bains@yahoo.com 1 Abstract Application of Nitrogen fertilizers is a common practice in improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) and hence grain productivity, particularly in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). In order to determine the effect of applied nitrogen in form of urea on nitrogen metabolising enzymes, nitrogen was applied at the rate of recommended dose of nitrogen (RDN ,120 kg N/ha), sub-optimal (RDN -25% ,90 kg N/ha), supra-optimal (RDN +25%, 150 kg N/ha). Six wheat genotypes namely PBW 621, PBW 636, PBW 343, PBW 550, HD 2967, GLU 1356 were evaluated at vegetative, anthesis and post anthesis stage for Nitrate Reductase (NR), Glutamine Synthetase (GS), Glutamate Synthase (GOGAT) in relation to accumulation of protein, nitrogen content, grain yield and NUE. The increasing dose of nitrogen led to significant increase in the activity of NR, GS, GOGAT along with increasing content of nitrogen and soluble protein especially in genotypes Glu 1356, HD 2967, PBW 621. Nitrogen use efficiency was maximum in Glu 1356 followed by HD 2967, PBW 621, PBW 636, PBW 343, PBW 550. On revealed indicated that GPC-B1 gene could be responsive for higher protein and NUE especially in GLU 1356 genotypes. Ap-29 mAniPuLAting CeLL sAP nutrient in WheAt using tiLLer CuLture teChniQue gurpreet Kaur*1, Bavita Asthir1, n.s. Bains2 Department of Biochemistry, 2Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141004, India E-mail: gurpreetk2002@gmail.com 1 Abstract Nitrogen is an essential element for enhancing crop productivity especially grain protein content. Modern cultivation of wheat involves large land areas with intensive inputs of agriculture that are highly laborious in conventional breeding. Alternative way of studying nitrogen metabolism is through the use of liquid culture technique which encompasses a near in vivo condition for manipulating nutrient supplied exogenously. In this study, wheat genotypes namely, PBW 621 and PBW 343 were cultured at three concentrations of L-glutamine viz. 5 mM, 17 mM and 25 mM for 5 days and grains were used for biochemical analysis. Nitrate reductase (NR) and nitrite reductase (NIR) activities were maximum at optimum nitrogen concentration (17 mM) in both studied genotypes whereas glutamine synthetase (GS) and glutamate synthase (GOGAT) activities as well as amino acid and protein content increased with increasing concentration of nitrogen. PBW 343 showed higher NR, NIR, GS and GOGAT activities in conjunction with amino acid and protein content over PBW 621. NR and GS activities showed significant positive correlation with grain protein content and thus could be used as marker enzymes for improving nitrogen use efficiency. 359 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-30 PhysioLogiCAL QuALity of soyBeAn vArieties under ACCeLerAted Ageing Conditions simranjeet Kaur*, Jagmeet Kaur, B.s.gill and Jasdeep Kaur *Department of Botany, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Email: *jasdeep.gh@gmail.com Abstract Seed storage conditions can determine germination characteristics and vigour potential of seeds. Seeds deteriorate during storage which results in poor and uneven crop stand. Soybean seeds deteriorate much faster during storage than seeds of other grain crops with losses in seed vigour occurring prior to decline in seed germination. So, soybean seed, for planting purposes, should either be produced annually or stored in a controlled environment (low temperature and low humidity conditions) if carried over until the next planting season. The present study was undertaken to assess the performance of accelerated aged seeds for physiological quality of three varieties of soybean viz. SL 525, SL 688, and SL 744. The set of seeds was subjected to accelerated ageing by placing them in an atmosphere of high temperature (40±1°C) and high relative humidity (90%). For the physiological analysis of seeds, seed vigour, speed of germination, electrical conductivity and pH of seed leachates were studied. The speed of germination and per cent germination, in terms of normal seedlings of all the varieties was reduced nearly to 34 per cent and 68 per cent respectively after 96 hours of accelerated ageing. Seedling dry weight declined gradually with the accelerated ageing period. The pH of the seed leachates was found to be about 6.8. Electrical conductance of the seed leachates increased by almost 2.2 times of its initial value after 96 hours of accelerated ageing. The artificial ageing technique accelerates the normal ageing processes of seeds. So, accelerated ageing test is rapid, inexpensive technique for the prediction of the relative storability of seeds in a short time period and is of great use for the individual seed lot evaluation. Key words: Soybean, storage, accelerated ageing Ap-31 stAtus of AntioXidAtive enzymes in susCePtiBLe And toLerAnt mAize genotyPes under heAt stress Kamaljit Kaur1, Prabhjot Kaur saini1, Anil K gupta1, m s grewal2 and gurjit K gill2 1 Department of Biochemistry, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India 2 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India E-mail: *prabhjot_k123@yahoo.co.in Abstract Heat stress is an important abiotic factor that negatively affects plant growth and development. A well known consequence of heat stress is formation of reactive oxygen species leading to oxidative stress. This can be very effectively combatted by antioxidative enzymes. The present investigation was thus aimed at studying the alterations brought about by heat stress in activities of antioxidative enzymes in maize seedlings. Maize genotypes, susceptible (LM11, SE565) and tolerant (CML25, SE544, CML32) were grown at 25±1°C for 4 days in plastic cups. After fourth day, half of the cups were given heat stress treatment by transferring them to 40±1°C. Activities of antioxidant enzymes were determined in the roots and shoots on 8th day after germination. Heat stress inhibited growth of maize seedlings. A significant decrease in root and shoot length was observed in both tolerant and susceptible genotypes under heat stress conditions. Under heat stress conditions specific activity of ascorbate peroxidase was significantly higher in the roots of susceptible genotypes as compared to the tolerant ones. A decrease in catalase and peroxidase activity was observed in shoots of susceptible genotypes while it was not affected in tolerant genotypes. Glutathione reductase also showed decreased specific activity on exposure to heat stress. The unaffected peroxidase and catalase activities in shoots of heat tolerant genotypes might be responsible for their stress tolerance behaviour. Keywords: antioxidative enzymes, heat stress, maize 360 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-32 rAPid Assessment of guAr seed viABiLity through LABorAtory teChniQues o.s. dahiya*, v.s. mor and v.P. sangwan Department of Seed Science & Technology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004 (Haryana) *Email ID- osd_sst@rediffmail.com Abstract Seed is the basic propagating material for the agriculture. Seed is not just a link between two generations of plants; it is the link between the researcher and the farmer. Availability of quality planting material, including seed and vegetative propagules is of fundamental importance to the farmers and it alone is responsible for the present day technological advances. For a crop species the basic need of certain minimum environmental condition and time required for germination test has necessitated the search for a quick and effective test to predict seed viability which helps in timely processing and marketing of the seed. This has become more relevant in the fast expanding seed trade and marketing of costly seeds. Hence, rapid laboratory tests are the outcome of the efforts to search for quick and reliable methods of determining seed viability. An experiment was conducted in the research field area and laboratories of Seed Science & Technology, CCS HAU, Hisar on fifteen seed-lots of three varieties (HG-2-20, HG-365 and HG-563) of guar to find out the quick viability test. Results revealed that standard germination was found significantly and positively associated with quick viability test i.e. tetrazolium test (0.985**), pH exudates test (0.978**), and accelerated ageing test (09.907**) indicating the reliability of these quick tests to predict the standard germination of guar varieties seed. So it was concluded from this study that standard germination, which takes longer time i.e. atleast 14 days to be completed, can be predicted by these quick and reliable laboratory tests which can be completed in a couple of hours.. Key words: Viability, Accelerated Ageing, Guar, Standard germination and Tetrazolium Ap-33 studies on seedLing emergenCe forCes for vigour determinAtion in snAPBeAn (PhAseoLus vuLgAris) sher singh verma and Alan g. taylor* Department of Seed Science and Technology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004, Haryana, India * Professor (Seed Technology) Department of Horticultural Sciences, NYSAES, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, USA Abstract The present investigation comprised of a commercial seed lot of snapbean (Phaseolus vulgaris) variety LABRADOR`was conducted at New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, USA. The seeds were initially equilibrated at 70.0 per cent relative humidity in Plexiglas chambers above a mixture of glycerol: water and then the seeds were placed at 45°C temperature for 2, 3 and 4 weeks for ageing treatment. The results revealed that the hypocotyl was visible at sand surface after 52, 62, 72 and 96 hours in 0, 2, 3 and 4 weeks aged seedlings, respectively. The number of seedlings involved in emerging forces in different seed lots varied from 50 to 28 and it was observed that the 4 weeks aged seeds showed less number of emerged seedlings. Maximum force (N) decreased as the ageing period of the seed was increased. The force ranged from 2.65 to 6.69 N/h in all the four seed lots. The four week aged seeds had shown less force per hour (2.65 N/h).The less vigorous seeds showed less force per hour. The maximum force in different seed lots ranged from 140 to 250 N. It was concluded that the inherent seed quality or seed vigour had been shown to be related to emergence capacity. A Easter emergence seedling had a better chance of escaping the physical barrier of a hard crust due to its high vigour. Hence, seed quality may play a role as rate of germination, is influenced by vigour. The use of force transducer interfaced with a chart recorder was found best method for vigour determination on the basis of seedling emergence force. 361 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-34 in vitro resPonse of eXPLAnt shoot tiP in hot PePPer (CAPsiCum Annuum L.) hira singh, t. s. dhillon and s. s. gosal1 Department of Vegetable Science, PAU, Ludhiana-141 004 E-mail: *hira@pau.edu Abstract Efficient in vitro plant regeneration by direct organogenesis was achieved in Punjab Guchhedar cultivar of hot pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Shoot tip as explant, excised from aseptically grown seedlings of different ages viz., 8, 16, 24 and 32 days were cultured on different MS based medium. Shoot tips collected from 24-day-old seedlings elicited maximum survival and subsequent shoot regeneration (59.22%) on MS medium containing 6.0 mgl-1 BAP, 3.0 mgl-1 Kin and 1.0 mgl1 IAA, while maximum average shoot number (2.70) per explant was also recorded on the same medium of 16-day-old explant. MS medium supplemented with 2.5 mgl-1 BAP, 0.5 mgl-1 IAA and 1.0 mgl-1 GA3 was the better medium for shoot elongation. After 12-16 days of culture, elongated shoots were cultured on rooting induction medium i.e., half strength MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mgl-1 IBA for 8 days, followed by 6 days on half strength MS basal medium. Complete plantlets were hardened, transferred in the polythene bags and then earthen pots. Key words: Capsicum annuum, Hot pepper, multiple shoots, Punjab Guchhedar, Shoot tips Ap-35 A study on fLorAL PhenoLogy And stigmA reCePtivity of PedALium mureX L. (BArA goKhAru) Kanti Lal solanki*, sheshnath mishra*, shravan Kumar sharma and s. Bhargava Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, *Ph.D. Scholar, College of Agriculture, SKRAU, Bikaner (Rajasthan) Email: kantipbg@gmail.com Abstract A field experiment was conducted during Kharif, 2007-08 on Pedalium murex, collected from Ajmer district under NATP (National Agricultural Technology Project) on biodiversity of medicinal plants, at Research Farm, Agricultural Research Station, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner (Hot Arid Eco region with desert and saline soil. P. murex is an annual plant, which can grow throughout the year except December to February and remains in flowering for a long duration. Flowers are hermaphrodite, open, bright yellow in colour and nectary is present. It was observed that anthesis was maximum in early hours of the day and on the day of anthesis, flower opening, anther dehiscence and stigma receptivity took place within 2 to 6 hrs. The flower initiation took place within 26- 34 days with a mean of 29.4. Fifty per cent plant came into flowering within 33-38 days. 124196 flowers appeared on a plant in a month. The flower in Pedalium is pentamerous, zygomorphic hermaphrodite, with four stamens (8.32 9.53 mm). A vestigial stamen was also found. Presence of vestigial stamens is not reported earlier. Mean corolla tube length was 2.86 cm with a diameter of 2.30 cm. Anthers were bilobed with a mean length of 1.41 mm. On an average, 277.22 pollens were present in an anther and 1108.91 pollens were present in a flower. A single obliquely capitate stigma was present, with a style length of 10.14 mm. Anthesis started early in the morning, maximum (89.2%) taking place between 6.00 -9.00 am. Anthers started dehiscing since 6.00 am and by 9.00 am, 100 per cent anthers dehisced. Stigma was, although found to be receptive 3 day before the anthesis, the frequency was very low (4-8%). Maximum receptivity of the stigma was observed on the day of anthesis. It was maximum (88%) at 6.00 am, declined to half (48%) by 11.00 am and no receptivity was noticed after 2.00 pm. Anthesis, dehiscence and stigma receptivity declined as the day temperature rose. It took about 29.59 days for a fruit to mature from the day of anthesis. In Pedalium, Pollination is of mixed type and floral phenology has attributes both for self and cross pollination. It is highly self compatible with lots of flexibility for cross pollination but there is predominance for autogamy. In Pedalium, there is lot of scope for cross pollination due to· flower structure, presence of nectary and visitation of insects. 362 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-36 PerformAnCe of guAvA vArieties under semiArid Conditions of PunJAB navjot gupta*, m.i.s gill and n.K. Arora Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Station Bathinda- 1510 01, India E-mail: *navjot_bti@yahoo.co.in Abstract A trial was conducted to study the performance of nine guava cultivars viz. Allahabad Safeda, Sardar Guava, Apple colour, Arka Amulaya, Behat Coconut, Hisar Surkha, Hybrid Bahadhurgarh, Banglori Seedling and Portugal at PAU, Regional Station, Bathinda. Data were recorded on tree height, growth habits, plant, leaf, fruit and seed characteristics. Among all the varieties tree height was recorded significantly higher (3.63 m) in Red Fleshed. The plant spread ranging from (N-S) 3.17 to 4.89 m, plant spread (E-W) 3.64 to 4.63m, leaf length 10.87 to 14.33m, leaf breadth 4.56 to 6.67 m and petiole size 0.51 to 0.81 mm. The fruit size w.r.t fruit length and fruit breadth ranged from 4.36 to 7.12 cm and 4.87 to 6.47 cm respectively and was recorded significantly higher in Sardar Guava. The TSS was recorded significantly higher (13.27) in Hisar Surkha. Likewise, the acidity in different varieties ranged from 0.14 to 0.26. The fruit weight and fruit yield was recorded significantly higher in Sardar Guava. The seed size ranged from medium to bold. Seed content was recorded significantly higher in Banglori Seedling. The seed surface was smooth and seed was semi soft to hard in all the varieties. Among all the varieties Sardar Guava showed outstanding performance in terms of fruit size, weight and yield. Key words: Guava, fruit characteristics, quality, yield. Ap-37 infLuenCe of hydroPriming on AntioXidAnt resPonse of WheAt (tritiCum Aestivum L.) seedLings rachana d Bhardwaj, himanshu sharma, Anupam sharma and Anil K gupta Department of Biochemistry, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 141 004, India Email: himanshu.pau@gmail.com Abstract The present study was undertaken to study the influence of hydropriming on seedling growth and antioxidant response of two wheat cultivars with contrasting behaviour for drought tolerance. The genotypes used in this study included PBW 175 (drought tolerant) and PBW 621 (drought sensitive). For this, wheat seeds were pre-treated with water and germinated in plastic cups containing untreated and well irrigated soil. The cups were placed in an incubator at 25±1ºC in the dark. Growth data was taken at 6th day after germination (DAG) and enzymatic and non-enzymatic components of antioxidative defense system were estimated at 4th and 6th DAG. In general, hydropriming promoted seedling growth of wheat by increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes viz. superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POX) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), contents of non-enzymatic antioxidants viz. ascorbate and total phenols accompanied by decreased H2O2 content. Superoxide dismutase activity increased to greater extent in hydroprimed PBW 175 seedlings as compared to PBW 621. Peroxidase activity was significantly higher in PBW 175 seedlings when compared with PBW 621. Correlation between PPO activity and total phenolic content indicated that increase of total phenolic content in hydroprimed PBW 175 seedlings could be due to denovo synthesis of these compounds. Hydropriming did not affect proline and malondialdehyde contents of wheat seedlings. From the profile of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, POX, and APX), non-enzymatic components (ascorbate and total phenols) and H2O2 content, it can be inferred that hydropriming improved seedling growth of wheat by promoting antioxidant response. Keywords: Antioxidant response, hydropriming and wheat. 363 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-38 identifiCAtion of stem rust resistAnCe genes in eLite BreAd WheAt genotyPes manoj saini*, sK singh, P sharma, v tiwari and indu sharma Directorate of Wheat Research, Karnal-132001, India Email : *saini.manoj2@gmail.com Abstract Stem rust (Puccinia graminis f. sp. Tritici) is major wheat disease causing significant losses to wheat productivity worldwide especially in warmer areas. The availability of specific linked molecular markers makes the detection of multiple genes in a genotype possible. An attempt was undertaken to identify stem rust resistance genes in wheat genotypes used in warmer area wheat improvement programme using molecular markers for their further utilization. Genomic DNA was isolated from seedlings of 119 bread wheat genotypes and screened with seven DNA markers (SSR/Stm/SCAR) to track the presence/absence of stem rust (Sr) resistance genes namely, Sr2, Sr22, Sr24, Sr25, Sr36, Sr38 and Sr39. DNA markers Xgwm533 (Sr2 gene), CFA2019 (Sr22), Gb(Sr25), and Stm773 (Sr36) gave reproducible results, whereas Sr24#12, Sr38# and Sr39#22 failed to amplify any fragments. SSR markers Xgwm533 (~120bp), CFA2019 (235bp), Gb (130bp), Stm773 (~185bp) gave diagnostic bands in 95(79.83%), 13(10.92%), 6(5.04%) & 78(63.86%) genotypes, respectively. Out of 119, ten genotypes showed presence of three Sr genes Sr2, Sr22 and Sr36 whereas 62 lines showed presence of two Sr genes in combination. presently Sr2, Sr22 and Sr25 remains effective for resistance against race Ug99 and therefore, presence of these genes can be exploited in incorporating stem rust resistance in future wheat genotypes. In this regard, nine genotypes (GW366, PBW175, WH147, GW428, 21stSAWSN159, PHS719, 25thSAWSN3041, 25thSAWSN3117 and 40th IBWSN 1068) possessing Sr2+Sr22 and four genotypes (MP 1250, 25thSAWSN3008, 25thSAWSN33178 and 15thHRWYT205) having Sr2+Sr25 were found promising. As most of the promising genotypes identified for presence of these genes in the study were suitable for the targeted areas, they can be efficiently utilized in breeding programmes with integration of marker assisted selection for enhanced wheat productivity coupled with disease resistance. Ap-39 stress induCiBLe eXPression of gLyoXALAse i gene greAtLy imProves sALinity toLerAnCe in trAnsgeniC indiCA And JAPoniCA riCe saroj Kumar sah*, AjinderKaur, Jagdeep singh sandhu, satbir singh gosal School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 001, India *Email: saroj-biotec@pau.edu Abstract Can Mother Earth feed more than 9 billion by 2050?By 2050, the world’s population will reach 9.1 billion. In order to feed the whole population, global agricultural production should be increased by 60-110 per cent. The abiotic stresses are greatly responsible for lowering agriculture production so now abiotic stresses is a major area of concern to fulfill the required food demand. The major abiotic stresses which threat to food security world-wide are high salinity, drought, submerge tolerance and cold. Among these abiotic stresses, salinity is one of the major factors which limit productivity of crop plants world-wide. Much research has focused on identifying salinity tolerance genes that will contribute towards the development of tolerant crop plants in in rice. Rice is one of most important crops for mankind and it accounts for 50 to 80 per cent of their daily calorie intake. The glyoxalase I gene isolated from Brassica juncea, has been reported to enhance stress tolerance against salt stress. We developed transgenic rice plants with glyoxalase I gene in the background of indica rice cv PR118 (high yielding variety in Punjab) and japonica rice cv Kitaake through particle gun mediated transformation. The GlyI gene was stably inherited and expressed in T1plants, as indicated by the results of PCR, absolute and relative quantification byqPCR. Function of gene was also confirmed by leaf disc assay method. Transgenic lines showed significantly higher salt stress tolerant relative to non-transgenic control. Keywords: Salinity tolerance, Glyoxalase I gene, Transgenic rice 364 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-40 studies on seedLing emergenCe forCes for vigour determinAtion in snAPBeAn (PhAseoLus vuLgAris) sher singh verma and Alan g. taylor* Department of Seed Science And Technology, Ccs Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004, Haryana, India Abstract The present investigation comprised of a commercial seed lot of snapbean (Phaseolus vulgaris) variety. LABRADOR`was conducted at New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, USA. The seeds were initially equilibrated at 70.0 per cent relative humidity in Plexiglas chambers above a mixture of glycerol: water and then the seeds were placed at 45°C temperature for 2, 3 and 4 weeks for ageing treatment. The results revealed that the hypocotyl was visible at sand surface after 52, 62, 72 and 96 hours in 0, 2, 3 and 4 weeks aged seedlings, respectively. The number of seedlings involved in emerging forces in different seed lots varied from 50 to 28 and it was observed that the 4 weeks aged seeds showed less number of emerged seedlings. Maximum force (N) decreased as the ageing period of the seed was increased. The force ranged from 2.65 to 6.69 N/h in all the four seed lots. The four week aged seeds had shown less force per hour (2.65 N/h).The less vigorous seeds showed less force per hour. The maximum force in different seed lots ranged from 140 to 250 N. It was concluded that the inherent seed quality or seed vigour had been shown to be related to emergence capacity. A Easter emergence seedling had a better chance of escaping the physical barrier of a hard crust due to its high vigour. Hence, seed quality may play a role as rate of germination, is influenced by vigour. The use of force transducer interfaced with a chart recorder was found best method for vigour determination on the basis of seedling emergence force. Key words: Plexiglas chambers, hypocotyl, force transducer, Chart recorder, emergence force, vigour Ap-41 study the genetiC divergenCe Among different genotyPes through d2 And moLeCuLAr mArKer AnALysis in gArLiC (ALLium sAtivum L.) Chandanshive Aniket vilas1, sabina islam1, subodh Joshi1, m K rana2 A d munshi1 Division of Vegetable Science, IARI, 2NRC on DNA Fingerprinting, NBPGR, Pusa Campus, IARI, New Delhi-1100 012 Email: *aniketchandan@gmail.com 1 Abstract Diversity is the prime importance for crop improvement, for achieving this objective present study focus on diversity analysis in garlic. The experiment comprising 35 genotypes of A. Sativum including few commercial cultivars collected from different parts of the country and maintained in the Division of Vegetable Science, IARI, New Delhi was conducted to analyse diversity at morphological and molecular levels. The 11 yield related quantitative traits were studied and subjected to Mahalanobis D2 analysis. Among 60 primers screened, 21 were polymorphic and informative enough to analyse these genotypes. A total of 120 markers were generated with 97.69% of polymorphism. Each primer amplified between three and nine bands. Based on molecular analysis, pair-wise genetic distance (GD) ranged from 0.25 to 0.84, suggesting a wide genetic base for the genotypes. Based on morphological diversity, the genotypes were grouped into 8 clusters, while based on molecular analysis, they were clustered into 3 groups. Diversity based on morphological and molecular data was not in consonance with ecological distribution. The study showed that multivariate analysis method could be a useful way to discriminate the garlic genotypes. 365 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-42 CytoLogiCAL studies on some grAsses from rAJAsthAn (indiA) harbans singh,r.C.gupta and m.i.s. saggoo Department of Botany,Punjabi University,Patiala-147002,Punjab Department of Botany,Govt.College for Girls,Patiala-147001(Pb)India Email:harbanssingh63@yahoo.com Abstract Grasses,members of the family Poaceae constitute good part of vegetation of Earth.Theses are represented by 620 genera and 10,000 species(Airy Shaw 1973).From the Indian sub-continent 250 genera and 1,275 species have been recognized (Bor 1960). From the Rajasthan state 46 genera and 91 species have been recognized.These are cosmopolitan in distribution and are present from sea level to high alpine regions.Economically, the family provides 50% of the world’s calories .Cytogenetically, grasses form a very important group of plants as various phenomenon such as polyploidy,aneuploidy,h ybridization,apomixes etc. are well represented in the family.Chromosomal data is of paramount importance for any type of breeding program, Thus their improvement,exploitation and utilization in developing a good human society needs great attention.Very little work have been made on the cytology of grasses from Rajasthan. Due to this lacuna present study is taken up and 12 genera and 20 species have been worked out cytologically. Cynodon dactylon 2n=16 is the first report from Rajasthan.Leptochloa panicea shows the presence of 2n=20+1B chromosomes.Polypogon monspliensis 2n=14,28 gives 2x and 4x cytotype. Most of the species show meiotic abnormalities like presence of chromatin stickiness at MetaphaseI,chromatin bridges,laggards,cytomixis in different stages (Prophase I & Telophase II ),which have their effect on pollen viability. Ap-43 suitABiLity of synthetiC seed teChnoLogy for storAge And germPLAsm distriBution of ArAndA doLA miAh, An imPortAnt orChid saikat gantait1,2, roshan yelne1*, uma rani sinniah2 Department of Biotechnology, Instrumentation and Environmental Science, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, W.B. 741252, India 2Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang Selangor, Malaysia *E-mail: yroshan2007@gmail.com 1 Abstract Aranda Dola Miah, a monopodial orchid hybrid, forms the mainstay of orchid industry in the tropics. Being a vandaceous orchid it has practical implication for its medicinal value, apart from its handsome long-lasting flowers. As the best alternative to conventional approach, tissue culture via somatic embryogenesis is the most accepted method for regeneration of large scale orchid propagules in short span. Furthermore, synthetic seed technology through encapsulation of somatic embryos offers an effective method for short-term storage, exchange of germplasms, and direct transfer to ex vitro conditions. The present study is thus concerned with the apposite encapsulation techniques for storage and distribution of Aranda Dola Miah. Prior to the production of synthetic seeds, the best developmental stage of somatic embryos for increased conversion to plantlet was determined. Somatic embryos at heart stage were employed, for encapsulation with sodium alginate to form synthetic seeds, based on their regeneration efficiency. The synthetic seeds were cultured onto ½MS medium and were allowed to regenerate in order to observe the effects of encapsulation on regeneration. On the basis of conversion percentage, days taken for conversion, number and length of shoot and root, the performance of synthetic seeds was equivalent to that of the non-encapsulated somatic embryos. Synthetic seeds were stored under continuous dark exposure at 25°C and 8°C. Storage at 25°C, with viability of 88% even after 16 weeks, proved to be better than 8°C (24% viability), when conversion of stored synthetic seeds into plantlets was assessed on ½MS medium. Hence, this study developed highly effective techniques for synthetic seed production, conversion and distribution of Aranda Dola Miah. 366 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-44 food seCurity through BioteChnoLogy navdeep shekhar* And raminder ghai Department of Botany, Govt. Brijindra College, Faridkot-151203 Abstract According to M. S. Swaminathan (1996) policies and technologies for sustainable food security should ensure that every individual has the physical, economic, social and environmental access to a balanced diet that includes the necessary macro- and micro-nutrients, safe drinking water, sanitation, environmental hygiene, primary health care, and education so as to lead a healthy and productive life. FAO defines food security as existing when ‘all people at all times have access to safe & nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life’ India attained self sufficiency in food production by adopting green revolution. The increased yield has been due to use of improved crop varieties, excessive use of agrochemicals, extension of farm land and better agronomic and management practices. However, this was achieved at a great cost to the nation, both economic and social. On the biophysical level the negative impacts have led to organic carbon depletion, increased soil salinity, drastic changes in soil water regimes, chemical pollution due to fertilizer and pesticide applications. This has endangered our food security and insurance against environmental changes. In spite of increased energy input, the agriculture production has already started showing tendencies of decline in certain areas. Green revolution has marginalized large segment of farming community, through less access to both resources and the market Population of India is expected to reach about 1.5 billion by 2050. . Therefore nutritional security for everyone would require the extensive availability of grains, legumes, edible oils, fruits and vegetables. These challenges can be met by better resource management and producing more nutritious and more productive crops. The mass eradication of gene pool of crop plants has rendered the conventional breeding techniques ineffective. There is a limited scope of expansion of farmland. The climatic changes are also playing havoc with agriculture production. Biotechnology will help to produce crops having more tolerance to abiotic stresses, less reliance on chemical pesticides and fertilizers, increased efficiency of mineral usage, and enhanced nutritional value However, technology development should be tailored to specific ecological, economic and social conditions. It must not possess built in seeds of social discrimination. An efficient and environmentally benign production technology will not only help to conserve and enhance the natural resource base of crops but also stabilize the production and ensure food security. Ap-45 genus diAtryPe in eAstern himALAyAs Ashwani Kumar sharma*, sonika Kapoor MM Modi College Patiala Email: *ash14nabha@yahoo.com Abstract Diatrype Fr. Is characterized by having erumpent stromata rarely superficial on decorticated wood, pulvinate or applanate, discrete or wide spreading, hemispherical to irregular with upper surface slightly convex or flat , surface smooth or rough due to protruding ostioles. Flesh white to yellow or brown, black. Perithecia monostichous, rarely bistichous, subglobose , elliptical to pyriform or tubular numerous, closely packed, osteolate, ostioles simple to clefted, sometime flattened , hemispherical to conical asci. The present paper include 13 species of genus Diatrype Fr. belonging to Diatrypaceae. The species were collected from different states of Eastern Himalayas like Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Meghalaya etc. on the basis of morphological and anatomical studies some closely allied taxa has been separated . Key to all the 13 taxa studied have been provided by taking different stromatal , perithecial, and ascospore characters , because no single characteristic can be relied upon in every instance to separate the species. The identification of material studied were made by comparing the recorded information with the available literature. Out of these 8 species are new record for Eastern Himalayas and 2 species have been proposed to be new to literature. Keywords: Diatrype, Eastern Himalayas, new species. 367 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-46 to study the seed germinAtion And groWth PerformAnCe of different seLeCtion of LoQuAt (erioBotryA JAPoniCA). sukhjit Kaur* Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur(Punjab), India-143521 E-mail :* sukhi.rose@gmail.com Abstract The experiment was conducted at PAU, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur to study the seed germination and growth performance of different selections of loquat during the years 2011-12. The freshly extracted seeds from the ripened fruits of loquat selection viz. Benazir, Gola,Sufeda and Japani were sown under open field conditions in the month of April with the normal cultural practices.It was observed that the maximum seed germination and the better vegetative growth of the plants were observed in the selection Benazir. Ap-47 A study on reProduCtive BioLogy of PedALium mureX L. (BArA goKhAru) Kanti Lal solanki*, sheshnath mishra*, shravan Kumar sharma and s. Bhargava Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, *Ph.D. Scholar, College of Agriculture, SKRAU, Bikaner (Rajasthan) Email: kantipbg@gmail.com Abstract A field experiment was conducted during Kharif, 2007-08 at Research Farm, Agricultural Research Station, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner under arid ecosystem (Hot Arid Eco region with desert and saline soil). The experimental material used in this study consisted of a population of P. murex collected from Ajmer district under NATP (National Agricultural Technology Project) on biodiversity of medicinal plants. In Pedalium, mixed type of pollination was observed and floral phenology has attributes both for self and cross pollination. It is highly self compatible with lots of flexibility for cross pollination but there is predominance for autogamy. Self incompatibility index was found to be more than 1 (1.04) indicating absolute self compatibility. There is lot of scope for cross pollination due to flower structure, presence of nectary, visitation of insects and high xenogamy (82.4%). Pedalium shows facultative autogamy and natural populations may consist of mosaic of selfed and crossed individuals. High xenogamy (82.4%) and high autogamy (85.6%), high geitonogamy (84.4%) and low natural cross pollination (26.4%) indicate predominance of autogamy and high selfcompatibility, which provides for reproductive assurance in the absence of insects visitation. Autogamy in Pedalium provides reproductive assurance (64.2%) in the absence of insect visitation and major gene flow is through autogamy. 368 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-48 PhysioLogiCAL BAsed sCreening for identifying noveL sALt-toLerAnt germPLAsm in WheAt muhammad sohail saddiq1, irfan Afzal1, shahzad m.A. Basra1, m. kamran and zulifqar Ahmad2 1 Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 2 Department of Plant Breeding & Genetics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad Abstract Wheat productivity is severely affected by soil salinity mainly due to Na+ toxicity. The desirable trait for salt tolerance in plants is the exclusion of Na from the leaf blade. Thus, the ability to maintain low leaf blade is a major determinant of Na tolerance within cereal species. Therefore, the present study was conducted to identify salt tolerant germplasm throughphysiological based screening using wire house-grown plants in hydroponics.Four hundred wheat genotypeswere evaluated against high salinity (200mM) up to third leaf stage.Wheat germplasm were subjected to progressive increase (100 mM per day) in salinity to avoid the osmotic shock. Evaluation was made on the basis of ionic analysis (Na+, K+, and K+: Na+ ratio in shoot) and morphologicaltraits-root, shoot fresh and dry weight. It was found that increase in salinity drastically affected the seedling growth i.e. fresh and dry weight of shoot and root. Mineral analysis of cell sap indicated that tolerant germplasm have low Na+ and high K+concentration as compared to salt sensitive wheat germplasm. Furthermore,high K+/Na+ ratio was also observed in wheat lines which showed high Na uptake during salinity stress. Chlorophyll indices were also higher in salt tolerate germplasm as compared to high Na+ uptake genotypes.Twenty five genotypes were found most competitive against salinity as compared to rest germplasm. The findings suggest further evaluation of tolerant germplasm under field conditions. Ap-49 osmoPriming imProves the emergenCe PotentiAL And seedLing vigour of rAngeLAnd grAsses Wasif nouman1*, shahzad maqsood Ahmed Basra2, ihsan Qadir3, Khayyam Anjum3, rehman gul4 Department of Forestry, Range & Wildlife Management, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan-Pakistan 2 Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad-Pakistan 3 Department of Forestry, Range Management and Wildlife, University of Agriculture Faisalabad-Pakistan 4 Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture Faisalabad-Pakistan *E-mail: wnouman@gmail.com 1 Abstract Rangelands of Pakistan have poor vegetation cover mainly due to less emergence rate and poor growth behaviour of rangeland grasses. The available grasses cannot fulfill the requirements of livestock in those areas. The present study was designed to improve the emergence, growth behavior and biomass of nutritive and palatable rangeland grasses. For this, two rangeland grasses i.e., Cenchrus ciliaris and Panicum antidotale were selected and osmoprimed for 24 h with PEG8000 solutions having different osmotic potentials (ψ) i.e., 0.2, -0.6, -1.2 and -2.4 MPa. The experiment was conducted in completely randomized design (CRD) with three replications. It was observed that seeds of C. ciliaris and P. antidotale showed improved emergence when primed at -0.6 and -1.2 PEG-8000 solutions, respectively. Maximum shoot and root length of C. ciliaris was found when its seeds were primed with -2.4 MPa ψ. While in case of P. antidotale, maximum shoot and root length was recorded when seeds were primed with -1.2 MPa ψ. Moreover, maximum number of tillers, fresh and dry weight of whole plant was obtained in both rangeland grasses when the seeds were primed with -1.2 MPa ψ. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that the emergence rate, final emergence percentage and biomass production of these two rangeland grasses can be improved by osmopriming. 369 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-50 deCoding the germinAtion diLemmA of Cotton By PhysioLogiCAL And moLeCuLAr evidenCes muhammad Kamran1, irfan Afzal1, shehzad m.A Basra1, saman saleem1, m. sohail saddiq1and Abid mahmood2 Department of crop physiology, university of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan1. Directorate of Cotton, Ayub Agriculture Research Institute, Faisalabad, Pakistan2. Abstract The performance of seeds is determined by three linked and interactive components that constitute a performance triangle of genetics, physiological quality and the environment.Poor germination of cotton is still a mystery and big challenge for growers and researchers in Pakistan, as we are achieving 40-45% germination of seed as compared to above 95% in some advanced countries. Germination capacity of cottonseed is directly influenced by pre and post-harvest factors primarily seed development and storage.After fertilization, the right way in developmental processes is successfully transform a zygote to embryo. Seeds will be isolated at different intervals of development. Seed structural development and deteriorated seed will be evaluated using image J software, video meter. The post-harvest factors will nominate drying and storage. The conventional drying methods will be compared with novel drying beads technology. In this technology seed will be mixed with the drying beads (1:1) for an hour in air tight container besides the seed spread openly on mercy of uncertain environment. After drying, seed undergoes cold and conventional storage and quality of seed will compared by assessing the longevity and vigor. Following their development, seeds remain dormant and receive information from their environment which is used to make a decision to germinate and start growing. Thermal modeling approach will help to predict the optimum germination temperature of cotton that will optimize sowing time. Ap-51 QuAntifiCAtion of CLimAte ChAnge imPACt for sustAinABLe fine riCe ProduCtivity in PAKistAn: future sCenArio of 2030-2099 Ashfaq Ahmad*,AftabWajid*, m. habib-ur-rahman1*, tasneemKhaliq*fahadrasul*muhammad shaukatand gerrit hoogenboom2 *Agro-climatology Lab., Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan 2 College of Agricultural, Human, and Natural Resource Sciences, Washington States University, Prosser, WA 99350-8694, USA 1E-mail: ranahabib11@gmail.com Abstract Climate change is a significant threat to crop production and food security in Pakistan. Proposed study was planned to ensure food security by quantifying the future climate variability and adapting the climatic resilient technology with the aid of crop growth model (CGM) i.e., Decision Support System for Agro-technology Transfer (DSSAT). Future climatic scenarios were proposed by Pakistan Meteorological Department (PMD) by using General Circulation Models (GCMs) under Representative Concentrations Pathways (RCPs) for end of this century (2030-2099). Fine rice yield would drastically reduce up to 60% by future high temperature (4oC), threat to food security in the region but due to CO2 fertilization (elevated CO2 concentration) enthusiastic performance was observed (20% increase in yield). Climatic variables (elevated CO2 upto 585 ppm and increased temperature from 1 to 4oC) have drastic effect on late transplanting (30th July) and yield loss was 45% as compared to baseline (3140 kg ha-1). Late transplanting was most vulnerable to climate change but beneficial CO2 response was observed by 3 % and 20% increased yield at 440 ppm and 590 ppm concentrations, respectively, however maximum yield reduction ranged 13-60% at various transplanting dates was due to rise in temperature from 1 to 4oC. However 1st July yield has less reduction (50%) at 4oC comparing with base line (4126 Kg ha-1). Late transplanting get benefit as compared to others for solar radiation (MJm-2day-1), 37% increasing trend in yield was observed. Crop duration was also decreased by 5 to 10% and hence reduced the fine rice yield in the region. It was determined that 239 kg ha-1 yield would decrease by increasing temperature up to 4oC beyond 2099 in the region. For sustaining fine rice productivity under the scenario of future climate, adaptation technology was also developed for the rice-wheat cropping zone of the country. Keywords: Food security, climate projections, temperature,solar radiation and adaptation strategies 370 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-52 seed Priming: A shotgun APProACh to ComBAt ABiotiC stresses in CereAL CroPs 1 irfan Afzal1, shahzad maqsood Ahmad Basra1 and Amir iqbal2* Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 2 *Monsanto Pakistan Agritech Pvt (Ltd), Depalpur Road, Okara, Pakistan Email: *amir.iqbal@monsanto.com Abstract Salinity and temperature extremes are major abiotic stresses which reduces the growth and development of cereal crops. Area under salt-affected soils in expected to increase owing to climate change. Similarly low temperature at stand establishment and high temperature at reproductive stage has further reduced the production of spring maize and wheat crops. Seed priming has been known to be low cost and effective solution that improves the performance of crops. A series of experiments were conducted to evaluate the potential of seed priming with natural and synthetic antioxidants, osmoprotectants, and plant hormones against temperature constraints and salinity stress. Enhancement in maize growth and increased yield through seed priming is attributed more likely due to improved stand establishment which is associated with carbohydrate metabolism and hydrolytic enzyme activities. Nevertheless priming with ascorbate and CaCl2 substantially alleviated the salinity-induced damages in wheat cultivars by maximally improved yield and yield contributing factors i.e., spike length, grains per spike, 1000-grain weight. In conclusion, seed priming is a simple, farmer’s friendly and low cost solution for sustainable production of maize and wheat crops against temperature extremes and salinity stress respectively. Ap-53 somAtiC emBryogenesis And regenerAtion from CotyLedons of PeCAn (CAryA iLLinoensis) sneh sharma* & s. Kumar & d r sharma Immature cotyledons of open-pollinated seeds from pecan (Carya illinoensis) cv. Abstract Mahan were excised from fruits at 10-13 weeks after full pistillate bloom and grown on to sequence of media to induce somatic embryogenesis following transfer from DKW medium supplemented with BAP (1 mg/l), IBA (0.1 mg/l) and kinetin (1.5 or 2 mg/l) to growth regulators free medium in dark. The optimum time for inducing embryogenic cultures was 13 weeks following pollination. Globular, heart shaped cotyledenous complete somatic embryos were obtained within 24-25 weeks after pollination. Somatic embryos were multiplied by repetitive embryogenesis in which somatic embryos formed additional adventive embryos without intervening callus. Mature somatic embryos exposed to cold treatment at 2-4° C for 5-6 weeks and exposed to light formed complete plantlet. About 40-50% embryos germinated and produced plants. 371 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-54 imProving grAin yieLd in WheAt under heAt stress By soiL APPLiCAtion of thioureA Abdul Wahid* and naz Afreen Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan *Email: drawahid@uaf.edu.pk, drawahid2001@ysahoo.com Abstract Heat stress is the most important and looming factor for agriculture, and is therefore a great threat to agricultural productivity of all crops. There is a great need to reduce the adversaries of heat stress by employing various strategies. Among these, the exogenous application of stress alleviating compounds is the most promising one.In this research soil application of increased levels of thiourea (TU) was tested for its role in the alleviation of heat stress effects on two high yielding wheat varieties. The plants of two wheat varieties were in kept in a net-house (control) and plexiglass fitted canopies (heat stress treatment) at anthesis stage. The determinations were made at maturity for the yield and yield components and partitioning of macronutrients to grain. Results showed that although heat stress reduced the growth, improved the flag leaf area and reproductive attributes of both the varieties, the application of all the TU levels in most cases were helpful in alleviating the adverse effects of heat stress. For variety Faisalabad-2008, 0.25 to 0.50 mM TU level was more effective while higher levels were rather inhibitory, while for Millat-2006, 0.50 to 0.75 levels were promising for most of the attributes studied. Both the varieties indicated a preferential partitioning of K, Ca and Mg to the grain; the varietal difference was well evident. Ionic partitioning index indicated that TU was highly effective in improving the grain K, Ca and Mg contents while it reduced the nitrate and phosphate contents. Of the two varieties, Faisalabad-2008 was more positively responsive to the TU-application under heat stress than Millat-2006. These results suggested that TU-application is effective in reducing the heat stress effect and improving wheat growth principally by effective partitioning of ions to the developing grain. Ap-55 sALiCyLiC ACid-mediAted ALLeviAtion of CAdmium toXiCity in BAsmAti riCe (oryzA sAtivA) farrukh Javed*, riffat nasim fatima and Abdul Wahid* Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan *Email: drfjk@yahoo.com, drawahid@uaf.edu.pk, drawahid2001@yahoo.com Abstract The Cd accumulation might result disturbances in plant metabolism causing several physio-biochemical and structural changes ultimately declining the crop productivity. Having recognized the adverse effects of Cd on plants it is imperative to understand the mechanisms of Cd effects through its accumulation, transportation and the relationships of Cd effects with growth, antioxidant systems and the mineral nutrients, and then the contribution of SA in alleviating the Cd toxicity in basmati rice. The experiments were conducted in two phases (plant and callus) under different combinations of Cd (control, 100, 500, 1000 and 1500 µM) without or with SA (0.0 and 0.1 mM) with four genotypes of basmati rice (Basmati-198, Basmati-2000, Basmati-370 and Kashmir Basmati). The results revealed variable Cd accumulation pattern in the both culture systems (seedling and callus). Roots showed higher Cd accumulation as compared to shoot and callus. The lower Cd accumulation of callus than root exhibited less sensitivity of callus to Cd-induced stress. A two phase linear concentration-dependent Cd accumulation pattern was observed in root and shoot whereas in callus Cd accumulated in a linear concentration-dependent fashion with the elevating Cd levels in the both culture media. However, protective effect of SA on root or shoot and the callus inhibited the Cd accumulation from the both media revealing the possibility of occurrence of the formation of stable SA-Cd complexes. Higher amounts of H2O2 and MDA caused Cd-induced oxidative stress elevating the activities of antioxidants (CAT and POD) which accelerated the accumulation of solutes disturbing mineral nutrients and water status in the both media. The uneven SOD activity exhibited that differences existed among the genotypes to withstand the Cd toxicity. The application of SA in combination with the elevating Cd stress showed 372 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” improvements in the SOD activity indicating that higher SOD activity might modulate the activities of other enzymes and regulate the solutes maintaining water relations under Cd-induced oxidative stress and ultimately the growth in the both culture media. Based on Cd translocation factor and the root stress tolerance index (STI), and the callus BCF and STI factors, Basmati-198 showed more tolerance to Cd toxicity followed by Basmati-2000 and Basmati-370 whereas KashmirBasmati was observed prone to Cd toxicity. Ap-56 Anti-oXidAtive system under high temPerAture stress Baldeep singh*, sukhdeep singh and geetika Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125004 Email: *baldeep.singh55@gmail.com Abstract Exposure of plants to high temperature stress results in production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as by product, which damages the cellular components. The plants have developed a series of enzymatic and non-enzymatic detoxification system which counteract ROS and protect cells from oxidative damage. Heat stress induces or enhances the activity of ROS scavenging enzymes like superoxide dismutase, catalase, per oxidase and several anti-oxidants. In French bean under high temperature stress, oxidative stress indicators such as hydrogen peroxide, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), glutathione, ascorbic acid and proline were found elevated. The antioxidant enzymes per oxidase also increased but glutathione reductase and catalase were found decreased drastically. In wheat genotypes, under high temperature stress antioxidant enzymes activity significantly increased in superoxide dismutase, ascorbate per oxidase and catalase but activity of glutathione reductase and per oxidase significantly decreased. Tolerant genotypes showed relatively higher activity of antioxidant enzyme as compared to susceptible genotypes. Heat shock during early imbibitional period decreased the activity of free radical scavenging enzymes and increased the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and induced lipoxygenase mediated membrane per oxidation. Excessive generation of ROS led to an oxidative membrane damage causing early growth imairment in Amaranthus lividus. Ap-57 the studies on dnA methyLAtion for CroPs imProvement ravindra donde, Jitendra Kumar, Prakash singh, dr. s. K. dash, Affiliation: Crop Improvement Division, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack-753006. E-mail: ravindradonde@gmail.com Abstract The new findings shoes that changes in the climate are severely affects the crops and organisms developments, adaptation and their gene expression in new environments. In response to studies on the epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation and histone modification, play a crucial role in regulating gene expression in plant responses to environment stress (Razin and Cedar, 1992; Boyko et al., 2007; Boyko and Kovalchuk, 2008). Environmental stimuli such as drought, salinity, cold, high temperature and water stress can cause demethylation at coding regions of certain genes and subsequently activate their expression. Specific gene expression patterns under epigenetic control are reversible and may show transgenerational inheritance (Bender, 2004; Long et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2007).DNA methylation within genes is a common feature of eukaryotic genomes (Tranet al., 2005).DNA methylation is a biochemical process frequently occurs in presence of DNA methyltransferase enzymes. DNA methylation at 5-position of cytosine, yielding 5-methylcytosine or the number 6 nitrogen of the adenine purine ring. Under normal conditions, the ratio of methylated to total cytosine’s varies from 20% to 30% in plants (Finnegan et al., 1998), and methyl cytosine usually occurs in CpG, CpNpG and CpHpH (H=A, T, C) sequences (Cao and Jacobsen, 2002; Zhang et al., 2006). Arabidopsis DNA methyltransferase enzymes, which transfer covalently attach methyl groups onto DNA, i.e. DRM2, MET1, and CMT3. Both the DRM2 and MET1 proteins also present in mammalian homology methyltransferases i.e. DNMT3 and DNMT1 respectively, whereas the CMT3 protein is 373 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” unique to the plant kingdom. DNA methyltransferases enzymes to recognize the methylation marks on the parental strand of DNA and transfers new methylation to the daughter’s strands after DNA replication. DRM2 is the only enzyme that has been implicated as a de novo DNA methyltransferase. MET1 and CMT3 to be involved in maintaining methylation marks through DNA replication. DNA methylation is typically removed during zygote formation and re-established through successive cell divisions during development. DNA methylation suppresses the expression of viral genes. Thus DNA methylation plays crucial role in the crops improvements it directly or indirectly controlled the gene expression i.e. short methylated genes are poorly expressed, and loss of methylation in the body of a gene leads to enhanced transcription. DNA methylation induced epigenetic changes in crops genome can be considered as a very important regulatory mechanism for plants to adopt biotic and abiotic environmental stresses. Key words: DNA methylation, Epigenetic, Gene expression, Crop improvements. Ap-58 evALuAtion of neWLy introduCed CuLtivArs of APPLe groWn under high hiLLs Conditions of himAChAL PrAdesh Jagsir singh and B. s. thakur Department of Agriculture, BFGI, Deon Bathinda, Punjab, Department of Fruit Science Dr. YS Parmar UHF, Nauni, Solan (H.P.) 173 230 E-mail: jagsirsinghsidhu@gmail.com Abstract The present investigations entitled “Evaluation of newly introduced cultivars of apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) grown under high hills conditions of Himachal Pradesh” were carried out to study the performance of 9 apple cultivars at Progeny Cum Demonstration Orchard, Boktu, district Kinnaur for their suitability for commercial cultivation. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with five replications at spacing of 3 x 3 m during 2011-2012. The observations were recorded on various growth parameters like plant height, plant spread, trunk girth, annual shoot growth, flowering, fruit set, fruit drop and yield. Analysis of variance showed significant differences among all the cultivars for all the characters under study. Among different cultivars ‘Golden Spur’ recorded maximum increment in trunk girth (17.44 mm). Plant height (4.82 m), plant spread (4.58 m) and tree volume (45.97 m3) was highest in ‘Red Chief’. The varieties namely Gale Gala, Coe Fuji, Red Fuji and Golden Spur had spreading tree habit while others had upright growth. Bud swell was earliest in ‘Golden Spur’ (23-03). The highest fruit set (88.00 %) was in ‘Golden Spur’ and lowest in ‘Oregon Spur-II’ (58.50 %). The spur varieties were early in maturity compared to the non spur varieties. Highest yield was recorded in ‘Oregon SpurII’ (38.70 kg/tree Key words: Malus domestica, Kinnaur, Varieties Ap-59 ComPArAtive Assessment of genetiC reLAtionshiPs And identifiCAtion of dnA mArKers LinKed to seX determinAtion in PArAdise tree (simArouBA gLAuCA dC.) Chetan Choudhary1, santosh dhillon1, K.s. Boora1 and dinisha Abhishek2 Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, 2Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004, Haryana, India E-mail: *chetanmbt05@gmail.com 1 Abstract Two PCR molecular marker techniques; RAPD and ISSR were employed to understand genetic relationship among ninety six genotypes of Simarouba collected from various geographical locations of India. In RAPD analysis, 67 random primers revealed a total of 539 fragments, in which 222 were polymorphic whereas in ISSR analysis, 22 primers revealed a total of 178 fragments, in which 67 were polymorphic. The polymorphism percentage ranged for RAPD is from 9 to 100 while for ISSR is from 11 to 77 with average percent polymorphism of 42.3 and 39.3% respectively. The mean PIC value 374 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” for both marker (0.92 for RAPD and 0.90 for ISSR) suggested that both the marker system is effective in determining polymorphism. The RAPD, ISSR data and their combination revealed that the value of similarity coefficient ranged from 0.78-0.97, 0.78-0.95 and 0.80-0.94 with average similarity 86.2, 86.9 and 86% respectively. The ISSR marker produced more information than the RAPD due to their higher EMR and MI values (5.04 and 4.58) compared to RAPD (3.31 and 3.04). Out of 150 RAPD and 104 ISSR primers that were surveyed to identify gender, four primers were found to be sexspecific. Out of four primers, two primers viz. RP-49 and UBC-815 were further converted into a SCAR marker i.e. sgF1/ sgR1 and sgF2/sgR2. The SCAR primer sgF1/sgR1 and sgF2/sgR2 were capable in differentiating male from female and bisexual plants. The result indicates the effectiveness of these two marker systems for demonstrating genetic relationship and sex specific SCAR marker may have considerable practical applications in the establishment of Simarouba plantation. Key words: Simarouba glauca DC, RAPD, ISSR, SCAR and Sex Determination Ap-60 CroP imProvement in AgriCuLture By BiofortifiCAtion rajesh Kumar, r s yadav and ranu tiwari Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner (Raj) 334006 Email-rana_agro@rediffmail.com Abstract Biofortification refers a method of breeding crops to increase their nutritional value. Biofortification can be achieved either through conventional breeding or through genetic engineering or biofortifying crops by adopting suitable agronomic and new fertilization techniques for enriching edible plant parts. Genetic biofortification or crop improvement is a long time process and involves higher cost than agronomic biofortification which is easy to adopt and less costly. Biofortification differs from ordinary fortification where food supplements are added to food to provide the nutritional requirements of human. Biofortification focuses on enrichment of plant foods more nutritious through crop improvement by growing efficient plants, rather than having nutrients added or fortified directly to the foods when they are being processed. This is an improvement on ordinary fortification when it comes to providing nutrients for the rural poor, who rarely have access to commercially fortified foods. Thus biofortification is important tool for increasing nutritive value of food produce through precise agronomic and fertilization practices for enriching the edible parts. The goal of biofortification is proposed to improve the health of poor people by breeding staple food crops that are rich in micronutrients. Micronutrient malnutrition, primarily the result of diets poor in bioavailable vitamins and minerals, affects more than half of the world’s population, especially women and preschool children. The costs of these deficiencies in terms of lives lost, forgone economic growth, and poor quality of life are staggering. The biofortification Challenge Program seeks to bring the full potential of agricultural and nutrition science to bear on the persistent problem of micronutrient malnutrition. Ap-61 effeCt of sALinity on survivAL And groWth PerformAnCe of trAnsgeniC seedLings of indiCA riCe vAriety Pr118 Chhaya sharma, sarojKumar sah, maninderKaur, AjinderKaur, o P Choudhary and s sgosal* School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Director of Research, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-Punjab Email: chhaya_uhf@yahoo.co.in Abstract Drought, high salt and low temperature are the most common environmental stress factors that influence plant growth and development and limit plant productivity in cultivated areas world-wide. Rice is an important food crop world-wide sensitive to drought conditions. To overcome these stresses and improve crop yield under stress conditions, it is important to improve stress tolerance in crops. In an attempt to improve drought tolerance of rice, we introduced OsDrebIA gene into 375 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” rice variety PR118 through particle gun method. We confirmed the integration and expression of gene through Polymerase Chain Reaction and Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction in T0 and T1generations of transgenic plants. We studied the effect of different concentrations (0, 8 and 10 dS/m) of salts (CaCl2+ NaCl) on T2 (second) generation of the transgenic plants and Transgenic plants showed better growth in relation to shoot/root length and survival rate while the non-transgenic (control) plants turned yellow and showed lowest survival in salt. Our results indicated that simple genetic modification of rice to express OsDrebIa can efficiently increase its tolerance against drought stresses. Ap-62 genetiC diversity for morPho-PhysioLogiCAL trAits under terminAL heAt stress Conditions in reComBinAnt inBred Lines of WheAt swarupa nanda mandal, satyavir singh dhanda andrenumunjal Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, CCS HAU, Hisar- 125004 (India) E-mail : *snmandaledu@gmail.com Abstract One hundred twenty five Recombinant Inbred Lines (RILs), derived from the cross of WH730 (thermotolerent) and WH 147 (thermosensetive), were evaluated to study the genetic diversity for morpho physiological traits under terminal heat stress conditions.Eleven clusters were formed by grouping all the 125 RILs and their parents in such a way that genotypes within each cluster had smaller D² value than those in other clusters. Cluster III had the maximum number of 30 genotypes followed by cluster III (21 genotypes), cluster X (20 genotypes) whereas, cluster I (2 genotypes) had the lowest number of genotypes. Differences in proportion of contribution of each character to total diversity were observed andplant height ranked first by contribution 35.17% to divergence of genotypes, followed by membrane thermostability (27.18%), stomatal conductance (15.24%), days to heading (8.72%) and canopy temperature depression (3.85%).The principal component analysis showed that thefirst four principal components could account for 74.901 percent of the total variationand mainly associated withwith plant height, chlorophyll fluorescence, grain yield per plant, membrane thermostability,canopy temperature depression, days to heading,plant height and days to maturity. Key words: Recombinant Inbred Lines, heat stress, canopy temperature depression, membrane the rmostability and chlorophyll fluorescence. Ap-63 genotyPiC resPonse of CArBohydrAte metABoLism in riCe rAised under AeroBiC And trAnsPLAnted Condition manisha Kumari* and dr. Bavita Asthir Department of Biochemistry, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana- 141004, India E.mail: manishabindra@gmail.com Abstract Looming water crisis and water-intensive nature of rice cultivation subject the traditional rice farming to rapid change. Aerobic rice offers an attractive alternative approach over transplanting system (TPR) as it uses less water with high efficiency, incurring low labour expenses. Six rice cultivars viz. PR-120, K-1806, Pb-Mehak-1, PR-116, PR-115, and PAU-201 raised under aerobic and transplanted conditions in field (random block design) were used to assess the response of carbohydrate metabolism in relation to starch, protein and amino acids. Contents of total sugars, reducing sugars and sucrose first increased till actively metabolising stage i.e 14 days post anthesis (DPA) and thereafter declined towards grains maturity. Activities of sucrose synthase (cleavage) and invertase (acid and neutral) also revealed similar trend under both planting conditions. Under aerobic conditions, activities of invertases (acid and neutral) and sucrose synthase cleavage significantly decrease along with decrease in starch content in all cultivars. Cultivars K 1806 and PR 120 maintained higher 376 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” levels and contents of studied enzyme and metabolite under stress conditions while PR 116 and PAU 201 were better under transplanted conditions thus showing their adaptation to environmental stresses. In contrast, activities of sucrose synthase /phosphate synthase and soluble protein content increased in conjunction with an increase in the amino acids content under aerobic conditions. Our results depicts modulation of sucrose metabolising enzymes within genotypes under two planting conditions, as lower activities of enzymes and sugar, starch and protein contents were mobilised to combat stress. Ap-64 in vitro resPonse of eXPLAnt shoot tiP in hot PePPer (CAPsiCum Annuum L.) hira singh, t. s. dhillon and s. s. gosal1 Department of Vegetable Science, PAU, Ludhiana-141 004 E-mail: *hira@pau.edu Abstract Efficient in vitro plant regeneration by direct organogenesis was achieved in Punjab Guchhedar cultivar of hot pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Shoot tip as explant, excised from aseptically grown seedlings of different ages viz., 8, 16, 24 and 32 days were cultured on different MS based medium. Shoot tips collected from 24-day-old seedlings elicited maximum survival and subsequent shoot regeneration (59.22%) on MS medium containing 6.0 mgl-1 BAP, 3.0 mgl-1 Kin and 1.0 mgl1 IAA, while maximum average shoot number (2.70) per explant was also recorded on the same medium of 16-day-old explant. MS medium supplemented with 2.5 mgl-1 BAP, 0.5 mgl-1 IAA and 1.0 mgl-1 GA3 was the better medium for shoot elongation. After 12-16 days of culture, elongated shoots were cultured on rooting induction medium i.e., half strength MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mgl-1 IBA for 8 days, followed by 6 days on half strength MS basal medium. Complete plantlets were hardened, transferred in the polythene bags and then earthen pots. Key words: Capsicum annuum, Hot pepper, multiple shoots, Punjab Guchhedar, Shoot tips Ap-65 induCtion of heAt toLerAnCe in mAize (zeA mAys) using AQueous eXtrACts of foLiAr PArts of moringA (moringA oLeiferA) through soiL APPLiCAtion Asima Batool1, Abida Aziz1, Abdul Wahid1 and mohammad farooq2 1 Department of Botany, University of Agriculture Faisalabad 2 Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture Faisalabad E-mail : batool_asima@yahoo.com Abstract Changing climate and increase in temperature is damaging to agricultural activities. Moringa (Moringa oleifera L.) is rich in minerals, ascorbates and phenolics, in addition to hormones like zeatin and cytokinin can be used to mitigate the effect of heat stress in maize. In this experiment, influence of aqueous extracts of moringa fresh leaves (3.3%), dry leaves (10%) and flower extract (10%) was soil applied on the plants of maize hybrids ICI-984 and SB-11 under normal and heat stress. Heat stress was imposed after the uniformity of stand establishment. Application of these extracts improved over all plant growth in both high and ambient temperature as compared to control. Maximum root fresh and dry weight was recorded with dry leaf extract application. Osmoprotectants like total free amino acids, free proline, glycine betain and soluble sugars produced under stress conditions especially under heat stress. Free proline contents were higher in shoots under high temperature, while GB increased in both shoot and root with application of fresh leaves extract. However, total free amino acids and soluble sugars contents were improved in both shoot and root as a result of dry leaf extract. In conclusion, moringa extracts has potential to cope with abiotic stresses like heat stress and may be used as a potential growth promoter for crops. 377 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Ap-66 mArKer-Assisted imProvement of BACteriAL BLight resistAnCe in hur 4-3, A high yieLding PoPuLAr riCe CuLtivAr of uttAr PrAdesh Prakash singh1*, ravi P. singh1, o.n. singh2, h.B. singh3, C. mohapatra3 and m. K. singh1 Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, Institute of Agricultural sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India, 2 Crop Improvement Division, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha 753006, India, 3 Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India *E-mail: prakash201288@gmail.com 1 Abstract In rice, pyramiding dominant and recessive bacterial leaf blight resistance genes with the help of Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) technique was accomplished to improve conventional susceptible inbred varieties. Therefore, incorporation of resistance genes Xa21 and xa13 through MAS were attempted in the popular fine grain rice cultivar of Eastern Uttar Pradesh namely HUR 4-3. HUR 4-3, is susceptible to bacterial leaf blight (BLB) disease caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae. Pusa 1460, a basmati rice variety, was utilized as the donor for introgressing Bacterial Blight resistance genes xa13 and Xa21 into HUR 4-3 using a marker assisted backcross breeding programme. The markers RG136 (CAPS) or xa13p (gene based SSR) and pTA248 (STS) primer linked to BB resistance genes xa13 and Xa21, respectively, were used for foreground selection. Seventy-eight SSR markers polymorphic between HUR 4-3 and Pusa 1460 were utilized for background selection to recover the recurrent parent genome ranging from 84.14 to 95.20% in the 12 best selected BC2F2 plants. The extent of donor segments in the improved version of HUR 4-3 was estimated to be 0.93 and 2.17 Mb in the genomic regions flanking xa13 and Xa21, respectively in the corresponding genomic regions. Improved lines of HUR 4-3 showed yield advantages of up to 6.94 to 3.93%, respectively. The performance of the BB-resistant version of HUR 4-3 produced by intercrossing the improved lines of Pusa 1460 was on a par with or superior to the original HUR 4-3. Keywords: Genomic region, polymorphic, bacterial blight resistance, SSR marker, Ap-67 induCtion of mutAtion in ChrysAnthemum CuLtivAr “guL-e sAhir” through gAmmA irrAdiAtion manpreet singh and madhu Bala Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Agriculture, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141001 (Punjab) Email: madhu-flori@pau.edu Abstract Mutation breeding is one of the established methods by which one can induce variability in vegetatively propagated crops such as chrysanthemum, rose, carnation etc and it also offers advantage over conventional breeding for the improvement of or more traits within a short span of time. An experiment was conducted to induce novel mutation in chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) cultivar “Gul-e-Sahir” through gamma irradiation using terming rooted cuttings as explant. The explants were exposed to 0, 10, 20 and 30 Gy doses of g-rays and transplanted in earthen pots (8 inch) for further evaluation. The data on various vegetative and floral characters i.e. percent survival, plant height, number of branches per plant, internodal length, number of leaves per plant, leaf size, leaf colour, leaf abnormalities and plant spread, days to bud initiation, days to color show stage, days to flower opening, number of flowers per plant, flower size, flower weight, number of ray florets, longevity of bloom, flower color variation were recorded. LD50 dose was determined as 30 Gy dose. Terminal rooted cuttings treated at 30 Gy showed deleterious effects of ionizing radiation. All treatments differed significantly with respect to vegetative and flowering parameters. Marked variations were recorded between the mutated and control populations. New flower colour mutants with nearest shades of green yellow group 1 A, yellow group 12 , yellow group 12 B and yellow group 12 B as per Royal Horticultural Society colour chart were isolated as compared to 378 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” yellow colour of original flower of variety “Gul-e-Sahir”. The ray florets were flat and normal in control whereas, spoon shaped, broad, flat and irregular ray florets were formed in flower developed from irradiated explants. Ap-68 stAndArdizAtion of steriLizAtion ProtoCoL for miCroProPAgAtion of PAthArnAKh (Pyrus PyrifoLiA) And KAinth (Pyrus PAshiA) haseeb ur rehman* and m i s gill** Department of Fruit Science, PAU, Ludhiana E-mail: *haseebpom@gmail.com Email: *hodhort@pau.edu Abstract The experiment was carried in Tissue culture laboratory in Department of Fruit Science, PAU, Ludhiana during 2011-12. Nodal segments were taken from current season’s growth from March to November. Already prepared Murashige and Skoog medium (MS) purchased from HiMedia Pvt. Limited (PT021) in the form of powder was used to prepare basal media. Prescribed amount of powder was dissolved in required amount of distilled water and fortified with 6-benzylaminopurine (1.5mgl-1) and Indolebutyric acid (0.5mgl-1). Before autoclaving pH was adjusted to 5.8. After allowing medium to cool for few minutes at room temperature, it was poured in culture tubes. Media were allowed to solidify at room temperature. Before culturing, explants were sterilized with HgCl2 (0.1, 0.2 %) for 1 to 5 minutes and NaOCl2 (0.5, 1.0 %) for 2 to 10 minutes within laminar air flow cabinet, followed by 3-4 washing using autoclaved distilled water. Observations on aseptic culture (%) and survival (%) were recorded four weeks after culturing. The results indicated that HgCl2 proved better in terms of aseptic culture (%) and survival (%) than NaOCl2. HgCl2 (0.2%) for 5 minutes resulted in maximum aseptic culture in Patharnakh (88.49%) and Kainth (83.03%). However, maximum survival of Patharnakh (66.67%) and Kainth (76.14%) explants was obtained by using Hg Cl2 (0.1%) for 5 minutes. 379 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-1 integrAted diseAse mAnAgement (idm) dushyant, dr. n.K.khatri and Jagdish Prasad Department of Plant pathology, SK Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner- 334006 Email: *shakya.dushyant@gmail.com Abstract Integrated disease management (IDM) is a disease control approach that uses all available management strategies to maintain disease pressures below an economic injury threshold. It does not advocate a routine chemical application program to prevent disease, but promotes the integration of cultural, physical, biological and chemical control strategies. The routine application of fungicides for insurance purposes is not appropriate, as it does not focus the proper attention on the real problem and can lead to resistance and potential environmental issues. The basic objectives of any IDM program should be to achieve at least the following:reducing the possibility of introducing diseases into the crop, avoid creating conditions suitable for disease establishment and spread. Five disease management tactics: Biological - the conservation or release of bio-control agents that attack on pathogens e.g. - Trichoderma, Bacillus, Pseudomonas etc. Cultural - such as crop rotation, deep summer ploughing, change the date of sowing, depth of sowing, trap cropping, removal or destruction of diseased plants. Chemical - use of pesticides as a last resort only and favoring those products that conserve natural enemies. Physical or mechanical - barriers such as covers and screens plus vacuums. Resistance- utilize resistant / tolerant cultivars. Advantages of IDM are: Improve profitability, a reduced amount of broad-spectrum pesticide use in the environment, a reduced chance of peathogen developing resistance towards a specific pesticide, a reduced health risk to humans, a reduced health risk to pets and organisms that aren’t being targeted, less harm for the environment. Bp-2 integrAted diseAse mAnAgement in BroCCoLi (BrAssICA OlerACeA ItAlICA): A Better APProACh for residue free diet Prashant Chauhan, ravika1 and sK dhankhar2 Department of Plant Pathology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (India)-125004 1 Department of Genetics & Plant Breeding, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (India)-125004 2 Department of Vegetable Science, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (India)-125004 Email: *pchauhan.k@gmail.com Abstract India has a wide range of climates ranging from temperate to tropical, where different bracicacae crops are grown all over the country. Among them, broccoli is being a temperate crop grown mainly in hilly area for table purposes and fresh vegetable consumption. The crop suffers from a number of diseases including, damping off (Pythium spp.), downy mildew, leaf spot (Alternaria spp.), black rot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris), black leg (Phoma lingam), wire stem (Rhizoctonia solani), white blister (Albugo candida) and Fusarium yellows (F. oxysporum f.sp. conglutinans) and some other viral diseases are very common. Losses due to diseases have been substantial and can cause crop failure under favorable environmental conditions. With the time and changes in dietary habits, broccoli is occupying its place in our daily diets. The use of chemical pesticides to control the diseases of broccoli can put a threat of chemical residues to the consumers. Therefore, an integrated approach for the control of the diseases has been of utmost importance in case of broccoli to minimize the residual effects on human being. By following clean cultivation, improved cultural practices, better management of water for irrigation, use of biocontrol agents and by using resistant varieties a better disease control could be achieved and disease incidence can be minimized in broccoli as compared to the use of chemicals. So, following IDM in broccoli cultivation can be useful approach for healthy environment and healthy diet. 380 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-3 PAthogeniC vAriABiLity Among isoLAtes of sClerOtInIA sClerOtIOrum infeCting indiAn mustArd Pawan Kumar, A.s. rathi and Anil Kumar Department of Plant Pathology CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar - 125 004 E-mail: pawankasniya@yahoo.co.in Abstract Study was conducted to evaluate the pathogenic variability among fourteen isolates of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum obtained from infected plant of Indian mustard (Brassica juncea) from different mustard growing regions of India. The significant differences were observed between the genotypes in relation to the per cent disease intensity across the isolates and all the isolates had shown varying degree of per cent disease intensity depending on genotype tested. However, non-significant variation was observed among the isolates in relation to initial appearance of disease symptoms in days after inoculation. The average disease intensity of different isolates varied between 28.7 to 53.1 per cent on all the genotypes under field condition. Note worthy, HSR and FTH were the most pathogenic isolates with mean disease intensity of more than 50 %, while ALW was least pathogenic isolate with disease intensity of less than 30% under field conditions. Variation for days to stem breaking was also observed among some of the isolates inoculated on different genotypes. However, some of the isolates caused stem breaking on some genotypes while, other isolates could not cause stem breaking on some genotypes. Isolates produced varying number of sclerotia on different genotypes. However, all the isolates resulted in formation of less than 7 sclerotia in one genotype Varuna albino, indicating its tolerance to all the available isolates. There were also some genotype-isolate interactions, where less sclerotia were obtained from some genotypes due to one isolate. Bp-4 residue dynAmiCs of ACePhAte, ProfenoPhos And triAzoPhos in BrinJAL (sOlAnum melOnGenA L.) gaganpreet singh Brar and sK Patyal Department of Entomology Dr.Y.S.Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni (Solan)-173 230 (HP) E mail: ursbrar88@gmail.com Abstract Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is a popular solanaceous and economically important vegetable crop. It is attacked by a number of insect pests affecting its growth and productivity. Different insecticides are used to control insect pests. In the present investigation persistence of acephate, profenophos and triazophos on brinjal was studied. Treated fruits were also subjected to common household decontamination processes. The brinjal crop was sprayed with each insecticide twice at 10 days interval. Each insecticide was applied at two concentrations i.e. single and double doses, acephate applied @ 560 and 1120 g a.i. ha-1, profenophos and triazophos applied @ 500 and 1000 g a.i. ha-1. Brinjal fruit samples were analysed by QuEChERS method and residues were estimated on SHIMADZU-2010 GC equipped with FPD and Rxi-5 capillary column. The initial deposits due to single dose each of acephate, profenophos and triazophos on brinjal fruits were 0.683, 1.966 and 1.100 mg kg-1, respectively. However, at double dose the initial deposits of acephate, profenophos and triazophos were 1.080, 2.460 and 2.233 mg kg-1 on brinjal fruits. Acephate, profenophos and triazophos residues persisted in brinjal fruits upto 7 and 10 days at single and double dose, respectively. The residues of acephate, profenophos and triazophos in fruits reduced to half in less than 2 days. The waiting periods for the respective insecticides were worked out at their limit of determination (0.05 mgkg-1) due to lack of MRL value in India. The safe waiting periods on brinjal were suggested as 7.9, 6.3 and 7.1 days for acephate, profenophos and triazophos, respectively. The tap water washing, saline water washing and lukewarm water washing of brinjal fruits were found effective in removing residues 20.00 to 43.83, 28.65 to 54.54 and 35.31 to 61.81 per cent, respectively. Open pan and microwave cooking provided 50.21 to 68.42 and 58.53 to 73.68 per cent relief, respectively from insecticide residues. Cooking (open pan and microwave) was found as the most effective decontamination process. 381 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-5 Bio-effiCACy of inseCtiCides AgAinst CoriAnder APhid Chhiter mal ola and h.L. deshwal College of Agriculture, SK Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner, Rajasthan Abstract Insect pest are one of the limiting factors for higher production of good quality coriander leaves as well as seeds. Among the insect pests of this crop, coriander aphid, Hyadaphis coriandari (Das) has been reported to be of regular nature and major insect pest in Rajasthan and other parts of country to study the efficacy of seven safe insecticide along with two pant prodeucts (viz., neem and neem based insecticides) for evolving an effective management schedule. Keeping these view an investigation was conducted in the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Bikaner during rabi seasion the experiment was laid out in a randomized block design with treatments viz. Malathion 50 EC, Thiamethoxam 25 WG, Acetamiprid 20 SP, Imidacioprid 17.8 SL, Carbosulfan 25 EC, Diclorvos 76 EC, Dimethoat 30 EC, N.S.K.E, Azadirachtin 0.03 EC and control with nphicated thrice. The coriander variety, RCR-684 was sown on November, 2009 in a plot size of 3x2m2 keeping row to row and plant to plant distance of 30 and 15 cm, respectively. Two spray of imidacloprid (0.005%), thiamethoxam (0.0005%) and acetamiprid (0.004%) were found highly effective in crop protection, whereas dimethoate (0.03%), dichlorvos (0.05%), carbosulfan (0.05%) and malathion (0.05% were found moderately effective the treatments of NSKE (5.0%) and azadirachtin (0.5%) were found less effective in reducing the aphid population. Bp-6 effeCt of vArietAL sCreening, And dAte of soWing of HelICOVerpA ArmIGerA (huB.) on ChiCKPeA [CICer ArIetIInum (L.)] o.m.Choudhary1, m.m. sharma2, r.Anwala3 and v.Bhunwal4 Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner-334006 Abstract A field experiment was conducted on screening of chickpea varieties/genotypes, dates of sowing of H. armigera (Hub.) on chickpea were conducted at Experimental Farm, College of Agriculture. Ten varieties/genotypes of chickpea were tested for relative incidence of the pest. Among these varieties RSG-44 and RSG-945 were found to be highly susceptible followed by CSJ-104, RSG-959, RSG-895, RSG-888, RSG-897 and RSG-973 as moderately susceptible while, CSJD-884 and RSG-931 as least susceptible. The maximum yield was obtained in CSJD-884 (14.54 q ha-1) at par with RSG-931 (14.36 q ha-1), while lowest yield was from RSG-44 (11.13 q ha-1).The experiment on dates of sowing revealed that early sown crop (5th October) had the lowest larval population (2.50 larvae/five plants) of gram pod borer, minimum pod damage (14.50%) with relatively better yield (13.04 q ha-1) as compared to late sown (20th November) crop with higher larval population (6.13 larvae/five plants), higher pod damage (28.96%) and lower yield (9.77 q ha-1) 382 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-7 BioLogy of LeAf eAting CAterPiLLAr, spODOpterA lIturA (fABriCius) on different Bidi toBACCo vArieties 1 r. A. PAtiL1, d. m. mehtA2 And B. L. JAt* Department of Entomology, AAU, Anand 2Bidi Tobacco Research Station, AAU, Anand – 388 110 (Gujarat) *CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004 (Haryana) Abstract Tobacco leaf eating caterpillar, Spodoptera litura (Fab.) is one of the most important insect pests of tobacco in nursery as well as in field. The biology of S.litura on different tobacco varieties, Anand-119, GT-5, GT-9, MRGTH-1, ABT-10 and ABD-101, was studied at 26 ± 1°C and 75 ± 1% relative humidity. All of the biological parameters included in the study were affected by the host varieties. The larval period ranged from 22 to 31 days on MRGTH-1 was longer than other tobacco varieties. Fecundity of females was more on GT-9, least on ABD-101, and intermediate on Anand-119, ABT-10, GT-5 and MRGTH-1, respectively. Pupal period, adult period and growth index were significantly higher on GT-5 than on others and larval mortality per cent was also significantly lower on GT-5 than other varieties. Pupal mortality per cent was lower on ABD-101 than on other varieties. Bp-8 effiCACy of vArious inseCtiCides for the ControL of spODOpterA lIturA (fABriCius) on KHArIF mungBeAn harpreet K. Cheema, ravinder singh and g.K. taggar Deptt. of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana Email: hkcheema@pau.edu Abstract Tobacco caterpillar, Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera) is a serious insect pest of mungbean, soybean, urdbean and cotton during kharif (rainy) season in India. The pest usually appears during August-September and continues till maturity. The young larvae are gregarious in nature and nibble the leaf from the lower surface, leaving the upper surface intact. The later instars become widely distributed in the field and cause widespread defoliation of the crop. Under favourable conditions, its populations increase to cause total defoliation of the crop. Keeping in view its damage potential, trials were conducted during kharif 2011-2013 to test the efficacy of various insecticides viz., emamectin benzoate 5SG @ 8 and 10g, flubendiamide 480SG @10 and 30g, novaluron 10 EC @ 30 and 37.5g and profenophos 50EC @ 500 and 625g a.i./ha against S. litura on kharif mungbean variety PAU 911. Treatment novaluron 10 EC @ 37.5g, emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 10g and emamectin benzoate 8g a.i./ha significantly reduced pest population, three and seven days after spray. Highest grain yield was obtained in treatment emamectin benzoate 5 SG @ 10 g a.i./ha and it was on par with novaluron 10 EC @ 37.5 g a.i./ha. Maximun net returns and benefit:cost were obtained from the treatment novaluron 10 EC @ 37.5 g a.i./ha. Earlier studies have shown that one to two sprays of insecticide novaluron 10 EC at 37.5 g, acephate 75 SP at 1500 g, chlorpyriphos 20 EC at 1000 g and indoxacarb 14.5 SC at 73 g a.i./ha proved to be quite effective in controlling this pest. Hand picking and mechanical destruction of the young instar gregarious larvae can greatly help in reducing infestation during early stage of attack followed by timely spray of insecticides identified effective against this insect pest. 383 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-9 evALuAtion of LoCALLy AvAiLABLe rAW mAteriAL for deveLoPment of BAit APPLiCAtion teChniQue (BAt) AgAinst fruit fLy sPeCies yendrembam K. devi*, P. K. mehta and C. s. Prabhakar Department of Entomology, CSK HPKV, Palampur-176062, Himachal Pradesh E-mail : kismon1987@gmail.com and Mehta@hillagric.ac.in Abstract Cucumber is an important vegetable crops cultivated extensively in India. Fruit flies have been identified as one of the ten most serious problems of cucurbits. Evaluation of locally available raw material for development of bait application technique (BAT) against Bactrocera tau (Walker) has been conducted under laboratory condition. 25 males and 25 females of this species were released together with different concentrations of each baits solution and flies visiting each concentration were recorded for 15 minutes. Laboratory evaluation of attractancy of different baits to B. tau under no choice and multiple choice test revealed maximum attractancy in hydrolysed protein (46.00 and 46.50%), followed by molasses (41.11 and 36.50%), respectively. Exposure of B. tau to different bait-insecticide combinations under laboratory conditions indicated highest mortality (97.50%) in molasses + dichlorvos followed by banana pulp + dichlorvos (96.50%) and hydrolysed protein + dichlorvos (96.00%). Key Words: Bactrocera tau, cucumber, bait, insecticide Bp-10 induCtion of oXidAtive ComPonents foLLoWing HelICOVerpA ArmIGerA (huBner) infestAtion in PigeonPeA (CAjAnus CAjAn L.) rimaljeet Kaur1, Anil Kumar gupta1, gaurav Kumar taggar2 Department of Biochemistry, 2Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India. email ID: rimalnagra@gmail.com 1 Abstract Helicoverpa armigera is a polyphagous pest that attacks more than 200 plant species, including cotton, pigeonpea, maize etc. Investigating the inherent host plant resistance mechanisms might be helpful in reducing the losses due to herbivores. Therefore, the study was conducted to evaluate the potential of oxidative enzymes in deterring Helicoverpa armigera infestation. Nine pigeonpea genotypes, four moderately resistant (AL 1495, AL 1735, AL 1747 and AL 1770), three intermediate (AL 1753, AL 1755 and AL 201) and two moderately susceptible (AL 1677 and AL 15) were exposed to fourth instar larvae of H. armigera. Leaves, pod wall and developing seeds were collected from uninfested and infested plants for biochemical assays. Pod borer infestation resulted in increase in polyphenol oxidase (PPO), diamine oxidase (DAO), polyamine oxidase (PAO) activities and decrease in ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity. The increase in PPO, DAO and PAO activity was more in moderately resistant genotypes than in moderately susceptible genotypes in infested leaves. The decline in APX activity was less in moderately resistant genotypes than moderately susceptible genotypes. The greater increase in activities of PPO, DAO and PAO after H. armigera feeding and lower decline in APX activity in moderately resistant genotypes indicates their contribution in providing induced resistance in pigeonpea. Keywords: Pigeonpea, Helicoverpa armigera, Oxidative enzymes. 384 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-11 roLe of miCronutrients in ControLLing PLAnt diseAses in sustAinABLe AgriCuLture 1 Bikesh yadav1*, ramji singh2, Wineet Chawla1 and g.s. gatoria1 Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid College, Deon, Bathinda, Punjab-151001 India. 2 Department of Plant Pathology, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel crop season i.e. (SVP) University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut-250110 (U.P.), India. Abstract Experiments were conducted at S.V.P. University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut , during 2008-09 & 2009-10 crop season, to know the effect of deficient and recommended doses of micronutrients (Zinc, Iron, Manganese, Boron, olybdenum and Sulpher). The control of plant diseases using classical pesticides raises serious concerns about food safety, environmental quality and pesticide resistance, which have dicteatd the need for alternative pest management techniques. The effect of micronutrients on reducing the severity of diseases can be attributed to the involvement in physiology and biochemistry of the plant, as many of the essential micronutrients are involved in many processes that can affect the response of plants to pathogens (Marschner 1995).Micronutrients can affect resistance indirectly, as in deficient plants they become more suitable feeding substrate. In most of the studies reported here the addition of micronutrients decreased the incidence of the diseases in crop plants. It seems that due to iron application to the wheat plant, the quantity of phenols in wheat plant might increase as reported by Singh et al. (2009). Micronutrient application had a much greater effect on reducing diseases when the plants were at deficiency levels. In cases where the addition of a micronutrient has exacerbated the diseases it is possibly because of toxicity rather than deficiency; or in other cases, the addition of a nutrient can aggravate the primary deficiency. Also, in sustainable agriculture balanced nutrition is an essential component of any integrative crop protection program because in most cases it is more cost-effective and also environmentally friendly to control plant diseases with the adequate amount of micronutrients and with no pesticides. Among micronutrients, application of molybdenum, boron and manganese resulted in minimum disease incidence when applied at tillering and boot leaf stages on wheat. Micronutrients can reduce disease to an acceptable level, or at least to a level at which further control by other cultural practices or conventional organic biocides are more successful and less expensive. Bp-12 different honeyBee sPeCies As PoLLinAtors on PArentAL Lines of BrAssICA nApus L. dr Jasvir singh dalio* Street No. 12 Yog Nagar Budhlada – 151502 E-Mail: *drjasvirdalio@gmail.com Abstract Hybrid seed production is feasible, only when pollen is transferred from flowers of male line to those of female line. Success of hybrid seed production programme depends upon maximizing the seed set on female line rows. Hybrid seed production essentially require the pollinators to move between male and female lines during a single visit. Every insect can not be an efficient pollinator. Honeybees are the most efficient and abundant amongst insect pollinators . Main aim of the study was to compare pollinating abilities of different Apis species on parental lines of Brassica napus . Study revealed that as far as parameters like abundance, foraging behaviour , number of seed set with one visit, number of loose pollen grains adhering to the body surface, intersexual flower visits etc. were concerned, different species had different abilities but on the whole Apis mellifera was the best pollinator as compared to other three bee species (A. dorsaa, A.florea and A.cerana). so A. mellifera colonies should be kept in hybrid seed production plots of B.napus. Major problem noted during study was that intersexual flower visits of bees were very less because flowers of cytoplasmically male sterile ( CMS) line were very less attractive to all kinds of honeybees as compared to those of restorer (R) line. Research work is urgently required to make the CMS line equally attractive so that intersexual flower visits may be increased, which will increase yield of hybrid seeds. Beekeeping should be made an integral part of agricultural management technology. 385 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-13 CheyLetid mites (ACAri: tromBidiformes) in stored grAins in PunJAB Parminder singh dehar Dept. of Zoology and Environment Science Punjabi University, Patiala – 147002 – Punjab, India E-mail : inder_dehar@yahoo.co.in Abstract Cheyletid mites in stored cereal were second dominated after astigmatic mites. Some of these species of this family are predators of acarid mites and they were collected from soils, flour-mills, barn and rice-mill in 11 Provinces located in Sangrur and Patiala districts of Punjab and then identified. In this study, nine genera and 11 species are identified as follows: Acaropsellina sollers (Kuzin, 1940), Cheletomorpha lepidopterorum (Show, 1794), Cheyletus bidentatus Fain & Nadchatrum, 1980 Cheyletus carnifex Zachvatkin, 1935, Cheyletus eruditus (Schrank, 1781), Cheyletus malaccensis Oudemans, 1903, Cheyletus trouessarti Oudemans, 1903, Culifella variegate (Barilo, 1985), Eucheyletia sp., Lepidocheyla sp., Nodele calamondin Muma, 1964, Neocheyla iranica Fain & Ardeshir, 2000, Zachvatkiniola reticulate (Cunliffe, 1962). The most distributed mites were Cheyletus malaccensis and Acaropsellina sollers. The most common species on wheat and rice was Cheyletus malaccensis Bp-14 Life feCundity tABLes of spODOpterA lIturA (fABriCius) on Bidi toBACCo, nICOtIAnA tABACum 1 r. A. Patil1, d. m. mehta2 and B. L. Jat* Department of Entomology, AAU, Anand 2Bidi Tobacco Research Station, AAU, Anand – 388 110 (Gujarat) *Department of Entomology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004 (Haryana) *E-mail : solenopsisp.aau@gmail.com Abstract Studies on life fecundity tables of Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) were carried out on bidi tobacco cv. GTH-1 under laboratory condition at 26 ± 1 °C temperature. The net reproductive potential (Ro) obtained was 353.85 females with the mean length of generation period (T) 50.29 days. The innate capacity for increase (rm) and finite rate of increase (l) were found to be 0.1172 and 1.1243 females/female/day, respectively with a weekly multiplication rate (λ)7 of 2.27 times. The hypothetical F2 females were found to be 125209.75. The % contribution of eggs, larvae, pupae and adults were 48.49, 50.39, 1.01 and 0.09, respectively at stable age distribution of S. litura on bidi tobacco cv. GTH-1. Bp-15 effeCt of triPtoLide on reProduCtion of mALe Lesser BAndiCoot rAt, BAnDICOtA BenGAlensIs Parul dhar and neena singla Department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India. E-mail : Paruldhar2006@gmail.com Abstract Present study was aimed to evaluate the effect of triptolide on reproduction of wild male rodent pest species, Bandicota bengalensis for its further use under field conditions in integration with chemical control. Methodology: Mature and healthy male lesser bandicoot rat, B. bengalensis, were live-trapped from crop fields in and around Ludhiana. Four different groups of rats (n = 15 each) were fed on bait containing different concentrations (0, 0.15, 0.2 and 0.25%) of triptolide for 386 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” a period of 15 days in bi-choice. Bait acceptance and effect on reproductive output, reproductive organs, body weight, testosterone and sperm parameters were recorded. Results: Acceptance of bait containing triptolide in choice with plain bait was found to vary from 20.69 to 25.91%. The consumptions of treatment bait by rats during treatment period were found to be significantly less than the consumptions of plain bait. No effect of treatment was observed on body weight and plasma levels of testosterone. Triptolide affected the breeding output of male rats as indicated by inhibition of pregnancy in female rats paired with male rats treated with 0.25% triptolide immediately and after 30 days of treatment withdrawal. Significant effect of treatment was observed on weights of reproductive organs, sperm motility, viability, density and sperm morphology immediately and after 30 and 60 days of treatment withdrawal. Conclusion: The present study suggests triptolide to be a strong candidate for reducing reproductive output of male B. bengalensis via significantly affecting reproductive organs, cauda epididymal sperm motility, viability, density and morphology. Keywords: Triptolide, Reproduction, Bandicota bengalensis Bp-16 mite AssoCiAted With stored grAin And heALth issues Parminder singh dehar Zoology Department, Punjabi University, Patiala - 147 002 (Pb.) Email- inderdehar08@gmail.com Abstract Stored grain and stored products mites are found different products stores and sometimes, in high concentration. Mites that occur these commodities belong to many different families and genera. Mites cause significant grain Weight losses and decrease of germinability. Their activities cause heating of grain mass and moisture translocation which permits the development of molds and germination of the grain, contamination by alive and dead mites different stages as well as exuviae and feaces resulting in being harmful for human consumption. Mites are vectors of toxicogenic fungi, which contribute to contamination of food and feed with mycotoxins it is possible for the workers and even the customers to be exposed to mites and their allergen. Either by handling inhaling or ingestion of mites contaminated food. Bp-17 guJhiA WeeviL- A neW inseCt Pest of ChiCKPeA in PunJAB ravinder singh, g. K. taggar and P.C. Pathania* Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics *Department of Entomology PAU, Ludhiana Abstract Chickpea, Cicer arietinum (L) is the third most important grain legume in the world, after dry beans and peas. In India, chickpea is grown on 9.21 million ha producing 8.88 million tons of grain with productivity of 995 kg per ha (DAC Statistics, 2013), which is far lower than its potential (up to 4 t/ ha) yield. There has been no significant increase in chickpea yield as compared to the cereal crops because of several biotic and abiotic constraints. Among the biotic factors, damage due to insect pests mainly pod borer is the major limiting factor for its low yield (Sharma, 2005). Besides pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera the crop is also attacked by several other insect pests like sucking insect pests and defoliators . During Rabi 2012-13 & 2013-14 severe incidence of a new insect pest, Gujhia weevil, Tanymecus indicus Faust (Curculionidae: Coleoptera) was noticed on the chickpea crop sown at research farms of KVK Faridkot. The new insect pest nibbles the tender shoots of chickpea seedlings just above the ground level. The pest scratches the green portion of the shoot, girdles the stem region making a constriction in the shoot, which further weakens the plant. As a result of the attack, the plant withers, wilts, turns yellow, brown and ultimately dies. The attack of the pest was observed in patches in the field. The damage due to this pest ranged from 12 to 15% and as a result, the plant stand remained thin in the field. 387 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-18 soiL soLArizAtion:An eCo friendLy CroP ProteCtion meAsure for the mAnAgement of fusArium WiLt of ChiLLi Anand Kumar meena1 , K.d. thakur2 and Paritosh Kumar3 Plant Pathology Section, College of Agriculture, Nagpur, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola 440 010 ,Maharastra,INDIA E-mail: *anandraj.km@gmail.com 1Ph.D.Scholar ,3 M.Sc. Scholar, SKRAU Bikaner. 2 Professor Plant Pathology,Dr.PDKV,Akola. Abstract An experiment was conducted to study the effect of soil solarization on chilli wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp capsici. Transparent polythene sheets covered plots with different combination of Irrigation and ploughing treatment for up to 4 weeks maintaining appropriate controls. It was observed that soil temperature at different soil depth i.e 5 to 15 cm varied widely among different treatment and especially in the Irrigated ploughed combination it had a maximum average of 51.0 0C compared to 39.8 0C in control. Soil population of Foc in Irrigated ploughed treatment was reduced to non detectable levels. Key words : Soil solarization, chilli wilt, Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. capsici Bp-19 Bees As A nAturAL inPut resourCe for inCreAsing CroP ProduCtivity And AgriCuLturAL sustAinABiLity g.s.gatoria1, reet verma2 and rakesh Kumar1 1 Deptt of Agriculture, BFC, BFGI, Deon : Bathinda-151 001; 2 K.V.K. , Fatehgarh Sahib-140 006 Email: reet.verma81@gmail.com Abstract Angiosperms and insect pollinators have been co-evolved for mutual benefit and insects play over 85 per cent role in the cross pollination of crops. About 33 percent of the human diet is, directly or indirectly, derived from insect pollinated plants. To feed the ever increasing mouths on the globe, we need to increase food production by increasing crop productivity. But despite all the best material inputs, crop yields are low because of inadequate population of pollinators & pollination service. Several breeding barrios necessitate the cross pollination among angiosperms. Except bees, pollination by other insects is an incidental event. Unlike insecticides, crop yield enhancement through bee pollination also does not degrade the environment, rather helps in the continuation and increasing natural biodiversity. Moreover, because of their several traits, although bees are considered as the best agents of cross pollination but bees are not given due importance as an input for crop production in agriculture . Various bee spp. can even play a significant role in the pollination of high value crops grown under poly / green-house conditions too. Estimation of huge monetary benefits of bee pollination across the globe supports the role of bees in agricultural sustainability. However, the ever declining density and diversity of natural / wild bees, is the matter of concern and necessitates the efficient management of this natural resource for increasing crop productivity and agricultural sustainability. 388 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-20 honey Bees As PoLLinAtors And CAuses of their deCLine Anita devi* and neelima r Kumar Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh *E-mail: anitakadian23@gmail.com Abstract Honey bees are perceived beneficial primarily owing to the various rewards they offer in shape of different hive products like honey, pollen, propolis, bee venom, royal jelly, etc. However, their importance as pollinators is usually poorly understood. Among the various insects honey bees assume the status of major pollinator of wide variety of agricultural, horticultural and vegetable crops. The economic benefits of honey bees as pollinators far more exceeds the monetary benefits from production of honey and other hive products. Pollination services to flowering plants represent a key ecosystem service by honey bees. The close synergistic relationship between plants and pollinators suggests that bee biodiversity and by extension, plant and ecosystem biodiversity is central to food security and to the health of the biosphere as a whole. Increasing the efficiency of pollination represents a way of increasing crop yield without any increase in agricultural intensity or area. However, the decline in honeybees’populations, especially of feral colonies is a serious concern and need immediate attention. Among the potential cause of this decline injudicious use of pesticides, prevalence of various insect pestsincluding mites, disease pathogens, viruses, intensive agriculture and global warming are some important ones. Organized research based steps must be initiated for the conservation of these pollinators. Key Words:Conservation,decline,honey bees, pollination Bp-21 host rAnge And PAthogeniC vAriAtion in isoLAtes of rHIzOCtOnIA sOlAnI inCitAnt of Wet root rot in ChiCKPeA Pawan Kumar Panwar*, vK gaur, Jagdish Prasad and Lekhraj Katariya Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Swami Kehshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner-334001, India. *E-mail: pawanpanwar2007@rediffmail.com Abstract Studies were conducted to find out the extent of host range and pathogenic variation among seven isolates of Rhizoctonia solani collected from Rajasthan, Haryana and New Delhi. All seven isolates tested for their pathogenicity using susceptible varieties viz. C-235 of chickpea, RC-101 of cowpea, RMO-225 of mothbean and RMG-344 of mungbean, had varying disease incidence levels in pot culture experiment using sterilized and unsterilized soil. The isolate Hisar-2775 on chickpea, Delhi-4097 on cowpea and Hisar- 2775 on mothbean were highly virulent in both types of soil, while Delhi-4097 was highly virulent on mungbean in sterilized soil but not in unsterilized soil. Contrary to this the isolate Hisar-2775 was highly virulent in unsterilized soil. The incidence of disease appeared first on mungbean followed by chickpea, mothbean and cowpea in both soil types. This may be due to genetic variations in host crops or variation in degree of aggressiveness of isolates of Rhizoctonia solani. Key words: chickpea, pathogenic variations, Rhizoctonia solani 389 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-22 In VIVO testing of effiCACy of vArious ChemiCALs AgAinst PurPLe BLotCh of onion CAused By AlternArIA pOrrI Bs dudi, Prashant Chauhan*, ms Bochalya, dinisha Abhishek and sachin Kumari Department of Vegetable Science, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (India)-125004 *Department of Plant Pathology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (India)-125004 Email: pchauhan.k@gmail.com Abstract Among the various foliar diseases of onion, purple blotch (c.o. Alternaria porri) has been very common under north Indian conditions. An experiment was carried out at vegetable research area of CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar during 2011-12 rabi season. The experiment was carried out to find out the better chemical control and the suitable crop stage for the control of purple blotch. The treatments included, first Spray at 30 days after transplanting (DAT)- T1=Mancozeb 0.25%, T2= Mancozeb 0.25%, T3= Mancozeb 0.25% and Methomyl 0.8g/L, T4= Mancozeb 0.25% and Methomyl 0.8g/L, T5= Untreated check and T6= Methomyl 0.8g/L, second spray at 45DAT- T1= Propiconazole 0.1%, T2= Tricyclazole 0.1%, T3= Propiconazole 0.1% and Carbosulfan 2ml/L, T4= Tricyclazole 0.1% and Carbosulfan 2ml/L, Untreated check and T6= Carbosulfan 2ml/L and third spray- 60DAT- T1= Copper oxychloride 0.25%, T2= Hexaconazole 0.1%, T3= Copper oxychloride 0.25% and Profenofos 1ml/L, T4= Hexaconazole 0.1% and Profenofos 1ml/L, T5= Untreated check and T6= Profenofos 1ml/L. Maximum per cent disease incidence (PDI) observed in untreated check recorded was 28.4% at 30DAT. Though all treatments showed significant reduction in disease incidence, however, treatment T4 have shown the best control at 50 DAT and have shown 43.61% disease reduction i.e. from 13.3 to 7.5% as compared to other treatments and stages of application. The results concluded that Tricyclazole 0.1% in combination with Carbosulfan 2ml/L applied at 45DAT were more effective as compared to their single application. Bp-23 rePeLLent effeCt of euCALyPtus oiL enCAPsuLAted in WAX BLoCKs AgAinst house rAt, rAttus rAttus LinnAeus neena singla and ramandeep Kaur Department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India E-mail: ramanthind01@gmail.com Abstract To determine the efficacy of eucalyptus oil (EO) encapsulated in wax blocks as repellent against house rat, R. rattus. Mature and healthy house rat, Rattus rattus of both sexes were exposed to 5, 10 and 20% EO in laboratory pens in bi-choice tests. Each concentration of the oil was applied as wax blocks encapsulating 3 drops (0.5 ml) of oil. Rats were exposed to each concentration of the oil for 3 weeks using three different modes of application i.e. applied daily, once a week and alternatively in a week. Repellent effect of the oil was assessed based on food consumption from treated and untreated sides for four days. Statistical analysis of the data (using SAS 9.3 software) revealed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) low consumption of bait from treatment side compared to untreated side at all three concentrations of EO and three modes of application. Percent repellency (PC) was found to be significantly (P ≤ 0.05) high with 5% EO applied daily in female rats and 10% EO applied daily in male rats. No significant difference in PC among the three modes of application was found with 20% EO in both male and female rats. In overall, PC was low when the oil was applied once a week and alternatively. Present studies thus reveal the potential of eucalyptus oil in repelling away R. rattus, however, further studies are required to be conducted to enhance the persistence of the repellent effect for longer period of time. Key words: eucalyptus oil, wax blocks, Rattus rattus 390 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Bp-24 toXiCity of different inseCtiCides AgAinst spODOpterA lIturA (fABriCius) in PunJAB, indiA Prabhjot Kaur1, B.K. Kang2 and Balwinder singh3 Ph.D. Student, Deptt. Of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141004, India. E-Mail: prabhjotk32@gmail.com Associate Professor, Deptt. Of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141004, India. E-Mail: Kang16@pau.edu Head, Deptt. Of Entomology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141004, India. Abstract Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is one of the major pests of many crops in India. Toxicity of different insecticides was evaluated against this pest in populations collected from four different locations viz. Malerkotla, Hoshiarpur, Amritsar and Samrala of Punjab. Presently quinalphos, deltamethrin and one new chemistry indoxacarb insecticides at their lethal concentrations were tested against third instar larvae of S. litura, under laboratory conditions using leaf dip method recommended by IRAC. Based on LC50 values obtained, indoxacarb (0.000000056%) was found to be most toxic against all the pest populations followed by quinalphos (0.003%) and deltamethrin (0.0003%). This insecticide can thus prove to be promising substitutes for the effective control of insecticide resistant population of S. litura. Keywords: Spodoptera litura, indoxacarb, quinalphos, deltamethrin, toxicity 391 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-1 ACCeLerAting the AdoPtion of resourCe Conserving teChniQues in riCe – WheAt CroPPing system K.m. Choudhary1, Love Kumar singh2, r.d. Jat3, A.K. yadav4 and h.s. Jat5 Department of Agronomy, Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural, Hisar – 125004 2&5 International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center(CIMMYT) -India 1,3&4 Abstract The resource conservation technologies (RCTs) primarily focus on resource savings through minimal tillage, ensuring soil nutrients and moisture conservation through crop residues and growth of cover crops, and adoption of spatial and temporal crop sequencing. As a part of this strategy, resource conserving technologies (RCTs) play a major role in sustaining and enhancing the productivity of the rice-wheat system at a lower cost of production. Rice-wheat cropping system is the predominant cropping system in India as both rice and wheat are main staple food for the people of the country. Some of the RCTs that are being promoted in the rice-wheat belt of the Indo-Gangetic Plains are: zero tillage, laser land levelling, bed planting, surface seeding, rotary tillage, use of leaf colour chart, SPAD, Green Seeker and mechanical rice transplanter, etc. Resource Conservation Technologies Promote: Timely sowing- Better crop stands, Higher yields- Lower costs, Better nutrient & water use efficiency - Less water pollution and less groundwater mining, More diverse rotations- Fewer weeds and pests, Less use of fossil fuel- Reduced cost & CO2 emission, Prevent residue burning- More C sequestration & better soil health. Present agriculture scenario, especially in irrigated areas is dominated by monoculture of certain crops as more than 80% food comes from about 10 crop species. For instance diversifying rice-wheat system with berseem, mustard, sugarcane effectively minimizes Phalaris minor infestation where as inclusion of legumes for grain, fodder and green manure improves the fertility and soil health. Cp-2 imProving the ProduCtivity And grAin BiofortifiCAtion of riCe And WheAt By zinC And Boron APPLiCAtion through seed invigorAtion teChniQues Abdul rehman 1, * and muhammad farooq1, 2, 3 Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan 2 The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia 3 College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. *Corresponding author’s e-mail: abdurehmanuaf@gmail.com 1 Micronutrient deficiency is major health issue in the developing world. Pakistani soils are highly deficient in zinc (Zn) and boron (B) and these are the major micronutrient disorder in wheat and rice resulting in severe losses in yield and nutritional quality. Moreover, there is need to screen wheat and rice genotypes for higher uptake of Zn and B and their portioning in grains which will help in reducing malnutrition. Due to uneven distribution, repeated spraying and amount of nutrient required soil and foliar application of nutrients is difficult to practice by resource poor farmers. Micronutrient delivery through seed treatment is an attractive alternative as very little amount is needed in seed treatment and also the nutrients are available in the vicinity of emerging seedlings. However, there is need to optimize concentration of these nutrients through seed priming and seed coating as very narrow margin between the deficiency and toxicity of these nutrients exist. To optimize Zn and B application through seed treatment and screening of wheat and rice genotypes for Zn and B uptake and their grain partitioning a series of experiments were conducted. Micronutrient application (Zn, B) through seed treatment i.e. seed priming and seed coating improved seedling establishment, crop yield, and helped in improving Zn and B contents in grains of rice and wheat. There was a great variation among Zn and B portioning in the grains of rice and wheat genotypes. Wheat and rice cultivars better able for Zn and B acquisition and their partitioning in grains may be used for future breeding programs. Zinc and B application through seed treatment is cost effective and efficient method for correcting Zn and B deficiency and fortification of these nutrients in the grains. 392 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-3 soiL heALth, resourCe use effiCienCy And system ProduCtivity in ConventionAL And ConservAtion riCe-WheAt CroPPing systems Ahmad nawaz1, * and muhammad farooq1, 2, 3 Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan 2 The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia 3 College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. * e-mail: ahmadnawaz2006@gmail.com 1 Abstract Looming water, labor, energy and environmental issues are threating the productivity of conventional rice wheat production systems. Conservation rice-wheat systems offer a pragmatic option to address all these issues. A series of experiments was conducted to compare the conventional and conservation rice-wheat cropping system for soil health, resource use efficiency and system productivity. The first experiment was conducted to evaluate the role of seed priming in improving the stand establishment and productivity of wheat in conservation and conventional rice based cropping systems. Seed priming not only improved the stand establishment but also the productivity of wheat in conventional and conservation wheat production systems. Wheat yields were higher after direct rice in primed seeds than transplanted rice. In second experiment, brown manuring and residue management were evaluated in conventional and conservation rice-wheat cropping system. Soil health was better after conservation systems as indicated by low values of soil bulk density than the conventional rice systems. Yields of rice in conservation and conventional rice systems were same but resource use efficiency was higher in conservation rice systems. Brown manuring with sesbania not only helped to control weeds in direct seeded rice but it also improved post rice wheat yield, which was similar to the wheat yield when it was sown after transplanted rice through conventional tilled method. System productivity was higher in direct seeded rice + Sesbania manuring followed by zero tillage wheat. In third experiment, the direct seeded rice and transplanted rice were evaluated at farmer’s fields in two location viz. Nankana Sahib and Sheikhupura for resource use efficiency and system productivity. The yield of direct seeded rice and transplanted rice were the same at both sites but resource use efficiency was better in direct seeded rice. Thus resource conservation promotion technologies must be promoted in rice-wheat belt to save water, labor and fuel resources. Cp-4 ConservAtion AgriCuLture: An APProACh for resourCe sAving AgriCuLture P.s. John daniel, dheeraj tiwari and v.P. sriharsha Department of Agronomy, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana. Email: penumaka.johndaniel@gmail.com Abstract Indian agriculture has been successful in increasing food grains production in the past, guided by the goals of ‘selfsufficiency’ in the country. The mission of increasing food grains production somehow stands achieved, however, accompanied by series of problems related to the environment and natural resources. Conservation agriculture can be seen as a new way forward for conserving resources and enhancing productivity to achieve the goals of sustainable agriculture, which demands a strong knowledge base and a combination of institutional and technological innovations. Conservation agriculture is a concept for resource-saving agricultural crop production that strives to achieve acceptable profits together with high and sustained production levels while concurrently conserving the environment. Interventions such as mechanical soil tillage are reduced to an absolute minimum and the use of external inputs such as agrochemicals and nutrients of mineral or organic origin are applied at an optimum level and in a way and quantity that does not interfere with or disrupt the biological processes. One of the soil conservation techniques developed known as ‘conservation tillage’, involves soil 393 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” management practices that minimise the disruption of the soil’s structure, composition and natural biodiversity, thereby minimising erosion and degradation. Conservation agriculture systems utilize soils for the production of crops with the aim of reducing excessive mixing of the soil and maintaining crop residues on the soil surface in order to minimize damage to the environment. Conservation agriculture can be done with objective to: (1) Provide and maintain an optimum environment of the root-zone to maximum possible depth. (2) Avoid physical or chemical damage to roots that disrupts their effective functioning. (3) Ensure that water enters the soil so that (a) plants never or for the shortest time possible, suffer water stress that will limit the expression of their potential growth; and so that (b) residual water passes down to groundwater and stream flow, not over the surface as runoff. (4) Favour beneficial biological activity in the soil. Because of increasing population and rising standards of living, it is essential to develop those agricultural practices that maximize agricultural production while also enhancing ecosystem. Keywords: Conservation agriculture, sustainable agriculture, biodiversity, erosion, degradation. Cp-5 eCo-friendLy nutrient mAnAgement in WheAt for enhAnCed sustAinABLe ProduCtion: A revieW dheeraj Kr. tiwari; sanjay Kr. thakral; Pardeep sagwal; P. s. John daniel; sriharsha v. P. Department of Agronomy, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana. Email: dk9hau@gmail.com dheerajtiwariagri@rediffmail.com Abstract At global level, India ranks as second largest wheat producing nation and contributing approximately 11.9% to the world wheat production from about 12% of global area. The area under wheat in India has become nearly constant around 29.65 million ha with the production of 92.46 million tonne. Application of all the needy nutrients through chemical fertilizers has deterious effect on soil health leading to unsustainable yields. One of the major constraints in boosting up the wheat production has deterious effect on soil health. Therefore; there is a need to improve nutrient supply system in terms of eco-friendly nutrient management involving the use of chemical fertilizers in conjunction with organic manures coupled with input through biological processes. Balanced fertilizer is the application of essential plant nutrients in light proportion and in optimum quantity for a specific soil crop condition. Continuous imbalanced use of fertilizer led to the deterioration in the soil fertility and decrease in soil productivity. Higher yield at balanced nutrition safe guard soil fertility. The basic concept underlying the eco-friendly nutrient management system, nevertheless, remains the maintenance and possible improvement of soil fertility for sustained crop productivity on long term-basis and also to reduce inorganic (fertilizer) input cost. the three main components of eco-friendly nutrient management system as defined by maintain or enhance soil productivity through a balanced use of fertilizers combined with organic and biological sources of plant nutrients, improve the stock of plant nutrients in the soils and improve the efficiency of plant nutrients, thus, limiting losses to the environment. Thus, eco-friendly nutrient management system aims at maintenance or adjustment of soil fertility and of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity through optimization of benefit from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. Keywords: Sustainable, eco-friendly, nutrient management, organic, soil health. 394 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-6 mAgnetiC fieLd stimuLAtion CAn imProvestAnd estABLishment, groWth And yieLd of LAte soWn WheAt saman saleem1*, irfan Afzal1, shahzad maqsood Ahmad Basra1, zia ul haq2and hafeez ur rehman1 1 Seed Physiology Lab, Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 2 Department of Physics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan Abstract Low temperature at early seedling stage resulting in delayed stand establishment and high temperature at reproductive stage affecting grain filling period ultimately lowers the yield of late sown wheat.Magnetic field can enhance the germination and seedling growth of different crops but still is an ambiguity about prospects of magnetism. A field study was conducted to explore the potential of magnetic field for improving the performance of two late sown wheat cv. Lasani-2008 and Punjab-2011. Seeds were directly exposed to different magnetic field strengths (75 and 150 mT) as well as primed with magnetized treated water for 10 min. Seeds exposed to magnetic field and magnetic treated water considerably benefited stand establishment and subsequent growth of both cultivars. Likewise yield contributing factors, grain yield and harvest index were maximally improved in plants raised from magnetic field and magnetic treated water. Overall, results suggest that seed priming with magnetic treated water being simple and economical was comparatively better than magnetic field treatments. Cp-7 Weed mAnAgement in WheAt CroP Charanpreet singh Buttar Associate Professor, Botany, Govt. Ripudaman College, Nabha, Patiala, Punjab, India Email: cpsbuttar@yahoo.com Abstract Though weeds are the integral part of an area, these are known to cause loss in the production to various crops varying from 11.6% globally and 25% in India. Out of 30,000 species of weeds reported throughout the world nearly 18,000 species cause damage to crop plants in different ways(Sen. 1981). Wheat is the principal crop of Punjab, the area of which has increased significantly with the introduction of its new yielding varieties. In Punjab wheat crop about 70 species of weeds are reported. The agro-climatic conditions, types of soil and agricultural practices determine the weedy status of different weeds. Major weeds of wheat crop: Fumaria indica, Arabidopsis thaliana, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Silene conoidea, Ageratum conyzoides, Coronopus didymus, Lepidium sativum, Medicago polymorpha, Chenopodium album, C.murale, Vaccaria pyramidata, Stellaria media, Malva parviflora, Speragula fallax, Meliolotus alba, M. indica, Vicia hirsuta. V. sativa, Lathyrus aphaca, L. sativus, Orabanche aegyptiaca, Sonchus arvensis, S. oleraceus, Anagallis arvensis, Antrirrhinum orontium, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Phalaris minor var. nepalensis, Avena fatua, Polypogon monspeliensis, Lolium temulentum and Poa annua. 395 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-8 moringA LeAf eXtrACt: A very effeCtive nAturAL CroP groWth enhAnCer shahzadmaqsood Ahmed Basra, irfan Afzal and hafeez-ur-rehman Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad E-mail : shehzadbasra@gmail.com Abstract Crop plants have to face more than one abiotic stressintheir life cycle due to climate change. Development of tolerant varieties is a way to cope abiotic stresses. The performance of crop plants under such stresses can be enhanced by the exogenous application of growth promoting substances.Moringa oleifera L. is a rich natural source zeatin (a cytokinin), ascorbate, phenolics and minerals like Ca, K, Fe etc.Its leaf extract makes it an excellent growth enhancer.This paperfocusesthe role of moringa leaf extract (MLE) as natural plant growth enhancer when applied exogenously as seed priming or foliar agent in cereals i.e. wheat, rice and maize and horticultural crops i.e. pea under normal and stressful environments. Cp-9 ConservAtion tiLLAge in WheAt CuLtivAtion for soiL CArBon seQuestrAtion Jagdish singh*, m s hadda and dhanwinder singh Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab-141004 Email : jagdishsingh@pau.edu Abstract Agriculture affects the environment by a number of ways including impacts on global warming through the emission of ‘greenhouse gases’, such as CO2, CH3, NOx , etc. Agriculture and land-use change contributes about 20% of the anthropogenic emissions of CO2. Agriculture has the potential to act as a sink for storing and sequestering CO2 from the atmosphere in the form of soil carbon. Agricultural management interventions can be adapted for the dual benefits of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing carbon sequestration. Tillage practices affect soil C reserve by exposing soil organic carbon to the climatic elements thereby increasing mineralization of C. Conservation tillage reduces the extent, frequency and magnitude of mechanical disturbance caused by the ploughing and protect soil organic carbon to be exposed to environment, thus slows the rate of carbon oxidation. Any effort to decrease tillage intensity and maximizing residue retention may result in carbon sequestration for enhanced environmental quality. Conservation tillage practices could serve the purpose of carbon sequestration by minimizing soil disturbance, carbon oxidation from surface soil and retrain more crop residue, which result in increase in soil organic carbon. Conservation tillage practices such as Zero tillage drill and Happy Seeder (another form of zero till drill) for wheat cultivation saves energy (fuel), reduces cost of production (Labour), helps reverse soil and land degradation (i.e decline of soil organic matter, soil structural breakdown, and soil erosion), and leads to improved water productivity and soil health. 396 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-10 vAriAtion in PhosPhorus uPtAKe through root AssoCiAted trAits in PigeonPeAgenotyPes sukhpreet Kaur sidhu, Jagmeet Kaur *and Jasdeep Kaur * Department of Botany (*Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics) Punjab Agricultural University E-mail : preetisidhu98@yahoo.in Abstract The study was designed to assess genotypic variation among pigeonpea genotypes for phosphorus uptake through root associated traits at Punjab Agricultural University. Forty three genotypes were screened for their ability to take up and utilize soluble phosphorus at different rates of P supply. The experiment was conducted in completely randomized block design with eight replication in pots with two phosphorus levels (No added phosphorus and supplied with recommended dose of phosphorus).The objective of the study was to investigate the root morpho-physiological traits. Significant variation was observed among genotypes for root associated traits. P use efficient genotypes showed higher root length, root dry weight and shoot dry weight under low P conditions. The Genotype AL-1843 recorded highest root length under P deficient condition. The genotypes IC-245507, AL- 1881, P-954 and ICPL 91024 depicted better shoot and root parameters.The P use efficient genotypes recorded higher root dry weight over low P uptake types. P use efficient genotypes showed better root associated traits. Keywords: Pigeonpea genotypes, P acquisition, P utilization, Root traits, Cp-11 effeCt of different mediA And groWing ContAiners on groWth, yieLd And QuALity of strAWBerry (FrAGArIA X AnAnAssA duCh.) vikas Kumar sharma and A.K. godara Department of Horticulture, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, Haryana Email: vksharma087@gmail.com Abstract Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.) is the most refreshing and delicious fruit crop which belong to the family Rosaceae. It is a rich source of vitamins and minerals with delicate flavors. An experiment was conducted at CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar during the year 2012-13 under poly house condition with seven treatments and five replications in pot culture. Organic media like: control (garden soil), Cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (2:1:1), Cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (3:1:1), Cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (4:0:1), Cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (4:1:0), Cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (4:1:1) and Cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (4:1:2). Among all the treatments the increase in number of leaf, Petiole length, plant height, plant spread and crown diameter was recorded with Cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (4:1:2) and early flowering was observed with Cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (3:1:1) maximum yield and quality fruit was found with cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (3:1:1) which was at par with Cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (4:1:2). Cocopeat + Perlite + Vermicompost (3:1:1) recorded the best organic media for growth, yield and quality attributes of strawberry. 397 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-12 mAnAgement of CroP residues for sustAinABLe CroP ProduCtion Bhani ram1, P.s. Pandit and tanveer Ahmad Center of Excellence on Post Harvest Technology, ASPEE College of Horticulture and Forestry, Navsari Agriculture University, Navsari, Gujarat, 396 450 Email- kumawat1989bhaniram@gmail.com Abstract Crop residues are the parts of plants left in the field after the crops have been harvested and thrashed. It is well recognized that the organic matter content of a soil is a key attribute of fertility. The beneficial effects of organic matter on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil are well documented. Decline in organic matter content and cut down soil fertility in intensive cropping systems is considered to be the major problem. Additions of organic materials such as crop residues play a vital role in the recycling of nutrients. Moreover, More than one half of all dry matter in the global harvest is in the form of residues, and in most developing countries the amounts of nutrients in residues are often several orders of magnitude higher than the amounts applied as fertilizers. Thus, soundly management of crop residues for the maintenance of soil fertility cannot be overstressed. India produces about 500 million tons (Mt) of crop residues annually. These residues are used as animal feed, composting, thatching for rural homes and fuel for domestic and industrial use. What is more, about 25% of Nitrogen, 25% Phosphorus, 50% of Sulphur and 75% of Potassium uptake by cereal crops are retained in residues. Such residues can be utilized as organic manures and can improve soil fertility for long term. In the contrary, the chemical fertilizers more hazards for soil property and human beings and animals who use the produce. Cp-13 interCroPPing of CHlOrOpHytum BOrIVIlIAnum With VIGnA rADIAtA: An eConomiCAL viABLe APProACh for sustAinABLe AgriCuLture *dr. rajinder Kaur, *Professor saroj Arora, **Professor Avtar singh and *Professor A.K. thukral *Department of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, India ** Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, PAU, Ludhiana. *Email:swab2002@yahoo.com Abstract Chlorophytum borivilianum is a medicinal plant and commonly known as safed musli. The tuberous roots of this plant are used in Ayurvedic, Unani, Homeopathic and Allopathic systems of medicine. It is useful in curing impotency and is referred to as ‘Natural Viagra’. In Ayurveda, it is called as Vajikaran Rasayana because of its positive influence on sexual performance in man. It is enlisted among the list of 59 selected priority medicinal plants, the cultivation and export of which is being actively encouraged by the Government of India through the National Medicinal Plant Board, and a subsidy of 20% is provided by the Government for its cultivation. The demand for C. borivilianum in the world market is resulting in it’s over exploitation in the wild state, pushing the plant to the verge of extinction. Keeping this in mind, cultivation of C. borivilianum was done in the experimental field and intercropping studies with Vigna radiata (moong) were carried out to reduce the cost of cultivation. The field in the botanical garden was ploughed and harrowed. After land preparation, furrows and ridges were made. Plants were propagated by tubers on ridges in the month of June. Seeds of moong were dibbled on both slopes of furrows. It was found that safed musli growing with moong was found to be better in growth as compared to control. Intercropping of C. borivilianum with moong can reduce the cultivation cost as well as promote the growth of this valuable plant. 398 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-14 interCroPPing system of GOBHI sArsOn (BrAssICA nApus vAr. nApus) And oAts fodder (AVenA sAtIVA L.) Charanpreet singh and thakar singh Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, Punjab, India E-mail:charanpreetgill90@gmail.com Abstract A field experiment was carried out at Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana during 2012-13. Fifteen intercropping systems ( gobhi sarson verities GSL 1 and GSC 6, row spacing i.e. 45, 60, 75 and 90 cm, three planting patterns i.e. 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3) were evaluated in a randomized block design with four replications with dual objective to find optimum row spacing and suitable variety of gobhi sarson. There was no significant difference for number of seed per siliquae and 1000-seed weight among all the intercropping systems. Growing of oats fodder as an intercrop in gobhi sarson did not show any adverse effect on the seed yield of gobhi sarson sown at 45 and 60 cm row spacing. All the intercropping systems recorded significantly higher gobhi sarson equivalent yield and net returns as compared to sole cropping systems. It was also observed that variety GSL 1 sown at 45, 60, 75 and 90 cm row spacing with oats fodder as an intercrop at planting patterns of 1:1, 1:2, 1:2 and 1:3, respectively and GSC 6 at 60 and 90 cm row spacing with oats fodder at planting patterns of 1:2 and 1:3, respectively can be grown for getting higher total productivity and net returns per unit area per unit time. Cp-15 mAnAgement of CroP residues for sustAinABLe CroP ProduCtion Bhani ram1, P.s. Pandit and tanveer Ahmad Center of Excellence on Post Harvest Technology, ASPEE College of Horticulture and Forestry, Navsari Agriculture University, Navsari, Gujarat, 396 450 Email : kumawat1989bhaniram@gmail.com Abstract Crop residues are the parts of plants left in the field after the crops have been harvested and thrashed. It is well recognized that the organic matter content of a soil is a key attribute of fertility. The beneficial effects of organic matter on the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil are well documented. Decline in organic matter content and cut down soil fertility in intensive cropping systems is considered to be the major problem. Additions of organic materials such as crop residues play a vital role in the recycling of nutrients. Moreover, More than one half of all dry matter in the global harvest is in the form of residues, and in most developing countries the amounts of nutrients in residues are often several orders of magnitude higher than the amounts applied as fertilizers. Thus, soundly management of crop residues for the maintenance of soil fertility cannot be overstressed. India produces about 500 million tons (Mt) of crop residues annually. These residues are used as animal feed, composting, thatching for rural homes and fuel for domestic and industrial use. What is more, about 25% of Nitrogen, 25% Phosphorus, 50% of Sulphur and 75% of Potassium uptake by cereal crops are retained in residues. Such residues can be utilized as organic manures and can improve soil fertility for long term. In the contrary, the chemical fertilizers more hazards for soil property and human beings and animals who use the produce. 399 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-16 moisture stress mAnAgement in WheAt (trItICum AestIVum l.) m. d. Patil*, A. s. dhindwal and sriharsha. v. P. CCS Haryana Agricultural University Hisar 125004 Abstract Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the most important cereal crops in the world. It is grown across a wide range of environments around the world and has the highest adaptation among all the crop species. A field experiment entitled, “Moisture stress management in wheat” was conducted at Agronomy Research Farm of CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, during rabi seasons of 2010-11 and 2011-12. The treatment consisted of four moisture regimes in main plots viz., irrigation at crown root initiation (CRI) + 100 mm cumulative pan evaporation (CPE), CRI + 150 mm CPE, CRI + 200 mm CPE and CRI only, and six moisture stress management practices in sub plot viz., No moisture stress management, seed hardening (SH) by CaCl2, SH + KCl spray at 90 days after sowing (DAS), SH + mycorrhizae application at sowing + KCl spray, SH + mycorrhizae + KCl spray + kaolin spray at 115 DAS and pusa hydrogel application at sowing. The experiment was laid out in split plot design with three replications in sandy loam soil. The parameters like, plant height, numbers of tillers, leaf area index, leaf area duration, dry matter accumulation, crop growth rate, during both the season were found to be highest with irrigation at CRI + 100 mm CPE and lowest with irrigation at CRI only. Similar trend was recorded in terms of grain, straw and biological yields, harvest index, number of spikes per m2, spike length, number of spikelets per spike, number of grains per spike, grain weight per spike and test weight. Moisture stress management practices involving SH + mycorrhizae + KCl spray + kaolin spray had favorable impact on growth parameters viz., plant height, numbers of tillers, leaf area index, leaf area duration, dry matter accumulation, crop growth rate, and yield parameters viz., number of spikes per m2, spike length, number of spikelets per spike, number of grains per spike, grain weight per spike and test weight. Similarly this practice of moisture stress management produced higher grain, straw and biological yield as well. Cp-17 eConomiCALLy viABLe APProAChes for AdvAnCement in AgriCuLture interCroPPing of CHlOrOpHytum BOrIVIlIAnum With VIGnA rADIAtA: An eConomiCAL viABLe APProACh for sustAinABLe AgriCuLture *dr. rajinder Kaur, *Professor saroj Arora, **Professor Avtar singh and *Professor A.K. thukral *Department of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar-143005, Punjab, India ** Department of Forestry and Natural Resources, PAU, Ludhiana.*Email:swab2002@yahoo.com Abstract Chlorophytum borivilianum is a medicinal plant and commonly known as safed musli. The tuberous roots of this plant are used in Ayurvedic, Unani, Homeopathic and Allopathic systems of medicine. It is useful in curing impotency and is referred to as ‘Natural Viagra’. In Ayurveda, it is called as Vajikaran Rasayana because of its positive influence on sexual performance in man. It is enlisted among the list of 59 selected priority medicinal plants, the cultivation and export of which is being actively encouraged by the Government of India through the National Medicinal Plant Board, and a subsidy of 20% is provided by the Government for its cultivation. The demand for C. borivilianum in the world market is resulting in it’s over exploitation in the wild state, pushing the plant to the verge of extinction. Keeping this in mind, cultivation of C. borivilianum was done in the experimental field and intercropping studies with Vigna radiata (moong) were carried out to reduce the cost of cultivation. The field in the botanical garden was ploughed and harrowed. After land preparation, furrows and ridges were made. Plants were propagated by tubers on ridges in the month of June. Seeds of moong were dibbled on both slopes of furrows. It was found that safed musli growing with moong was found to be better in growth as compared to control. Intercropping of C. borivilianum with moong can reduce the cultivation cost as well as promote the growth of this valuable plant. 400 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-18 ProduCtivity, ProfitABiLity And indiCes As infLuenCed By PeArLmiLLet + CLusterBeAn interCroPPing systems in Arid Western rAJAsthAn Ashish Kumar, B L Pareek, and Amit Kumawat1 Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, SKRAU, Bikaner, 1CAZRI, RRS, Bikaner Email : rarashish@gmail.com Abstract Intercropping provides better opportunity to accommodate legume which are otherwise neglected crops. Among the major crops compatible with Pearlmillet as intercrops, clusterbean [Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.)Taub] is one of them. It is an annual legume of dry and warm habitat and characterized as one of the most drought hardy annual legumes in arid regions. Clusterbean with deep and fast penetrating root system with drought avoidance capabilities, can survive and thrive up to long period in open fields exhibiting fast depletion of soil moisture coupled with very high atmospheric temperature values. The multi adaptive and adjusting nature of this crop has enabled it to become a crucial part of all type of cropping and farming system of the arid regions. Keeping these views a field experiment was conducted during kharif 2010 at Agronomy farm, college of Agriculture, Bikaner. The experiment comprising 12 treatments combination replicated four times, was laid out in randomized block design with combination of one sole pearlmillet, one sole clusterbean and ten pearlmillet+clusterbean treatments (1:3, 1:7, 2:2, 2:6, 3:1, 3:5, 4:4, 5:3, 6:2 and 7:1 row ratio). Results showed that the sole pearlmillet at 45 cm recorded significantly higher grain, stover and biological yields compared to all the intercropping treatments except 5:3 and 3:1 row ratios. Among intercropping treatments 7:1 row ratio recorded significantly higher grain, stover and biological yield over other treatments, however in case of clusterbean the sole clusterbean recorded significantly higher mean grain and straw yield compared to all intercropping treatments. However, among intercropping treatments 1:7 row ratio was significantly higher to all other treatments. The sole clusterbean had maximum net returns. Among intercropping treatments 1:7 row ratio had maximum return (Rs.35790) but statistically at par with 1:3, 2:6 and 3:5 row ratio. The pearlmillet+clusterbean at 1:3 row ratio recorded significantly highest mean B:C ratio over all other systems closely followed by 1:7 and sole clusterbean (30cm). The intercropping of pearlmillet + clusterbean at 1:7 row ratio recorded maximum pearlmillet equivalent yield and was statistically at par with sole clusterbean (30cm), pearlmillet + clusterbean 1:3 and 2:6 row ratio. The intercropping system in which 1:7 row ratio recorded maximum land equivalent ratio (LER) followed by 1:3, 2:2, 2:6, 5:3 and 3:5 row ratio. Intercropping of pearlmillet and clusterbean in all the row ratio recorded positive sign of aggressivity which indicates that clusterbean offered no competition to pearlmillet in these treatments. In all the intercropping treatments of pearlmillet + clusterbean there was yield disadvantage in clusterbean except 4:4 row ratio, whereas, in case of pearlmillet there is yield advantage in all intercropping combination. Cp-19 reLAtive effiCienCy of PhosPhAtiC fertiLisers (ssP+PsB) in soyBeAn ekta Kumari1 and kamalesh kumar2 Banaras Hindu University,Varanasi 1 Central agricultural University Imphal Manipur 2 Abstract Phosphorus is an important plant nutrient involved in several energy transformation and biochemical reactions including biological nitrogen fixation. Phosphatic fertilizers have low efficiency of utilization due to chemical fixation in soil (Mengel and Kirkby, 2001) and due to poor solubility of native soil phosphorus, sometimes there is a buildup of insoluble phosphorus as a result of chemical phosphorus application (Dubey, 1997). Phosphorus (P) is a major growth-limiting nutrient, and unlike the case for nitrogen, there is no large atmospheric source that can be made biologically available (Ezawa et al., 2002). Root development, stalk and stem strength, flower and seed formation, crop maturity and production, crop quality, and resistance to plant diseases are the attributes associated with phosphorus nutrition. Although microbial inoculants are in use for improving soil fertility during the last century, however, a meager work has been reported on P 401 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” solubilization compared to nitrogen fixation. Soil P dynamics is characterized by physicochemical (sorption-desorption) and biological (immobilization-mineralization) processes. P is needed in relatively large amounts by legumes for growth and nitrogen fixation and has been reported to promote leaf area, biomass, yield, nodule number, nodule mass, etc., in a number of legumes (Berg and Lynd, 1985; Pacovsky, et al., 1986; Kasturikrishna and Ahlawat, 1999). Phosphorus deficiency can limit nodulation by legumes and P fertilizer application can overcome the deficiency (Carsky et al., 2001). Cp-20 resPonse of suLPhydryL ComPounds With moisture stress on yieLd And QuALity of summer greengrAm (VIGnA rADIAtA L.) under north guJArAt Agro CLimAtiC Condition soma devi1, P.t. Patel2, K.m. Choudhary3 and P.meena4 Department of Agronomy, Chimanbhai Patel College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar - 385 506 Abstract A field experiment was conducted during summer 2011 at Agronomy Instructional Farm, C. P. College of Agriculture, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar. It was laid out in split plot design and replicated four times. Sixteen treatment combinations comprising of two moisture stress treatments viz., M1- No moisture stress (irrigation at all growth stages) and M2 – Moisture stress at vegetative stage (missing irrigation at vegetative stage) with eight treatments of SH-compounds viz., S1 – control, S2 – water spray, S3 – Thiourea 250 ppm, S4 - Thiourea 500 ppm, S5 – Thiourea 750 ppm, S6 – Thioglycolic acid 100 ppm, S7 - Thioglycolic acid 200 ppm and S8 - Thioglycolic acid 300 ppm were tested on summer green gram cv. GM 4. Both the SH compounds and water spray was performed twice i.e., at 25 and 45 DAS. With regard seed yield was not influenced but stover yield was significantly reduced due to imposing of moisture stress at vegetative stage (M2). More over moisture stress treatments did not reflect conspicuous effect on protein content and protein yield. The increase in seed yield and stover yield with Thiourea 500 ppm (S4) over control (S1) was to the tune of 58 and 84% respectively. In case of protein content and protein yield, the Thiourea 500 ppm (S4) emerged out as a leading treatment among the SH compounds. Foliar spray of thiourea@ 500 ppm twice at 25 and 45 DAS proved most effective to get higher yield from summer greengram. Cp-21 resPonse of sourCes And LeveLs of suLPhur on yieLd, QuALity And eConomiCs of sesAme (sesAmum InDICum L.) B. saini, B. t. Patel, B. L. yadav, s. K. yadav and B. K. yadav Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science, C. P. College of Agriculture, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar - 385 506 (Gujarat) Abstract A field experiment was conducted at Agronomy Instructional Farm, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar during kharif 2012. Two sources of sulphur viz., S1= Elemental sulphur and S2= Gypsum and four levels of sulphur viz., L1= 15 kg S ha-1, L2= 30 kg S ha-1, L3= 45 kg S ha-1 and L4= 60 kg S ha-1 were tried in randomized block design with factorial concepts with four replications. The soil of the experimental field was loamy sand in texture, alkaline in reaction and soluble salt content under safe limit. It was low in organic carbon, available N and S; medium in available P2O5, K2O and DTPA-extractable Fe and Zn and having sufficient DTPA-extractable Mn and Cu status. An application of S @ 45 kg ha-1 significantly improved all the growth and yield attributes such as plant height at harvest, number of branches plant-1, number of capsules plant-1, length of capsule and 1000-seeds weight, seed and stalk yield over its lower levels, but remained at par with 60 kg S ha-1. Similarly, application of 45 kg S ha-1 produced significantly higher seed, stalk yields, oil content in seed and its yield, net return and BCR over other levels of sulphur. 402 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-22 resPones of vermiComPost And fertiLity LeveLs on groWth, yieLd, nutrient uPtAKe And net returns on PeArL miLLet (pennIsetum GlAuCum L.) rakesh choudhary and suman Parihar* Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, CCS HAU, Hisar-125004 *Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner, Rajasthan 334006 E-mail : rakeshnitharwal9@gmail.com Abstract The result of the study indicated the application 6 t/ha vermicompost remaining at par with 4 t/ha significantly increased plant height, effective tiller, grain weight per ear head, nutrient content and uptake . While application of 100% RDF (60 kg N and 30 kg P2 O5/ha) significantly enhanced plant growth at all stage of crop and the treatment recorded an increase of 15.9, 9.2, and 3.2 percent over control, 50 and 75% RDF, respectively. That result indicated significantly higher grain (1988 and 1853 kg/ha) yield with vermicompost @ 6 t/ha and 4 t/ha, respectively. While grain yield of 1916 kg/ha and 1799 kg/ ha with application 100% RDF and 75% RDF, respectively. Application of vermicompost @ 6 t/ha recorded significantly higher N content in grain (1.90%) and stover (0.64%) indicating an increase of 10.4 and 16.3 over control,13.5 and 8.4 over 2 t/ha and 16.6 and 3.2 percent over 4 t/ha, respectively. While, use of 100% RDF topped the list by recording remarkably higher N content in grain (2.04%) and stover (0.68 %). Application of 6 t/ha of vermicompost significantly increased N and P uptake in pearl millet. The highest net return (Rs. 11785) was obtained with vermicompost @ 2 t/ha and minimum with 6 t/ha vermicompost. Application of 100% RDF significantly increased nutrient content, nutrient uptake and net return (Rs. 13798 per ha) and proved significantly superior to all the lower levels of fertility. Cp-23 riCe grAin enriChment for zinC, AgronomiC or genetiC interventions 1 Hafeez ur Rehman1*, Abdul Wakeel2, Muhammad Farooq3 and Shehzad Maqsood Ahmed Basra1 Department of Crop Physiology, 3Department of Agronomy, 2Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040 Pakistan E-mail : hafeezcp@gmail.com Abstract Zinc (Zn) deficiency is widespread problem in rice systems. Changes in soil, plant and fertilizer application method and time have great implication for Zn bioavailability. We conducted pot and field experiments to evaluate the Zn application time effect on soil and plant Zn status, nursery seedling growth, dry matter accumulation, panicle sterility, crop yield and grain Zn contents. Rice systems i.e. flooded (CF), water saving direct seeded (DSR), alternate wetting drying (AWD) and system of rice intensification (SRI) were studied. Zn was applied as soil (25 kg ha-1 ZnSO4) or foliar (0.5% ZnSO4) at critical growth stages (basal at transplanting, tillering and panicle initiation) or as root dipping of nursery seedlings. Fine grain aromatic rice genotypes Super Basmati, Bas-515, Bas-385 and Bas-2000 were used. All other practices were kept uniform. Results suggested that variation exist among rice genotypes, rice systems and fertilizer application time and methods. Among the rice systems, highest paddy yield was found for flooded rice followed by AWD or DSR. Soil Zn application at transplanting or tillering stages had greater plant, soil and grain Zn contents and reduced panicle sterility. Among genotypes highest grain Zn contents were recorded for Super Basmati or Bas-385 followed by Bas-2000 and Bas515. Nonetheless, for agronomic biofortification, necessary variability among rice genotypes should be considered without sacrificing yield and paddy soil condition needs to be managed for high soil Zn availability. Further, mechanisms for soil Zn uptake at root and plant level are warranted. 403 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-24 integrAted nutrient mAnAgement in PotAto (sOlAnum tuBerOsum L.) utiLizing BiofertiLizers d s Khurana, sakshi verma, Kulbir singh and hira singh Department of Vegetable Science, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004 Abstract Potato, being a shallow rooted crop is highly responsive to the application of inorganic fertilizers as compared to other solanaceous vegetable crops like tomato and capsicum. Excessive use of fertilizer results in loss of soil fertility and soil health. Biofertilizers are cost effective, eco-friendly and renewable source of plant nutrients to supplement the chemical fertilizers. The present investigation was thus undertaken by utilizing inoculants of biofertilizers in order to either enhance atmospheric nitrogen or activate the unavailable form of nutrients into available form. The study was conducted in randomized complete block design which was replicated thrice with ten treatment combinations during 2010-2012. The plant material comprised potato cultivar Kufri Chandramukhi of potato. The tubers were treated with the cultures of Azospirillum, Azotobactor and Phosphorous solublising bacteria (PSB) @ 250g/acre while culture of Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (VAM) was applied in the soil at the same rate before planting the crop. The cultures were applied with 25 % reduction of either nitrogen or phosphorous. The observations recorded were various growth and yield contributing parameters. The study depicted improvement in the growth in form of leaf area, leaf chlorophyll content, number of tubers per plant thus yield of the tubers with the use of Azotobactor and Azospirillum alongwith 75 % nitrogen applied through inorganic source which did not differ significantly where recommended dose of fertilizers was applied. It was revealed from the study that inoculation with phosphorous solublising biofertilizers cultures also saved 25 % phosphorous when applied alongwith recommended dose of nitrogen and potassium. Cp-25 mAXimizAtion of WAter use effiCienCy And ProduCtivity in KABulI ChiCKPeA through PLAnting methods And irrigAtion sCheduLing navneet Aggarwal1, guriqbal singh2 and hari ram3 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Email: navneetpulses@pau.edu Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India 1,2,3 Abstract Continuous cultivation of rice-wheat crops in sequence in North western India has led to irrigation water crisis due to excessive withdrawal of underground water. Chickpea is one of the promising crops which can replace wheat crop. Field experiment comprising four irrigation treatments viz. no irrigation, one irrigation at branching stage, one irrigation at podding stage and two irrigations (branching and podding stage) and two planting methods viz. flat sowing at 30 cm row spacing and raised bed sowing (67.5 cm wide beds having 2 rows at 30 cm ) was conducted in a sandy loam soil at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India during winter season of 2008-09 in split plot design to find out suitable planting method and phenological stage for irrigating kabuli chickpea for higher productivity and water use efficiency. Irrigation at branching stage gave statistically similar yield (1804 kg ha-1) to irrigations at branching + podding stage (1885 kg ha-1) but out yielded significantly no irrigation (1456 kg ha-1) and irrigation at podding stage (1599 kg ha-1). Raised bed sowing of kabuli chickpea yielded significantly higher (1749 kg ha-1) than flat sowing (1623 kg ha-1) due to significantly higher number of pods plant-1 and seed size. One irrigation at branching stage gave 12.8 and 13.4 % higher water use efficiency than one irrigation at podding stage and two irrigations (branching and podding stage), respectively. Raised bed sowing gave higher water use efficiency (5.94 kg ha-1 mm-1) over flat sowing (5.25 kg ha-1 mm-1). So, under limiting water conditions, kabuli chickpea sowing on raised bed with irrigation at branching stage results in the high water use efficiency and productivity is comparable to two irrigations (branching and podding stage). Key words: Chickpea, irrigation, planting methods, water use efficiency 404 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-26 sustAinABLe AgriCuLture through nAturAL resourCe mAnAgement imProved teChnoLogies for effiCient inPut use interACtive effeCts of irrigAtion regimes And CuLtivArs on WAter ProduCtivity of dry-seeded riCe. ritika Joshi Department of Soil Science Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) Ludhiana-141004 (Punjab), India Email: ritikajoshi964@gmail.com Abstract An alarming fall in groundwater table in India demands a major shift from traditional method (transplanting) of rice cultivation to direct seeding of rice. Irrigated lowland rice is the most important agricultural ecosystem in Asia, and the food security of most of its population depends on it. Flood-irrigated rice utilizes two or three times more water than other cereal crops such as maize and wheat. In dry-seeded rice seeds are directly broadcasted in the main field under non puddle conditions. On the face of global water scarcity and escalating labour rates, when the future of rice production is under threat, direct-seeded rice offers an attractive alternative (Farooq et al 2011). Direct sowing of rice refers to the process of establishing a rice crop from seeds sown in the field rather than transplanting seedlings from the nursery. The various management techniques that reduce irrigation water amount and labor requirement with sustaining yields are urgently required. Proper irrigation regimes and cultivars were adopted to improve water productivity in dry-seeded rice and reduce ground water depletion. Water productivity was higher in I1.2 than I2.4 IW (irrigation water) to CPE (cumulative pan evaporation) ratios because higher number of irrigation in higher irrigation ratio as compared to lower irrigation ratio. And also water productivity was higher in PR115 (short duration) as compared to PR114 (medium duration) cultivar. The combination of I1.2 PR115 revealed highest water productivity followed by I1.2 PR114, I2.4 PR115 and lowest in I2.4 PR114. Yields were also observed to be higher in PR115 as compared to PR114 with lower irrigation ratio than higher irrigation ratio in both the cultivars. Keywords: Irrigation regimes, Cultivars, Water productivity, Dry-seeded rice. Cp-27 groWth And yieLd resPonse of fenugreeK (trIGOnellA FOenum GrAeCum L.) to APPLied PhosPhorus, moLyBdenum And PsB. shweta sharma, yogesh sharma and B.L. Kumawat Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, College of Agriculture, SKRAU, Bikaner – 334 006, Rajasthan, India. Email : shwetabharadwaj2013@gmail.com Abstract A field experiment was conducted at Agronomy farm, College of Agriculture, Bikaner during rabi season, 2010-11. Results showed that application of 40 kg P2O5 ha-1, increasing dose of molybdenum up to 0.5 kg Mo ha-1 and inoculation of seed with PSB significantly enhanced the branches per plant, chlorophyll content at flowering stage, nodules per plant, pods per plant, seeds per pod, seed and straw yield, protein and nitrogen content in seed whereas, nitrogen content in straw increased significantly only up to 20 kg P2O5 ha-1. The optimum dose of phosphorus was worked out to be 50.72 kg ha-1 and of molybdenum was 0.65 kg ha-1. The seed yield was significantly and positively correlated with yield attributes. Keywords: Fenugreek, Molybdenum, Phosphorus, PSB 405 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-28 groWth And yieLd of interCroPPed mungBeAn (VIGnA rADIAtA) under different roW ArrAngements on vAriABLe PLAnting time in PAired roW trenCh PLAnted sPring sugArCAne (sACCHArum OFFICInArum) Baltej singh, Jayesh singh, Avtar singh and guriqbal singh Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, Punjab, India E-mail:baletjsinghtoor@gmail.cm Abstract The greatest concern of burgeoning population of India is the food and nutritional security. The per capita availability of dietary protein below the nutritionally recommended level to a self sufficient level can only be obtained with increased production of pulses. Limited availability of area under pure pulse crop puts more pressure to explore the possibility of including short duration pulses particularly mungbean as an intercrop in a widely spaced crop like sugarcane. Hence a field investigation consisting of twelve treatments in randomized block design with four replications was carried out at Punjab Agricultural University’s Sugarcane Experimental Area, Ladhowal, Punjab during spring 2012. The mungbean was intercropped on 1st, 14th, 28th March and 11th April in 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3 row arrangements in paired row trench planted spring sugarcane. The soil of experimental site was loamy sand, normal in reaction, low in organic carbon and available nitrogen, medium in phosphorus and potassium. The periodic delay in intercropping of mungbean from 1st March to 11th April in paired row trench planted spring sugarcane within the same row arrangement improved germination percentage, plant height and dry matter accumulation of mungbean significantly. However, other growth parameters like number of nodules, dry weight of nodules per plant, 100 seed weight and harvest index remained uninfluenced with mungbean intercropping in different row arrangements on different sowing dates. The maximum grain yield of intercropped mungbean (687.1 kg/ ha) was obtained when it was planted on 28th March in 1:3 row arrangements in sugarcane and it was statistically on par to the yield of mungbean (677.6 kg/ha) intercropped on similar dates in 1:2 row arrangements. Also on increasing the plant density of intercropped mungbean from 1 row to 3 rows on variable dates in paired row trench planted spring sugarcane significantly improved it’s grain and biological yield. Cp-29 fertiLizers reCommendAtion BAsed on sPAtiAL distriBution of soiL AvAiLABLe nutrients using gis And remote sensing in the PotAto groWing PoCKets of hoshiArPur distriCt of PunJAB mK Jatav* and Bd sharma** Senior Scientist, Crop Production, Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner Head, Crop Production, Central Institute for Arid Horticulture, Bikaner *email id: mkjatav2008@gmail.com Abstract In order to apply nutrients based upon soil status, it is necessary to know the location specific variability in nutrient supply to overcome the mismatch of fertilizer rates and crop nutrient demand. The soil samples of the many pockets of Hoshiarpur district of Punjab were collected and analysed for pH, OC and available NPK. Results were fed into GIS software and spatial maps were generated. The results showed that the soils of the district in general, are slightly acidic to slightly alkaline in reaction. The reaction of the soil samples varies from 5.0 to 8.2 with a mean value of 6.8. About 90% of the total area fell in pH value less than 7.5, a situation considered much suitable for potato cultivation. The organic carbon in these soils ranged from low to medium (0.2 to 0.7%) with an average value of 0.40%. Available N ranged from 186.3 to 355.6 with 406 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” mean value of 242.5 kg/ ha. While more than 88% samples had available P more than 20 ppm. None of the sample was deficient in available P, suggesting very liberal use of P fertilizers in these areas. Less than 2% samples were found to be high in available K, whereas, 79% samples were low and remaining 19.2% samples were medium in available K status. After kriging, results showed that 30.5 and 18.8% area was under high and very high in P but low in N and K. Similarly, about 17.3% area was medium in available N and very high in P but low in available K and 12.8% area was medium in both available N and K but very high in P. Since farmers are not aware of the available soil nutrient soil status, application rate are not matching with the requirement of the crop. In the majority of area where available P was more than 50 kg ha-1 recommendation for P fertilizer application reduced to a meager amount. However, for the same target yields when soil test values in some part of the pocket increased the recommendation of fertilizers of NPK will be decreased. Maps can further be overlaid on the digitized boundaries of village/block/tehsil to prioritize the villages which need immediate attention of the district officials, scientists, and individual farmer in respect of application/management of required amount and kind of macro nutrients. It is also possible to monitor the changes taking place at different locations over a period of time due to different cropping systems and management practices with respect to nutrient status and other soil properties. Cp-30 strAtegies for WAter-Wise riCe ProduCtion muhammad farooq Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. E-mail: farooqcp@gmail.com Abstract Rice is lifeline for the peoples of Asia; for them, life without rice is unthinkable. However, food security in the world is challenged by increasing food demand and threatened by declining water availability owing to changing climate. Developing the strategies for producing rice in changing climate is imperative to ensure food security for the future generations. Aerobic rice culture is an attractive alternative in this regard, which can drastically cut down the unproductive water outflows and increase water-use efficiency. This shift will produce profound changes in water conservation, soil organic matter turnover, nutrient dynamics, carbon impounding, weed flora, and greenhouse gas emissions. Although some of these changes can be positive, for example, water conservation and decreased methane emission, others might be negative, for example, release of nitrous oxide from the soil and decline in soil organic matter. The challenge will be to develop effective integrated natural–resource–management interventions, which would allow profitable rice cultivation with increased soil aeration, while maintaining the productivity, environmental safety, and sustainability of rice-based ecosystems. In my talk, I shall discuss the integrated approaches like genetics, breeding, and resource management to increase rice yield and to reduce water demand for rice production. Cp-31 effeCt of zinC, iron And thioureA APPLiCAtion on ProduCtivity of forAge oAts And groundnut CroP in Arid LAnds of rAJAsthAn s.m. Kumawat1, m.K. yadav2, Phool singh3 and m.P.sahu4 Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner (Rajasthan) 334 006 (India) E-mail: sagarskrau@gmail.com Professor Agronomy, AICRP on Forage Crops, Centre for Forage Management, Agriculture Research Station, SKRAU, Bikaner-334 006. Note-2. PG student. 3. Research Scholar. 4. Ex-Dean & Director Research, SKRAU, Bikaner. Abstract Arid lands are those regions where rainfall is low (less than 350 mm) and different aspects of rainfall like amount, duration, intensity and distributions are uncertain. Moreover, the regions are accompanies with temperature extremes, as low as 0oc in winters to as high as 45oc during summers and cold and hot waves at higher speed make the crop cultivation very difficult. 407 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” These uncertainties are highly unstable and lead to low productivity no income and employment opportunities ultimately resulting in poverty and poor civic amenities and degradation in living standards of the people. But with the advent of irrigation facilities through canals and tube wells, arable farming is gaining importance in arid region of western Rajasthan. To ensure certain degree of stability to agricultural production, soil and crop management practices are to be adopted. Crop management technique and soil fertility management are also required since the soils of arid areas are not only thirsty but hungry also. Keeping these facts in view, the study on effect of zinc, iron and TU application on productivity of oat forage and groundnut crop was planned. The results of the study indicated that zinc and thiourea application schedule showed superiority over control with respect to yield, yield attributes and quality parameters of forage oats. The highest GFY, DMY and grain yield and test weight was recorded with 12.50 kg ZnSO4/ha basal application + 0.05% TU foliar spray which was at par with same dose ZnSO4 as basal application + 0.5% ZnSO4 + 0.05% TU solution spray. However, the maximum protein yield of 2.00 q/ha was noted with 25 kg ZnSO4/ha basal application which was significantly higher by 5.4 and 8.6% over 12.50 kg ZnSO4/ha basal + 0.5% ZnSO4 spray and control treatment, respectively. The highest zinc content in grain and straw was also noted by 12.50 kg ZnSO4 basal + 0.5% TU solution spray application against the minimum values under control treatment. Similarly, foliar spray of 0.05% FeSO4 + 0.05% TU at 45 and 65 DAS was the superior among all foliar applied treatments and statistically at par with 37.5 kg FeSO4/ha applied as soil application with respect to yield, yield attributes, quality and net profit of groundnut cultivation in arid regions of Rajasthan. Thus, zinc + TU application in forage oats production and also iron + TU application in groundnut oilseeds which are the most economical crops of arid areas gave higher profit, employment and nutritive fodder for poor civic and livestock, respectively under western Rajasthan. The aforesaid soil and crop management technique will be beneficial for optimum forage production, which is a key factor for successful livestock production in the region. Cp-32 effeCt of orgAniC And inorgAniC sourCes on yieLd, QuALity And soiL fertiLity stAtus of summer greengrAm under north guJArAt Agro-CLimAtiC Condition P.K. Bhatt1, A.m. Patel2, K.g. vyas3, C.h. raval4, B.L. yadav5, v.B. mor6 and monika sharma7 Ph.D Scholar & SRF (Agronomy), 2Associate Director of Research, 4Research Associate (Agronomy), S.D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat) 385506 7 M.Sc Student Agronomy, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi (U.P.) Email: pratikraj2009@gmail.com mob.: 09016025086 Department of Agronomy, C.P. College of Agriculture S.D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar -385506 (Gujarat) 1, 3, 5 & 6 Abstract A field experiment was conducted at the instructional farm, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar during 2010 on loamy sand soil to investigate the effect of levels of vermicompost and phosphorus with PSB on yield, quality, nutrient content, uptake of summer greengram (Vigna radiate L.) and soil fertility status after harvest of the crop. Among the levels of vermicompost @ 1t ha-1 sowed its superiority, producing highest seed (1105kg ha-1) and stover yield (2379 kg ha-1). The same treatment exhibited significant improvement in recording maximum values for the protein content, nutrients content and uptake of summer greengram. Among the levels of phosphorus @ 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 + PSB standing statistically at par with 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 recorded significantly higher seed (1099 kg ha-1) and stover yield (2301kg ha-1) over PSB only and 20 kg P2O5 with and without PSB. Phosphorus application @ 40 kg ha-1 + PSB performed equally as that of P2O5 40 kg ha-1 without PSB, significantly improved the protein content, nutrients content and uptake as well as soil fertility status after harvest the crop. 408 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-33 effeCt of orgAniC mAnures And fertiLizers on seed QuALity PArAmeters in WheAt 1 v.s. mor1; devraj2;d.P.deswal1; r.s. Antil2 & vikram singh3 Department of Seed Science & Technology 2Department of Soil Science 3 Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004 Email:-virendermor@gmail.com Abstract The long-term effect of using various combinations of organic manures and chemical fertilizers was evaluated in respect of seed quality parameters of wheat (WH-711). The wheat seed crop was grown under various treatments T1 N 75 + P30 (kg/ha) ; T2 N150 + P60 (kg/ha) ; T3 FYM15 (tons) ; T4 FYM15 + N150 ; T5 FYM15 + N150 + P30 ; T6 P o u l t r y manures5 (tons) ; T7 Poultry manures5 + N150 + P30 ; T8 Pressmud7.5 (tons) ; T9 Pressmud7.5 + N75 + P30 ; T10 Pressmud7.5 + N150 + P30. The seed was harvested from various treatments and the seed quality was evaluated by different seed quality parameters. The results showed that among various treatments, use of the combination of organic manures along with chemical fertilizers produced the seed with better quality as compared to pure organic manure or chemical fertilizers alone. The combinations of organic and chemical fertilizers resulted in higher seed germination, shoot length, root length, seedling length, seedling dry weight, vigour index- I & II, Tetrazolium test, Dehydrogense activity test, field emergence index, seedling establishment etc. The highest values for many seed quality parameter was recorded in T7 (poultry manure 5t+N150kg. +P2O5 30kg per ha.) which was followed by T5 (FYM 15t+N150kg.+P2O5 30kg per ha.). Whereas the lowest seed quality was observed when organic manure was applied alone. Cp-34 effeCt of orgAniC sourCes of nutrients on yieLd And QuALity of onion (AllIum CepA L.) ramandeep Kaur Brar* and rakesh sharma Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar-143001. Email : brar.raman44@gmail.com Abstract Onion (Allium cepa L.), a bulbous biennial herb of family Alliaceae is one of the commonest and indispensable vegetable cum condiment crops grown for local consumption, export and processing. Therefore onion is popularly referred as ‘Queen of the Kitchen.’ To study the effect of organic sources of nutrients viz FYM, VC and biofertilizers on yield and quality of onion a field experiment was conducted at Khalsa College Amritsar during Rabi 2012. The experiment was laid in Randomized Complete Block Design with 4 replications of blocks and 12 treatment combinations. The application of RDF(i.e. 100kg N, 50kg P2O5 and 50kg K2O along with 25 tonnes FYM)/ha and vermicompost(100% of N by VC) played a significant role in yield and quality parameters of onion. The fresh weight of bulb, dry weight of bulb, dry weight of plant & bulb yield were found maximum under RDF which remained at par with application of vermicompost(100% of N by VC). However, the highest bulb diameter & TSS content was recorded from application of vermicompost(100% of N by VC). Whereas lowest yield and quality parameters were obtained in control treatment. From the experiment it is concluded that NPK along with FYM gives better results than FYM, VC, BF applied alone and their combinations. Among organic manures, VC appears to be superior over other organic manure treatments. 409 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-35 effeCt of PhosPhorus And vArieties on groWth PArAmeter And yieLd of soyBeAn Kamalesh Kumar* santosh kumar** and ** ekta kumari * College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur **IAS,Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, U.P. Abstract This experiment was conducted on College of Agriculture, Central Agricultural University, Imphal, Manipur during the kharif season of 2010.The experiment was laid out in factorial randomized block design with 3 replications. The treatment consisted of four levels of phosphorus (Po- control, P1-30kg P2O5/ha, P2-60kg P2O5/ha, P3-90kg P2O5/ha) and three varieties (V1-Bragg, V2- JS-335 and V3-Local. Application of phosphorus significantly influenced the plant height, number of branches per plant, fresh weight of plant, dry weight of plant, and seed yield. The highest seed yield was recorded with the application of phosphorus at 60 kg P2O5/ha which remained at par with 90 kg P2O5/ha. Residual available nitrogen and phosphorus in soil were increased due to the application of phosphorus. Better growth characters like plant height, fresh weight, and number of branches were obtained in both Local and Bragg varieties. Though comparable seed yield was recorded in Local and Bragg varieties. Cp-36 effeCt of nitrogen And suLPhur fertiLizAtion on Protein QuALity PArAmeters And oiL Content of soyBeAn [GlyCIne mAX (L.) merriLL] seeds Anju sharma1, sucheta sharma1 and B. s. gill2 Department of Biochemistry, 2Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India email : anju3sep@gmail.com 1 Abstract Soybean is an important leguminous crop of the world and contains approximately 40% protein and 20% oil. Its high grain protein is necessary for processing and nutrition purposes. But, the overall sulphur amino acid content of soybean proteins is not sufficient to meet the nutritional demands in animals and livestock. Thus, a field experiment was conducted to study the response of sulphur and nitrogen fertilization on protein quality in soybean. Soybean (Cv SL 525) was subjected to fertilizer treatments viz. control (no fertilizer), urea, gypsum and urea + gypsum. Mature seeds were used for the determination of protein quality parameters and oil content. Total soluble proteins, free amino acids, methionine, cysteine and glutathione content were significantly increased whereas trypsin inhibitor activity decreased under treatments of sulphur and nitrogen. Nitrogen and sulphur alone or in combination significantly increased sulphur content and decreased N:S ratio in soybean seeds. Nitrogen supplementation decreased oil content significantly. Sulphur alone or in combination with nitrogen significantly increased the proportion of palmitic and linoleic acids and decreased oleic acid in soybean oil. Application of sulphur and nitrogen either alone or in combination can result in improvement of soybean seed storage protein quality parameters. Keywords: Nitrogen, sulphur, soybean, protein quality 410 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-37 effeCt of nitrogen And PhosPhorus on groWth And fLoWering in tuBerose (pOlIAntHes tuBerOsA L.) Cv. douBLe. Ashutosh sharma, dr. s. v. s. Chaudhary, nomita Laishram, y.C.gupta, B.s.sdilta Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, Himachal Pradesh - 173 230. Abstract An investigation was carried out to develop “Effect of nitrogen and phosphorus on growth and flowering in tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.) cv. Double.” The experiment was conducted at experimental farm of the Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (H.P) during 2011. The experiment was laid out in a factorial randomized block design with three replication and having sixteen treatments N0P0- N3P3. Among the tested treatments, T11 (200 kg N/ha + 150 kg P/ha) recorded the maximum per cent sprouting of bulbs (100%), plant height (48.38 cm), number of leaves per plant (47.59), spike length (80.88 cm), number of florets per spike (30.48), rachis length (29.95 cm), fresh weight of spike (70.89 g), fresh weight of 100 florets (179.71 g), floret diameter (3.51 cm), number of flowering stem per plant (1.44), number of bulbs produced per plant (16.68), weight of bulbs/plant (276.03 g), early opening of basal florets (119.10 days), early opening of sprouting of bulbs (), available nitrogen (462.71 kg/ha), available phosphorus (66.39 kg/ha) and available potassium (192.52 kg/ha). However, maximum vase life (10.05 days) was recorded in N0P0 (control) which was closely followed by N0P1, N0P2. Cp-38 effeCt of inorgAniC fertiLizers And orgAniC sourCes of nutrients on nPK uPtAKe, yieLd And eConomiCs of PotAto (sOlOnum tuBersum L.) rakesh Kumar and n.d. singh P.G. Department of Agriculture, Khalsa College, Amritsar Abstract An experiment was conducted during 2011-12 and 2012-13 in the Division of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Khasla College, Amritsar to study the effect of inorganic fertilizers and various organic manures on productivity, nutrient uptake and profitability of processing type autumn potato (Solanum tuberosum L.). The large sized (>40g) potato tubers and total tuber yield was statistically at par with inorganic fertilizers and 100 per cent nitrogen through vermicompost. With inorganic fertilizers application the large sized potato tubers and total potato tuber yield was observed 5.82 per cent and 6.86 per cent more than application of 100 per N through vermicompost, but total income, net income and benefit cost ratio was found higher with 100% nitrogen through vermicompost followed by 100% N through DRS. These organic source of nutrients were statistically comparable with inorganic source of nutrients. Sole application of organic source of nutrients were equally efficient to inorganic fertilizers in improving the nutrients uptake, tuber yield and benefit: cost ratio (B:C). Key words: Autumn potato, farm yard manure, poultry manure, vermicompost, chopped rice straw, decomposed rice straw, nutrient uptake, tuber yield, economics. 411 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-39 effeCt of higher dose of inorgAniC fertiLizer on the soiL mACro-fAunAL PoPuLAtion in mAize eCosystem ngangom umadevi Kumar, n.g. and Basavaraj,P.K*. Department of Agricultural Entomology * Department of Soil Science University of Agricultural Sciences,GKVK,Bangalore-56065 Email: ngangom.uma@gmail.com Abstract Now a day’s inorganic fertilizers are used to get target yield of agricultural crops to meet the demands of food grain production for an ever increasing population in a limited agricultural land. Hybrid maize also responds well to the nutrients. With this background an experiment was carried out to know the effect of higher NPK nutrient supplied through inorganic fertilizer alone (251.17:113.31:114.35 and 173.32:93.66:97.96 kg NPK/ha, with the target yield of 110 and 90 q/ha, respectively) and 50% through the organic manure on the activity of the soil macro-fauna. These were compared with the package of practices for maize cultivation and untreated control. Soil macro-fauna were collected in each treatment by fixing the pitfall trap at before application of treatments (BAT) and 10 days interval up to 30 days after germination (DAG) and 15 days interval from 30 DAG up to 300 DAG. The results showed that higher macro-fauna (65.11/trap) were collected in higher fertilizer alone treated plot and no significance differences were noticed among the treatments during cropping season. Higher macro-faunal activity was observed on 45 DAG (53.95/trap). However, fertilizer applied with FYM treatments supported higher macro-faunal activity during non- cropping season. Ants were relatively more abundant in all the treatments followed by other macro-fauna and beetles. Ant belongs to six genera and six species were collected in the experimental plot. Pheidole sp dominated in all the treatments followed by Camponotus compresus, Solenopsis germinata and Leptogenus chinensis,Manomorium indicum and Pachycondyla sp. were observed in two and one treatments, respectively. Cp-40 effeCt of fym, fe And zn on groWth, yieLd AttriButes And yieLd of fodder sorghum v. Bhunwal1, v.r. Patel2, r. Anwala3 1 MSc.(Ag)Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science , Chimanbhai Patel College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar-385506 2Professor, Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science, Chimanbhai Patel College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar-385506 3 MSc.(Ag.) Department of Soil Science and Agriculture Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Bikaner, Rajasthan, India Email : vanikabhunwal@yahoo.co.in Add. college of Ag. Bikaner Abstract An experiment was conducted at Sorghum Research Station, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Deesa on “Nutrient management in summer fodder sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. moench)” during summer, 2012. Sorghum variety CSV 21F was used as test crop. The soil of experimental plot was loamy sand in texture, low in organic C, available N, available Fe and P and medium in Zn and rich in K. The results of the experiment indicated that maximum value of growth parameters viz., plant height, leaf area, leaf and stalk weight and chlorophyll content were conspicuously increased with the application of 1t FYM/ha along with RDF + 3kg Zn/ha (T11) and was superior over rest of the treatments. However, the lowest growth and yield attributes were recorded with the treatments T1 (RDF). Different treatments of FYM, Zn and Fe were tried in this experiment exerted their significant effect on stover yield of sorghum crop. Key word: Sorghum bicolour, FYM , RDF. 412 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-41 effeCt of vArying LeveLs of irrigAtion And nitrogen to muLti-Cut summer forAge PeArL miLLet under semi-Arid Condition C.h. raval1, A.m. Patel2, P.K. Bhatt3, K.g. vyas4, v.B. mor5, B.L. yadav6 and monika sharma7 Research Associate (Agronomy), 2Associate Director of Research, 3,4,5&6 Ph.D Scholar & SRF (Agronomy), S.D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat) 385 506 7M.Sc. (Agronomy) Student, Bundelkhand University, Jhansi (U.P.) Email: ravalch@gmail.com 1 Abstract A field experiment was conducted during summer seasons of 2011and 2012 on sandy loam soil at S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar to study the response of multi-cut summer forage pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) to varying levels of irrigation and nitrogen under semi-arid condition of North Gujarat. Twelve treatment combinations comprised four levels of Irrigation scheduling (0.6, 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 IW: CPE) and three levels of Nitrogen (100, 150 and 200 kg N ha-1). The pooled results showed that irrigation levels at 1.2 IW: CPE ratio showed significant influence on growth attributes viz., plant height, number of tillers and leaf: stem ratio. The irrigation at 1.2 IW: CPE ratio resulted significantly higher green fodder (1192.34 q ha-1) and dry matter yield (288.37q ha-1) over other levels of irrigation. However, maximum water use efficiency (86.07 kg ha-1) was recorded with irrigation at 0.8 IW: CPE ratio. The net realization (Rs. 93963 ha-1) and B: C ratio (3.71) was recorded highest with Irrigation at 1.2 IW: CPE ratio. The N levels had significant effects on all the growth parameters like the plant height, number of tillers and leaf: stem ratio. Application of 200 kg N ha-1 gave significantly higher green forage yield (1145.19 q ha-1), dry matter yield (249.74 q ha-1), WUE (87.66 kg ha-1), net realization (Rs. 83015 ha-1) and B: C ratio (3.86) over 150 and 100 kg N ha-1. Consequently for higher productivity and profitability of multi-cut summer forage pearl millet, it should be grown with irrigation given at 1.2 IW: CPE ratio and fertilized with 200 kg N ha-1. Cp-42 imPACt of fortified vermiComPost And suLPhur on yieLd of mustArd in Western Arid zone of indiA suman Parihar and rakesh Choudhary Department of Soil and Science and Agricultural Chemistry College of Agriculture, SKRAU, Bikaner Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, CCS HAU, Hisar-125004 E-mail : pariharsuman30@gmail.com Abstract This investigation was carried out during Rabi season (2010-11) at the Agronomy Farm, College of Agriculture, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner district of Rajasthan. Four levels of each of fortified vermicompost (0, 2, 4 and 6 t/ha) and sulphur (0, 20, 40 and 60 kg/ha) fertilizers were applied in RBD with three replications. The results of our experimental study revealed that successive increase in levels of fortified vermicompost from 0-6 t/ha enhanced significantly the seed and stover yield upto 6 t/ha. The increase in seed (32.8, 60.0 and 79.7%) and stover (21.3, 36.3 and 44.8%) yields were reported with application of 2, 4 and 6 t/ha, respectively, over their control. Our results further reported that with successive increase in sulphur levels the seed and stover yield. The marked increase in seed (24.9 %) and stover (14.5%) yields over the control. Significantly the highest seed (1609.5 kg/ha) and stover (4350.58 kg/ha) yield were recorded with 60 kg S/ha. Our results, further concluded that in coarse textured loamy sand soil of Rajasthan which is low in organic matter and deficient in sulphur, the application of 6 t/ha alongwith 40 kg S/ha was found to be optimum for obtaining higher yield in mustard. 413 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-43 studies on integrAted nutrient mAnAgement in soyBeAn (GlyCIne mAX L ). d. sridevi*, syed Ahmad hussain, m. yakadri, g. Bhupal raj and 1A.vijaya gopal Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030. 1 Department of Agricultural Microbiology and Bioenergy, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad- 500030. Abstract A field experiment entitled “ Studies on integrated nutrient management in Soybean (Glycine max) was carried out under Southern Telangana Zone agro climatic conditions in kharif season, the experiment was conducted in sandy clay loam soils in RBD with twelve treatments replicated thrice the treatments include application of 100%, 50% and 25% inorganic forms and as substituted with proportionate organic nitrogen forms ( Vermicompost, FYM ) and supplemented with Rhizobium and micronutrient application resulted in increase in growth yield attributes and yield of soybean crop. However substitution of inorganic form of RDN up to 50% with organic forms either with FYM or vermicompost resulted in increase in growth, yield attributes and yield whereas the substitution of inorganic form with that of organics of RDN beyond 50% lead to non significance performance. Application of Rhizobium either alone or in combination with micronutrients mixture over and above organic and inorganic sources of RDN at various levels (25%, 50% and 75% RDN) increased the performance of the crop. However highest grain yield (2238 kg ha-1 ), harvest index (40.7), highest net returns ( 58520 Rs/ha) and benefit cost ratio (2.73) was realized when 25% RDN is substituted with FYM besides supplementing with Rhizobium and micronutrients. Key words: Soybean, Recommended dose of Nitrogen, Rhizobium, grain yield, benefit cost ratio. Cp-44 studies on nutrient resPonse in riCe-WheAt CroPPing system in AmritsAr rajni* and s s Walia Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana – 141004 *Email: rajni-sharma@pau.edu Abstract Twenty four experiments during kharif and rabi season were conducted at farmers’ field in Amritsar during 2011-12 to study the response of N, P and K on rice-wheat system. After soil analysis of plots, seven treatments were kept. T1: control, T2: N, T3: N+P, T4: N+K, T5: N+P+K, T6: N+P+K+Micro-nutrient and T7: Farmer’s Practice. In T6 treatment, zinc was applied during kharif season and mangenese during rabi. Maximum rice yield (80.8 q/ha) was recorded, where balanced application of N, P and K was applied alongwith zinc (T6) and it was significantly higher than T5. Similarly, in wheat, maximum yield (53.0 q/ha) was observed under T6 but it was marginally higher over T5. This clearly indicated that the yield-increase sequence was N followed by K and P application. The nutrient response in rice for N, NP, NK and NPK was 13.5, 21.5, 17.8 and 25.2, respectively while the corresponding values for wheat were 11.4, 16.1, 13.5 and 19.0, respectively. The nutrient response in rice for P over N and over NK was 32.0 and 29.7, respectively. The corresponding values for wheat were 9.5 and 11.0, respectively whereas; micronutrient response in rice (Zn) and wheat (Mn) was 12.4 and 12.5, respectively. So, it is very clear that not only N and P but application of K was also very important in getting higher net returns from both rice and wheat crops. 414 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-45 nutrient fLoW in AgroeCosystems of CoLd deserts of himAChAL PrAdesh Poonam, r. Bawa, h.P. sankhyan and s. s. sharma Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan – 173 230 (Himachal Pradesh) Email : *poonamwarpa008fty@gmail.com Abstract A field investigation was carried out in the District Lahaul & Spiti cold deserts of Himachal Pradesh, India to study nutrient flow through different compartments of agroecosystem. We find that there is great difference in nutrient contents in the soil pool, supply, take up and their removal by the human beings for grasses, traditional crop: barley; and the cash crops viz., peas and potatoes. The total biomass production (above- and below-ground) was worked out for grasses barley, peas and potato and their harvest and split up of biomass in different categories. Total biomass of grasses in the ecosystem was 0.82 q/ha. Of this aboveground biomass was 0.76 q/ha (92%), from which 70% is grazed by the animals and some amount is returned back to the system in the form of FYM and through penning. In case of barley crop, total biomass produced was 49.80 q/ha (16.80 q/ha grains and straw 29.30 q/ha of above-ground and 3.63 q/ha of below-ground). Of this total biomass, 32.93 % of the biomass returned back through decomposition of the roots and through FYM (grazing and stall feeding), and 16.80 % was extracted through grains, of which, maximum also returned back as night soil application in the fields. Now in case of cash crops and taking the case of potato crop, it was observed that a total biomass produce was 49.80 q/ha (on dry weight basis). Here in this system hardly any part was left in the field after the final harvest, tubers are harvested, and the rest of above-ground parts were stored and fed to the husbandry during the winters as stall feed. So there was higher percentage of biomass extraction from the fields % as compared to the barley. In case of peas crop, after the harvest, only 0.31q/ha was returned back to the fields of total 19.78q/ha, through root decomposition and FYM, and the rest was extracted out through pods, which are sold in the open market and this biomass never returns back to the fields. Hence we find major difference in the traditional crops (barley) and the cash crops (potatoes and peas), that more of biomass returns back to the system through decomposition of the roots or through FYM and human night soil, thus major part of the energy, biomass and nutrients recycle with in the system in case of traditional cropping as compared to cash cropping system. Keywords: Nutrient flow, Agroecosystem, traditional cropping, cash cropping, biomass. Cp-46 ConJunCtive use of mesOrHIzOBIum sp. CICer, pseuDOmOnAs sPP. And pIrIFOrmOspOrA InDICA for sustAinABLe ChiCKPeA ProduCtion 1 Pallavi mansotra1*, Poonam sharma2 and sunita sharma2 Department of Microbiology, 2Dept of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India *E-mail: p.mansotra@gmail.com Abstract The present investigation was undertaken under field condition to study interactions among Piriformospora indica with potential plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and Mesorhizobium sp. cicer to examine the synergistic effect of consortium of Mesorhizobium sp. cicer, Pseudomonas spp. and P.indica for improving growth, symbiotic efficiency, nutrient acquisition and yield in two chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) varieties viz desi PBG1 and kabuli BG1053. Different PGPR spp. used were isolates of Pseudomonas argentinensis (LPGPR1), Pseudomonas sp. (LPGPR2) along with national check Pseudomons diminuta (LK884). Prior to the field experiment, compatibility of Mesorhizobium sp. cicer (LGR33, MR), Piriformospora indica (PI) and different Pseudomonas spp. were studied for seed germination. In-vitro, consortium of MR+PI+LPGPR1 was the best compatible followed by MR+PI+LK884 and MR+PI+LPGPR2. Significant improvement in the symbiotic parameters was observed with multiple inoculation of MR+PI+LPGPR1 and MR+PI+LK884 treatments. 415 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Significant increase in grain yield was recorded with MR+PI+LPGPR1 (2450 and 2486 kg ha-1) over the MR alone treatment (2254 and 2308 kg ha-1 in desi PBG1 and kabuli BG1053 of chickpea varieties, respectively). It seems from foregoing study that tripartite combination can be explored as potent biofertilizer for improved productivity in chickpea. However, more informed and detailed explanation of the mechanisms that are involved in plant growth promotion and productivity should be carried out before bioaugmentation of mixed microbial inoculants as biofertilizer for sustainable crop production. Keywords: Chickpea, Synergism, Mesorhizobium sp. cicer, Pseudomonas spp. and Piriformospora indica Cp-47 short- term effeCt of tiLLAge, residue And Bio-fertiLizer on LABiLe soiL orgAniC CArBon PooLs under riCe-WheAt CroPPing system. A.K.sinha*, P.mukhopadhyay, s.Biswas, P.m.Bhattacharya, P.mukherjee, and A. ghosh. Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Coochbehar, West Bengal Email : *abskvk@yahoo.co.in Abstract The present work evaluated the short – term effects of tillage, crop residue and bio-fertilizer management practices on changes in labile pools of organic carbon in post- wheat soils in a long- term field experiment with rice-wheat cropping system carried out since 2009 at the research farm of the University at Pundibari, Coochbehar in the state of West Bengal, India. Field experiment consist altogether eight (8) treatments such as two methods of tillage (Zero tilled –ZT and conventionally tilled – CT) along with two options for each of crop residue (residue added and removed) and Bio-fertilizer (with and without inoculation) laid out in a factorial RBD and replicated thrice. Experiment site (260 19’ N, 890 23’E; 43m above msl) belonged under sub-tropical per humid agro-ecological sub-zone featured with annual high rainfall (<3500mm), moderate temperature (350 C- 80C) and acid sandy soils (Typic Fluvaquent). Composite soil samples collected from each treatment plot at 0-5, 5-10 and 10-20cm depths in each of two consecutive years:2009-10 and 2010-11 immediate after harvest of wheat crop were tested for microbial biomass carbon (MBC), active carbon (KMnO4 extractable-AC), Hot water extractable (HWC) and acid extractable (ACH) carbohydrate and particulate organic carbon (POC) following the standard procedures. Results (mean of two years) revealed that at 0-5 cm depth AC, HWC and POC concentrations were significantly higher in ZT- than CT – soils; MBC content in ZT-soils, although, recorded an increase over CT-soils, but it was not significant. Labile soil organic pools especially HWC, MBC and AC also followed a similar response due to zero tillage at 5-10 cm depth. In contrast, at 10-20cm depth, conventionally tilled soils showed to contain significantly higher HWC, MBC, and AC as compared to those in ZT-soils; but for ACH and POC the effect of tillage was just reverse. Residue application resulted to enhance contents of HWC, MBC and POC in all soil layers studied in comparison to those where no crop residue was added. Similarly, bio-fertilizer application showed positive response to POC, MBC and ACH at all soil depths. Zero tillage practice led to overall improvement of soil labile carbon pools mostly confined up to 10cm and it was relatively more pronounced at 0-5 cm depth. Differential patterns of response of zero tillage on depth-wise distribution of labile carbon pools may be ascribed to complexity of organic carbon in soils. Residue and bio-fertilizer application resulted to show by and large positive effects on labile soil carbon pools in this study. Cp-48 simuLAtion of WAter reQuirement By fAo CroPWAt modeL under different moisture regimes in WheAt m. d. Patil, A. s. dhindwal and sriharsha. v. P. CCS Haryana Agricultural University Hisar Abstract Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), the most important staple food in North-Western Indo-Gangetic Plains of India. Crop growth and water use models are efficient tools to simulate growth and water use parameters over a wide range of agro-ecological and management conditions. They are useful in predicting the achievable yields and enhance the productivity of crops and water under varying management options. Keeping this in view a field experiment entitled, “Simulation of water requirement by FAO CROPWAT model under different moisture regimes in wheat” was conducted at Agronomy Research 416 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Farm of CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar, during rabi seasons of 2010-11 and 2011-12. The treatment consisted of four moisture regimes in main plots viz., irrigation at crown root initiation (CRI) + 100 mm cumulative pan evaporation (CPE), CRI + 150 mm CPE, CRI + 200 mm CPE and CRI only, and six moisture stress management practices in sub plot viz., No moisture stress management, seed hardening (SH) by CaCl2, SH + KCl spray at 90 days after sowing (DAS), SH + mycorrhizae application at sowing + KCl spray, SH + mycorrhizae + KCl spray + kaolin spray at 115 DAS and pusa hydrogel application at sowing. The experiment was laid out in split plot design with three replications in sandy loam soil. Crop water requirement of wheat as estimated by CROPWAT model was 286.7 mm during 2010-11 and 304.9 mm during 2011-12. Cp-49 soiL heALth Assessment under ProteCted CuLtivAtion of vegetABLe CroPs in mid hiLL zone of himAChAL PrAdesh sumita Chandel and d. tripathi Department of Soil Science and Water Management University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (HP) - 173230 Abstract The change in soil health indicates whether the management practices being adopted are sustainable or not. Sustainability of intensive agriculture system is intimately linked to maintenance or enhancement of soil health. Therefore, present study was undertaken during 2012-2013 to investigate the impact of intensive cultivation on soil health under polyhouses of Himachal Pradesh. The soil samples were collected from polyhouses of three districts (Solan, Mandi and Sirmour). From each district ten polyhouses were selected randomly for the study of different soil health indicators. The bulk density ranged from 1.16 to 1.29 g/cc and the soils were good for root proliferation and plant growth. The particle density ranged from 2.07 to 2.21 g/cc, whereas the porosity ranged from 40.86 to 47.65 per cent. Amongst the chemical properties, chloride content ranged from 0.04 to 0.07 cmol (p+)/kg, bicarbonate content 1.02 to 2.01 cmol (p+)/kg and CEC 13.52 to 15.85 cmol (p+)/kg, were found to be normal without any adverse effect on soil health. The soil pH ranged from 6.58 to 6.89 and the EC values were in safer range. The organic carbon content varied from 1.40 to 1.66 per cent and was categorized as high. The available N, P and K ranged from 253.48 to 352.42, 40.41 to 87.6 and 453.94 to 495.06 kg/ha, respectively. The exchangeable Ca was found to be adequate, however soils show low levels of exchangeable Mg. Sulphur (62.47 to 72.14 kg/ha) was also high in the soils. Amongst the micronutrients, available Zn, Fe, Cu and Mn were found to be medium to high in availability. The microbial biomass ranged from 377.13 to 459.89 µg/g, which fell under medium to high range for categorizing soil health. The soil indicators like OC, P, S, chloride and microbial biomass had more influence on soil health, while, other had less effect on soil health under polyhouse conditions. The results indicated that the majority of the soils in polyhouse conditions were high (57%) in soil health condition, followed by the very high (40%) and medium health soil (3%). Soil health was found to be affected by the management practices adopted by the farmer and the extent of fertilizer use over a period of time. 417 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-50 studies on the PerformAnCe of foLiAr APPLiCAtion of PAnChAgAvyA And LeAf eXtrACts of endemiC PLAnts on groWth And yieLd of groundnut (ArACHIs HypOGAeA L.) K.m. Choudhary1, manish m. Patel2, Banshee Lal Kumawat3,, K. g. vyas4, and soma devi5 Department of Agronomy, Chimanbhai Patel College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar - 385 506 Abstract A field experiment was conducted to studies on the performance of foliar application of panchagavya and leaf extracts of endemic plants on growth and yield of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea l.) on loamy sand soil of Agronomy Instructional Farm, C.P. College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada, Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar during rabi, 2010. The effect of foliar applied neem (Azatiracta indika ), oak (Callotropics gigentia), glyricidia (Glyricidia sepium) and custard apple (Annona squamosa) leaf extracts in 1:1 combination with panchagavya on growth and yield of groundnut. From the present study, it is revealed that foliar spraying of combination of panchagavya + neem leaf extract resulted in significantly higher plant height, number of nodules, and number of branches as compared to control. Number of pods and pod weight per plant, pod yield, haulm yield and harvest index were also recorded significantly higher with application of panchagavya + neem leaf extracts (NLE) as compared to rest of the treatments. Foliar application of different sources both at branching and flowering stages recorded significantly higher growth and yield as compared to single application at branching or flowering stage. Cp-51 reduCing Weed infestAtion through different herBiCides in KHArIF green grAm shaukat Ali, J. C. Patel and B. s. Patel Department of Agronomy, C. P. College of Agriculture S. D. Agricultural University, SKNagar (Gujarat) 385506 E-mail: shaukatagri@gmail.com Abstract A filed experiment was carried out during rainy season of 2009 at Agronomy Instructional Farm, C. P. College of Agriculture, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat). The soil of the test site was sandy loam in texture, low in organic carbon (0.15 %), acidic/basic in reaction (7.9 pH) and medium in available N (168 kg/ha), P (32.4 kg/ha) and K (234 kg/ha). Nine treatments of weed control were evaluated viz., Pendimethalin 1.0 kg/ha PE, Quizalofop-p-ethyl 50, 75 and 100 g/ha at 15-20 DAS, Imazethapyr 100 g/ha PE and PoE at 15-20 DAS, Interculturing and Hand weeding at 20 & 40 DAS, Weed free and Unweeded control in RBD, replicated four times. Result revaluated that an application of imazethapyr 100 g/ha at 15-20 DAS was found most effective in reducing weed population (Viz. grassy, broad leaves and sedges) and less dry weight of weeds (52.09 g/m2) and it was closely followed by quizalofop-p-ethyl 100 g/ha at 15-20 DAS. Imazethapyr and quizalofop-p-ethyl 100 g/ha at 15-20 DAS were found equally effective in grain and straw yield over other treatments. IC and HW at 20 & 40 DAS was found statistically at par in these parameters. Key words: Green gram, Imazethapyr, Quizalofop-p-ethyl, Pendimethalin and IC and HW 418 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-52 integrAted Weed mAnAgement studies in direCt seeded riCe (OryzA sAtIVA L.) in PunJAB Amandeep singh sidhu, Jasvinder singh and sat Pal saini Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ropar and FASS, Patiala Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana - 141 004, Punjab, India Email:sidhuas@pau.edu Abstract Weeds pose a serious threat to sustainability of direct seeded rice in Punjab. If weeds are controlled adequately, then the yields of direct seeded rice can be comparable with transplanted rice. A field experiment was conducted during kharif season of 2011 at farmer’s fields in District Ropar and Patiala to study the effect of integrated weed management practices on the performance of direct seeded rice grown in irrigated subtropical zone of Ropar and Patiala districts of Punjab. Seeds of short duration (PR 115) rice cultivar were drilled using 30 kg seed/ha in rows spaced at 20 cm during first fortnight of June. The fields were laser leveled before seeding for effective irrigation water management. The maximum grain yield (55.0 q/ha) and lowest weed dry matter and density (1.10 q/ha & 2.58/m2) was recorded with pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha followed by one hand weeding at 30 DAS but these parameters were statistically at par with pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha followed by bispyribac 25 g/ha (30 days after sowing). Net returns (Rs. 40.90 X 103) and BC ratio (2.09) was highest with pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha followed by bispyribac 25 g/ha (30 days after sowing) which was due to less cost of herbicides as compared to hand weeding. Key words: Integrated weed management, Direct seeded rice, Weed dry matter, Weed density, Grain yield. Cp-53 infLuenCe of interCroPPing mungBeAn (VIGnA rADIAtA) on the ProduCtivity of PAired roW trenCh PLAnted sPring sugArCAne (sACCHArum OFFICInArum) Baltej singh, Jayesh singh, Avtar singh, guriqbal singh and s K uppal Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, Punjab, India E-mail:baletjsinghtoor@gmail.com Abstract Average size of land holdings of Indian farmer is decreasing day by day owing to constant increase in human population. Thus, raising production of cereals, pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, sugar etc. to meet the demand of food for the ever increasing population by increasing the area under such crops is not possible due to limited availability of agricultural land. Hence, the only option is to increase the crop productivity on the available land by growing intercrops in the space left between wider spaced crop rows especially sugarcane. Therefore, a field experiment consisting of thirteen treatments was conducted in randomized block design with four replications at Punjab Agricultural University’s Sugarcane Experimental Area, Ladhowal, Punjab during spring 2012. The experiment was planned with the objectives to find out the optimum sowing time and plant density of summer mungbean for intercropping in paired row trench planted spring sugarcane and its effect on yield and economics of the cropping system as compared to sole crop of paired row trench sugarcane. The soil of experimental site was loamy sand, normal in reaction, low in organic carbon and available nitrogen, medium in phosphorus and potassium. The treatments comprised of sole crop of sugarcane and intercropping of mungbean on 1st, 14th, 28th March and 11th April in 1:1, 1:2 and 1:3 row arrangements in paired row trench (PRT) planted spring sugarcane. Sole sugarcane in paired row trench recorded significantly higher number of tillers (187.2 thousand/ha) and cane length (162.0 cm) than the sugarcane intercropped with mungbean. However, other growth parameters like germination percentage, cane girth, number of internodes per cane and single cane weight remain unaffected with intercropping of mungbean in different row arrangement and different dates in paired row trench planted spring sugarcane. The cane quality in terms of brix and pol 419 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” percentage too were significantly not influenced with the increase in planting density (from 1:1 to 1:3 row arrangement) and periodic delay in intercropping of mungbean (from 1st Mar. to 11th Apr.). However, the cane equivalent yield (96.6 t/ ha) was maximum in PRT sugarcane + 28th Mar. sown mungbean in 1:2 planting pattern which was significantly better than the sole sugarcane and sugarcane + mungbean in 1:3 row arrangement in all the intercropping dates of mungbean. Sugarcane + 28th March sown mungbean in 1:2 planting density fetched maximum gross return (Rs 2,23,187/ha), net return (Rs 1,24,865/ha) and B:C (2.23). Hence, highest profitability and productivity of the intercropping system can be obtained under paired row trench planted sugarcane intercropped with two rows of mungbean on 28th March. Cp-54 CritiCAL Limits of zn in soiLs And PotAto PLAnts under different PotAto groWing AreAs of West BengAL debabrata dhar1, nirmalendu Basak2, Ashim datta2, shrikant Badole1, gora Chand hazra1, Biswapati mandal1 Directorate of Research, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Katyani, Nadia, 2Div. of Soil and Crop Management, CSSRI, Karnal-132 001, Haryana West Bengal-741 235, India Email: debu.385@rediffmail.com 1 Abstract A pot experiment was conducted to determine the critical limit of Zn in respect of soils and potato with 10 kg of soil collected from 23-different locations of intensively potato growing areas of 7-districts of West Bengal. Soils were treated with fixed NPK of 200, 150 and 150 kg ha-1 and Zn at the levels of 0, 5.0, 10.0 and 20.0 kg Zn ha-1, respectively. Tuber yield and shoot yield were recorded and Zinc content of pot soils, tuber and shoot were estimated. Critical limit of Zn in soil, tuber and shoot of potato was determined following both the graphical and statistical methods of Cate and Nelson (1965 and 1971). Graphical method showed that the critical value of Zn in soils as extracted by DTPA for Zn nutrition of potato considering BPY (Bray’s Percentage Yield) was 0.51 mg kg-1. This value was within the range of 0.42 to 0.52 mg kg-1 as computed by statistical method. So, average critical value of available Zn for potato soils was 0.47 mg kg-1 by statistical method. Results showed that the critical level of Zn in potato tuber at harvest computed by graphical and statistical methods were 7.1 and 6.9 mg kg-1, respectively. Again, graphical method determined the critical value of Zn in potato shoot as 32.5 mg kg-1 which was varied within the range of 32 to 33.5 mg kg-1 when compared by statistical method. Therefore, below these concentrations of Zn in soil, tuber and shoot of potato would be considered as deficiency of Zn which would influence both yield and quality of potato. Cp-55 infLuenCe of interCroPPing With CoWPeA And fertiLity LeveLs on forAge eQuivALent yieLd, QuALity, nutrient Content, AvAiLABLe soiL nutrient stAtus And eConomiCs of forAge mAize 1 A. m. Patel, 2r. d. Bedse, 3C. h. raval, 4K. g. vyas and 5P. K. Bhatt Associate Director of Research, 2&3Research Associate (Agronomy), 4&5 Ph.D Scholars & SRFs (Agronomy), S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat) - 385 506 E-mail: ampatel_rs@yahoo.com Directorate of Research, S. D. Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar - 385 506 1 Abstract A field experiment was conducted on loamy sand soils of Agronomy Instructional Farm, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar during the years 2011 and 2012. The soil of the experimental plot was very low in organic carbon (0.19%) and available nitrogen (169 kg ha-1), medium in available phosphorous (39.65 ka ha-1) and potash (271 kg ha-1). The experiment was laid out in spit plot design with four replications. Fifteen treatment combinations comprised of five intercropping treatments viz, sole maize, sole cowpea, maize + cowpea (1:1), maize + cowpea (2:1) and maize + cowpea (3:1) and three fertility levels viz, 75% RDF, 100% RDF and 125% RDF. Forage maize equivalent yield 420 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” were significantly influenced by intercropping levels. Treatment of maize + cowpea (2:1) recorded significantly higher maize equivalent forage yield than rest of the treatments. Intercropping of maize + cowpea (2:1) recorded significantly higher nitrogen content, crude protein content, crude fiber content and phosphorous content in both crops. Intercropping levels failed to exhibit their significant influence on total ash content, potash content and neutral detergent fiber of both crops. Regarding soil available nutrients, sole cowpea registered maximum values of nitrogen content but phosphorous and potash content was not influenced significantly by intercropping after harvest of crops. The maize equivalent yield was significantly influenced by fertility levels. Application of 125% RDF produced significantly higher maize equivalent yield but it was statistically similar with application of 100% RDF. Application of 125% RDF recorded significantly higher nitrogen content, crude protein content, crude fiber content in both crops as well as phosphorous content and total ash content in maize crop and it was at par with 100% RDF. Fertility levels failed to exhibit their significant influence on phosphorous content and total ash content in cowpea as well as potash content and neutral detergent fiber in both crops. Regarding soil available nutrients, treatment 125% RDF registered maximum values of nitrogen but it was at par with 100% RDF. Intercropping of maize + cowpea (2:1) recorded higher net realization of Rs. 30185 ha-1 and higher B:C ratio of 2.85. Among different fertility levels, application of 125% RDF resulted higher net realization (Rs. 28865 ha-1) but higher B:C ratio (2.68) was recorded with 100% RDF. The land equivalent ratio (1.22) was found highest with maize + cowpea (2:1). Cp-56 effeCt of different Potting mediA ComPosition for ProduCtion of rHApIs pAlm As A Potted PLAnt madhu Bala Assistant Floriculturist, Department of Floriculture and Landscaping, College of Agriculture, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141001 (Punjab) Email: madhu-flori@pau.edu Abstract Foliage plants as a Pot plant are always valued for their foliage beauty, compactness of size and ability to survive under shady conditions. With the increase in urbanization and development of flat system of housing, pot plants are the only group of plants which can provide freshness even in a small space. For better growth of foliage plants the selection of media is an important factor as a good medium should serve as reservoir for plant nutrients, provide support for plant growth, hold water for availability to the plant and facilitate exchange of gases between roots and atmosphere above the root medium. Seven different potting media on the growth of Rhapis Palm. Seven different media comprising, Soil + Sand + FYM (2:1:1), Soil + Sand + Vermicompost (2:1:1), Soil + Sand + FYM + Vermicompost (2:1:0:5.0.5), Cocopeat, Cocopeat + Sand + FYM (2:1:1), Cocopeat + Sand + Vermicompost(2:1:1) and Cocopeat + Sand + FYM + Vermicompost were tested. Results were found to be significant with respect to plant height, number of branches per plant, Days to flowering, number of flowers per plant and plant spread where as flower size and duration of flowering showed non significant difference. The best media found to be the media Soil + Sand + FYM + Vermicompost (2:1:1.0:0.5) with maximum vegetative growth of plants, whereas, the minimum improvement was observed in treatment comprising Cocopeat only. All treatment differed significantly with each other. The main aim of this research is to find out the best suitable potting medium for quality foliage pot plant production of Rhapis Palm. 421 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-57 effeCt of different trAining system ,sPACings And fertigAtion LeveLs on BeLL PePPer ProduCtion under ProteCted Conditions in mid hiLLs of himAChAL PrAdesh dr. Amit saurabh * & dr. manish Kumar Assistant Professor Department of Agriculture, Baba Farid College, Deon, Bathinda Punjab Professor, Department of Agriculture, Dr.Y.S.Parmar University of Hoticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan H.P. Email: Amitsaurabh45@gmail.com Abstract Bell Pepper grown for off season produce during summer and rainy months assumes special significance in mid hills of Himachal Pradesh as it brings lucrative returns to the farmers. Due to the higher price and demand in the market the farmers are growing the coloured varieties of bell pepper under the poly houses with natural ventilation. Proper Training, Spacing and Fertigation improves the yield and quality of bell pepper .Therefore the present studies entitled “ The effect of different Training system, Spacing and Fertigation levels on bell pepper production under protected conditions in mid hills of Himachal Pradesh was undertaken at Vegetable Research farm , Department of Vegetable Science, Dr. Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan H.P. during 2008 -2009 with objective to find out appropriate spacing, with respect to different training system and to find out most effective fertilizer dose applied through fertigation. The experiment was laid out in a factorial randomized block design with 3 replications .The results revealed that the maximum number of fruits per plant (20.23), was obtained from T2S1F1 (where T2=4 stem, S1= 30x 60 cm and F1= 100 Kg NPK /ha), Maximum fruit weight (175 g) was obtained from the treatment combination T1S2F1 (where T1=2 stem, S2= 30x 90 cm and F1= 100 Kg NPK/ha).The results indicated an increased yield of (2.70 Kg/ plant) from the treatment combination T2S1F3 (where T2=4 stem, S1= 30x 60 cm and F3= 200 Kg NPK/ha). Cp-58 survey on effeCt of orgAniC And inorgAniC nutrition in APPLe orChArds ghumare vikas, d d sharma, d tripathi, J s Chandel, Babita Khachi, r s spheia, deepshikha thakur and dilip singh Kachwaya Abstract Organic cultivation of apple is increasing day-by-day, as the farmers are getting aware on effect of conventional system on environment and soil health. The survey study of organic and inorganic apple orchards was undertaken on farmer’s field at Theog and Rohru in Shimla district of Himachal Pradesh, during the years 2011 - 2012. The data was statistically analyzed on two-way analysis to study the effect of locations and nutrition sources. Fifteen years old apple trees of cultivar Starking Delicious grown on seedling rootstock were selected randomly on the basis of uniform vigour. The trees were planted at a spacing of 6 x 6 m and trained on modified central leader training system. The objective of study was to elucidate the effect of comparison of organic and inorganic plant nutrition on fruit quality parameters, leaf and soil nutrient status in apple orchards. The organic apple orchards gave 43 per cent reduction in yield compared to inorganic apple orchards. However, organic orchards were most effective for producing better fruit quality in terms of TSS, fruit firmness, total sugars, reducing sugars, titratable acidity and secondary metabolites such as anthocyanins, phenols and antioxidants. In addition, significant improvements in soil physical (bulk density, soil pH, MWHC, organic carbon) and biological properties (total microbial counts) were also recorded in organic apple orchards. However, the higher yield, leaf and soil nutrients status were observed under inorganic apple orchards during both the years of study. Therefore, it can be concluded that the use of organic manures might be useful as supplement to inorganic fertilizers and helpful in improving fruit quality and enhancing soil health with respect to physico-chemical and biological properties of the soil. 422 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-59 need of PeriodiC sCreening of WheAt CroP Weeds Charanpreet singh Buttar Associate Professor, Botany, Govt. Ripudaman College, Nabha, Patiala, Punjab, India Email : cpsbuttar@yahoo.com Abstract Though weeds are the integral part of vegetation of an area, these are also known to case considerable loss in production to various crops in different ways. Wheat is the principal crop of Punjab, the area of which has increased significantly with introduction of new high yielding varieties. Of the total of about 70 weeds species reported from the different regions of Punjab in wheat crop. However, the weedy status of Abutilon indicum, Achyranthes asper, Artemisia scoparia, Bidens biternata, Calotropis procera, Croton bonplandianum, Ricinus communis, Tridax procumbens and Withania somnifera does not seems to be justified at least in Punjab wheat crop. In general, the change in the cropping pattern and the large scale application of weedicides have partially or completely eliminated certain weeds species. It has resulted into change of the frequency of certain weed species. The large scale monoculture seems to be another reason which has affected the frequency of weeds in this region. Some species like Chenopodium album, Fumaria indica, asphodelus tenuifolius, Lathyrus aphaca, etc. have been eliminated in certain regional pockets. Such a change could result into loss of vegetational diversity in the region, and could result into introduction of new weed species. It is thus desirable to keep under regular screening the weed flora of the different crops. Such effect, however, is less pronounced on species belonging to Cyperaceae and Gramineae. Cp-60 effeCt of different treAtments of indoLe-3ButyriC ACid on the rooting of stem Cuttings of PAtChouLi(pOGOstemOn CABlIn ) sukhjit Kaur and Paramjit singh Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur (Punjab),India-143521 E-mail: sukhi.rose@gmail.com Abstract The present investigation was conducted at PAU, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur during the years 2012-13.The stem cuttings of 5-10cm in length with 4-5 buds were prepared from the patchouli plants in the month of July to October .The basal portion of these cuttings was dipped in different doses of Indole-3-butyric acid(IBA) viz. 100ppm,200ppm,300ppm along with control(without IBA treatment) for one minute dip. After these treatments, these cuttings were planted in open field conditions by following normal cultural practices.It was observed that the maximum rootings and survival of cuttings were observed in the cuttings treated with 100ppm IBA for one minute dip. Cp-61 effeCt of intensity of heAding BACK on oLd LitChi tree sukhjit Kaur and Bs dhillon Punjab Agricultural University, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur (Punjab), India-143521 e-mail : sukhi.rose@gmail.com Abstract A rejuvenation trial on Dehradun litchi (40-45years old) trees was conducted during the months of November 2006,December 2006, January 2007 and February2007 at PAU, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur by heading back at 2m and 3m height of the secondary branches of the tree at crotch angle and to increase their productivity. Trees were started sprouting in the 1st week of April, 2nd week of April, 2nd week of May and 3rd week of May 2007 in November 2006,December 2006,January2007 and February 2007 heading back, respectively. Trees started bearing after 3rd to 4th years (in 3rd growing season) of heading back. Percent flushing, flowering and fruiting in subsequent growing season depends upon the intensity 423 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” of heading back and season. Percent flushing, flowering and fruiting were significantly higher at 2m heading back in the 4th followed by 3rd ,2nd and 1st growing seasons as compared to as at 3m heading back in the 4th followed by 3rd ,2nd and 1st growing seasons. Cp-62 effeCt of different ConCentrAtions of gA3 And nAA And their methods of APPLiCAtion on groWth And yieLd of ChiLLi (CAPsiCum Annuum) Cv. PAnt ChiLLi-1 indu Arora*, J.P.singh**and dhirendra singh*** *Senior Research Fellow, Deptt. of Veg. Science, G.B.P.U.A&T, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand **Department of Horticulture, Gochar Mahavidhyalaya, Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh ***Professor, Deptt. of Veg. Science, G.B.P.U.A&T, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand Abstract The present investigation was undertaken during winter season of 2009-10 and summer season of 2010-11 at Horticulture Research Farm of Gochar Mahavidhyalaya, Rampur Maniharan, Saharanpur, U.P on chilli cv. Pant C-1 to find out the most suitable concentration, time and method of application of plant growth regulators for growth, flowering, fruit set, yield and yield attributes of chillies. Among different concentrations of plant growth regulators, 45 ppm NAA (C3) was found superior to all other treatments in respect of most of the plant growth characters while among methods of application, double spray (M1) was found superior for growth and quality characters. Applications of plant growth regulators promoted fruit set in chilli by influencing the percentage of short styled flowers. 2, 4-D @ 1ppm and NAA @ 30 ppm gave maximum response to seed germination and amount of ascorbic acid content, respectively. Improved yield and yield characters were observed in treatment combinations, M5C3 (45ppm NAA used as seedling root dip for 30 minutes along with double spray) followed by M5C7 (4ppm 2,4-D) and M5C6 (2ppm 2, 4-D) when used in similar way. Cp-63 effeCt of distiLLery effLuent (sPentWAsh methAnAted) APPLiCAtion As Pre soWn irrigAtion on PhysiCo-ChemiCAL ProPerties of soiL And yieLd of riCe And WheAt CroP dharmendra Kumar, r.r.singh, B.P.dyani, Bikesh yadav and Kamalesh Kumar Department of Soil Science, S.V.P. University of Agriculture & Tech., Meerut, U.P. Abstract Distillery effluent is a rich source of organic matter and nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In addition, it contains appreciable amount of micronutrients such as iron, manganese, zinc and copper. A field experiments were conducted for two consecutive years during 2009 – 2011 in randomized block design with 12 treatments and three replication at Crop Research Centre Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut to study the effect of distillery effluent (Spentwash Methanated) application as pre sown irrigation on nutrient availability, physico- chemical properties of soil and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop in rice – wheat cropping sequence with 20, 40 and 60 m3/ha DE along with 50, 75 and 100 % NPK doses on rice and wheat crops and recommended dose 100, 125 and 150 % NPK was applied only in control plots. The growth parameters, yield attributing characters, grain and straw yield of both the crops were affected significantly by different treatments. The highest yield recorded in plots treated with pre-sown distillery effluent @ 40 m3/ha along with 100 % NPK of both the crops. The pre-sown application of distillery effluent @ 40 m3/ha was optimum for building up soil fertility and increasing the yield of rice and wheat in sandy clay loam soil. 424 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-64 effeCt of distiLLery effLuent APPLiCAtion ALong With inorgAniC fertiLizers on yieLd of riCe CroP dharmendra Kumar, r.r.singh, B.P.dyani, Bikesh yadav and Kamalesh Kumar Department of Soil Science, S.V.P. University of Agriculture & Tech., Meerut, U.P. Abstract A field experiment was conducted to study the impact of distillery effluent (Spentwash methanated) applied as pre-sowing irrigation along with graded levels of inorganic fertilizers on the grain and straw yield of a rice crop (var. Vallabh-21). Maximum grain yield 54.53 and 54.67 q/ha was recorded with the application of 100% recommended NPK along with 60 m3/ha distillery effluent and the lowest yield 42.70 and 42.83 q/ha was obtained with the application of 100% inorganic fertilizers during both the years. Grain yield of rice did not varied significantly between 100 and 125% NPK. However, 150% NPK yielded significantly higher than 100% NPK. The application of DE along with higher levels of NPK yielded significantly higher grain yielded than 100% NPK. Application of 20, 40 and 60 m3/ha DE along with 100% NPK yielded 16.7, 24.0, 27.7 percent higher yield respectively than 100% NPK during 2009 and 12.8 23.7 and 27.6 percent during 2010. Straw yield of rice also remain unaffected due to application of 100 and 125% NPK a significant effect of 50% additional NPK over 100% NPK was observed. With exception of T4 rest of the treatments of inter integration produce significantly higher straw yield than 100% NPK. Straw and grain yield increased consistently due to application increasing DE level at a particular nutrient level. Effluent application, inorganic fertilizers and their interactions had a significant effect on both the grain and straw yields. The application of inorganic fertilizer in the presence of distillery effluent was highly beneficial to rice crop. Pre-sowing irrigation with (spent wash methanated) distillery effluent along with inorganic fertilizers proved most effective in increasing the grain and straw yields of rice crop. Cp-65 effeCt of distiLLery effLuent APPLiCAtion ALong With inorgAniC fertiLizers on groWth PArAmeter of riCe CroP dharmendra Kumar, r.r.singh, B.P.dyani, s. K. singh, Bikesh yadav and Kamalesh Kumar Department of Soil Science, S.V.P. University of Agriculture & Tech., Meerut, U.P. Abstract The use of distillery effluent either in liquid or solid form in agriculture has been practised in India since the inception of the industry. In certain areas, the scarcity of water has forced the farmers to use the effluent as a substitute for irrigation water over the years. The indiscriminate disposal in the open area and near natural water bodies causes high water table and contaminate surface and ground waters making them unsuitable for use. Since the conventional methods of waste treatment are uneconomical and especially the difficulty in handling and transporting of large quantities, alternative methods like application of distillery effluents to agricultural land is receiving increasing attention. The increasing cost of fertilizers and most essential nutrients also demand the attention. This is an important problem of the industries and challenge for the scientists is to use this resource as a source of nutrients and irrigation in crop production. The plant height of rice crops was affected significantly by different treatments at different day’s interval. The plant height of rice at 30 and 60 DAT did not varied significantly due to application of super optimal level of NPK during 2009 but a significant effect was noticed during 2010 where 150 % NPK produce taller plant than 100 % NPK. Substitution of 25 to 50 % NPK with different level of distillery effluent resulted in significantly taller plant than 100 % NPK. The application of a particular level of DE with different doses of NPK did not result any significant effect on plant height. The significant effect of DE application over 100 % NPK may be due to additional nutrient supply. Pre-sowing irrigation with (spent wash methanated) distillery effluent along with inorganic fertilizers proved most effective in increasing the grain and straw yields of rice crop. 425 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-66 effeCt of distiLLery effLuent (sPentWAsh methAnAted) APPLiCAtion As Pre soWn irrigAtion on PhysiCo-ChemiCAL ProPerties of soiL And yieLd of riCe And WheAt CroP dharmendra Kumar, r.r.singh, B.P. dyani, Bikesh yadav and Kamalesh Kumar Department of Soil Science, S.V.P. University of Agriculture & Tech., Meerut, U.P. Abstract Distillery effluent is a rich source of organic matter and nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. In addition, it contains appreciable amount of micronutrients such as iron, manganese, zinc and copper. A field experiments were conducted for two consecutive years during 2009 – 2011 in randomized block design with 12 treatments and three replication at Crop Research Centre Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut to study the effect of distillery effluent (Spentwash Methanated) application as pre sown irrigation on nutrient availability, physico- chemical properties of soil and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop in rice – wheat cropping sequence with 20, 40 and 60 m3/ha DE along with 50, 75 and 100 % NPK doses on rice and wheat crops and recommended dose 100, 125 and 150 % NPK was applied only in control plots. The growth parameters, yield attributing characters, grain and straw yield of both the crops were affected significantly by different treatments. The highest yield recorded in plots treated with pre-sown distillery effluent @ 40 m3/ha along with 100 % NPK of both the crops. The pre-sown application of distillery effluent @ 40 m3/ha was optimum for building up soil fertility and increasing the yield of rice and wheat in sandy clay loam soil. Cp-67 effeCt of KHArIF CroPs under different Weed ControL meAsures And nitrogen LeveLs on groWth, yieLd And nutrient uPtAKe of WheAt (trItICum AestIVum L.)- BAsed CroPPing system in Arid zone of rAJAsthAn mahaveer prasad, r. s. yadav and P.s. rathore Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner, Rajasthan- 334 006 Email- balodamp.agro@gmail.com Abstract A field experiment was conducted at the Agronomy farm, College of Agriculture, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner (Rajasthan) during kharif and rabi seasons of 2010-11 and 2011-12. The soil of the experimental site was loamy sand (82.9% sand, 10.4% silt and 6.5% clay), slightly above neutral in reaction (pH 8.1), low in organic carbon (0.08%), available nitrogen (134.45 kg/ha), available phosphorus (16.05 kg/ha) and medium in available potassium (198.05 kg/ha), respectively. The total rainfall in kharif season was 307.3 and 249.1 mm with 13 and 10 rainy days and in rabi season was 21.5 and 12.2 mm with 2 rainy days each during 2010-11 and 2011-12, respectively. The study consisted in kharif seasons comprising 9 combinations having different kharif crops (pearlmillet, clusterbean and groundnut) and 3 levels of weed control measures (weedy check, mechanical and chemical methods) as main plots treatment with 4 levels of nitrogen (0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha-1) as sub plot treatments comprising a total of 36 treatment combinations were tested in split plot design with three replications. To study the effect of kharif crops viz. pearlmillet, clusterbean and groundnut under different weed control and nitrogen levels on growth, yield and nutrient uptake of wheat- based cropping systems in arid zone of Rajasthan. Growing of clusterbean and groundnut as the preceding crop resulted in significantly increased growth attributes viz., plant height, dry matter accumulation, total number of tillers CGR and RGR, yield attributes (number of effective tillers and grains per spike), grain, straw and biological yield, content and uptake of N, P and K in grain and straw of wheat. Application of nitrogen @ 120 kg N ha-1 significantly improved the growth attributing, yield attributing 426 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” characters and N, P and K content and uptake by grain and straw of wheat. Significantly higher net returns ( 148327 ha-1) and B: C ratio (3.32) was obtained in groundnut fertilized with 120 kg N ha-1 under groundnut-wheat crop sequence. Cp-68 effeCt of method of PLAnting And APPLiCAtion of PotAssium on yieLd And KeePing QuALity of onion. Amanpreet Kaur* , Balvir Kaur, Paramjit Kaur sraw and Kuldeep singh Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jalandhar, Punjab Email : *amanpau@pau.edu Abstract Potassium(K) is one of the major nutrient taken up by the plant in large quantities. Adequate amount of potassium is known to increase crop resistance to various disease and also having important role in bulb formation in onion. An on farm trial was conducted to evaluate the effect of method of planting and different level of potassium in onion on the soils tested medium in K status , The trial was laid out in three replications with two methods of planting as Main treatment viz Bed planting(T1) and Flat planting (T2) and three level of potash as sub main i,e 0 kg/ha (S1),50 kg/ha(S2) and 100kg/ha(50kg as basal+ 50 kg /ha 20 DAT)(S3). Experiment results indicated that mean plant height and neck thickness was 15.9% and 6.4% higher in the flat sown than bed sown onions respectively while bulb weight was significantly higher in bed sown onion at all levels of potash. Among three levels of potassium highest yield(325.8 q/ha) and (351.8 q/ha) was obtained with 100 kg/ha potash applied as split on bed and Flat respectively but it was not significant improvement than S2 treatment. TSS content also increased with increase in potash level while the moisture content was higher in S1. The behavior of the onions regarding weight loss and sprouting stored at room temperature was recorded. It noticed that increase in potash content there was decrease in moisture loss and sprouting. There is no difference in weight loss and sprouting in T1 and T2. Sprouting was 8% higher in control plots than 100 kg K/ha at the end of the storage period. Key words: Onion , Potassium, Bulb Yield Cp-69 effeCt of PLAnting method on yieLd of onion (AllIum CepA L.) Balvir Kaur, Paramjit Kaur, Amanpreet Kaur and Kuldeep singh Krishi Vighan Kendra,Jalandhar,Punjab Email-*usha29@rediffmail.com Abstract Onion (Allium cepa L.) belongs to family Alliacea is an important bulb vegetable crop of India as an indispensable part of many vegetarian and non –vegetarian diets for flavoring agent besides its long shelf life for off season market. Onion occupies prominent place among vegetables and is cultivated commercially throughout various parts India. Proper spacing of transplant onion crop may be an imported factor for high as well as economic bulb yield. Planting of onion seedling mostly done on flat surface as recommended by Punjab agricultural university Ludhiana but some farmers practiced bed planting and wider spacing for improved bulb size and quality for getting high price and to save labour. Keeping in this view an on farm trial entitled “Effect of planting method on yield of onion (Allium cepa L.)” conducted by Krishi Vighan Kendra Nurmahal, Jalandhar at four different location of district viz village Meshampur, Kandola kalan, Bandala and Kot Badal Khan during year 2013.Transplanting of onion done during ist week of January. All package of practices followed as recommended by PA.U. The treatment consisted of three methods of planting and spacing ie. T1-Flat planting (15x7.5 cm),T2-Bed planting(12x7.5 cm) and T3-Flat planting (20x10 cm).Parameters under study were plant height(cm),No. of leaves per plant, Neck thickness (mm),Bulb weight(gm),Total soluble solids and yield per hectare(q).Data was statistically analyzed and it was observed that highest bulb yield was observed in T1(375 q/ha) followed by T2(352.5 q/ha) and T3(339.0 q/ha) while Bulb weight was highest in T3(80 g) followed by T2 (75 g) and T1(60 g).There was non significant difference in plant height, number of leaves per plant and neck thickness with regard to different planting methods. Key Words: Onion, Spacing,Yield 427 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-70 effeCt of roW sPACing And LeveLs of PhosPhorus on ProduCtivity And eConomiCs of CLuster BeAn s.K. yadav, A.g. Patel, B.L. yadav and B. saini C. P. College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University Sardarkrushinagar-385 506 (Gujarat) Abstract An experiment was conducted at Horticulture Instructional Farm, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar during kharif season of 2010. The treatments comprised of three levels of row spacing (S1 = 30 cm x 15 cm, S2 = 45 cm x 15 cm and S3 = 60 cm x 15 cm) and four levels of phosphorus (P1 = 0 kg P2O5/ha, P2 = 20 kg P2O5/ha, P3 = 40 kg P2O5/ha and P4 = 60 kg P2O5/ha). The experiment was conducted in Factorial Randomized Block Design with three replications. The soil was loamy sand in texture, low in organic carbon and available nitrogen, medium in available phosphorus and rich in potassium status. The results indicated that the maximum green pod yield, dry fodder yield, net return and benefit: cost ratio were found the highest in the narrowest row spacing (30 cm x 15 cm) and with the highest dose of phosphorus (60 kg P2O5 /ha) individually as well as combination of both. It is concluded that higher yield and economics can be obtained by adopting narrowest row spacing (30 cm x 15 cm) with 60 kg P2O5/ha. Cp-71 effiCACy of different herBiCides for ControLLing Weeds in onion Paramjit Kaur sraw, Balvir kaur, Amanpreet Kaur and Kuldeep singh Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Jalandhar, Punjab E-mail : pahulparam78@pau.edu Abstract Weeds are one of the most important problems in onion (Allium cepa L.) production areas, since onion plants are poor competitors. In addition, their long growing season allows several successive flushes of weeds. Weeds compete with the crop for nutrients, water, space and light resulting in losses in yield. In order to study the efficacy of different herbicides for controlling weeds in onion, a field experiment was conducted at Krishi Vighan Kendra, Jalandhar during 2013 The onion was transplanted in the ist week of January . The treatments were T1-Lasso(Alachlor)@2.5ltha,-1T2-Goal(Oxyfluorfen)@950lt ha-1 T3-Targa super(Quizolofop ethyl)@625lt ha-1 T4-Stomp(Pendimethalin)@2.5 lt ha-1 T5-stomp(Pendimethalin)@1.62lt/ ha-1+one HW (30 DAT), T6-2 HW (30&60 DAT) T7-weed free check T8- unweeded control. Experiment was laid in randomized block design having three replications. All the treatments were applied as pre emergence herbicides application i.e within one week of transplanting, except T3 treatment which was applied as post emergence herbicide.The effect of all these herbicides was studied on weeds kill percentage, fresh weed biomass (kg ha-1), size of onion bulbs (gm), plant height (cm), onion diameter (cm), onion yield (q ha-1) and cost-benefit ratio. After 30 Days of transplanting it was observed that major weeds infested the experimental field were convolvulus arvensis,anagallis arvensis and cyperus rotundus . Application of all the herbicides caused significantly reduction in the weed population and dry weight over unweeded control.The parameters that significantly affected by different herbicides were weed kill percentage, size of onion bulbs (ml), onion diameter (cm) and onion yield (kg ha-1). Among the treatments T2 provided a better control than other treatments on weed coverage and density. Weed-free plots gave the highest bulb yield (367.5q/ha) and were followed by T2- (356.2q/ ha), T5 - (350q/ha), T6- (346.5q/ha), T3- (343.2 q/ha) and weedy check (187.5q/ha). Key words: weeds, onion, herbicides, bulbs, competition 428 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-72 effiCACy of ProPAQuizAfoP in Weed mAnAgement of onion (AllIum CepA L.) santosh Kumar and Kamalesh Kumar Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005 Abstract Onion (Allium cepa) is one of the most important bulb crop of country. It is a spices cultivated in almost all the countries of the world and consumed across the globe. It is grown 12.5 mha with a production of 15.8 million tonne. It is used as vegetables, salad etc. besides having its medicinal properties. India has very low productivity as compared to many other countries due to several factors. Among several factors, Weed plays an important role among different factors causing the reduction of yield of onion. Onion has very poor comparative ability with weeds due to its inherent characteristics such as short stature, non branching habit, sparse foliage, shallow root system and extremely slow growth during initial stage. In addition to this, frequent irrigation water and fertilizer application allows for successive flushes of weeds in onion. Yield loss due to weed infestation in onion has been recorded to the tune of 40 to 80% (Channapagoudar and Biradar 2007). The yield losses due to weeds infestation in onion were as high as 82.2%. However, different herbicides are recommended for use in onion. As pre-emergence, glyphosate is recommended for general weed control, oxyflourfen for broadleaved weeds, fluazifop -butyl for wild oat and propaquizafop for the post emergence control of a wide range of annual and perennial grasses. Herbicides may be applied before planting or after planting. Preplanting application of soil residual herbicides, such as, oxadiazon and trifluralin proved equally effective for weed control. Yumnam et al. (2009) conducted an experiment at West Bengal, to provide economically acceptable and eco-friendly weed control in onion. He concluded that Hand weeding at 40 days after transplanting along with application of quizalofop-ethyl 5% EC at 2.5 mL litre-1 of water at 20 days after transplanting significantly reduced weed density (25.5) and dry weight (55.3 g) of weed compared to other treatments. Propaquizafop is a systemic herbicide, which is quickly absorbed by the leaves and translocated from the foliage to the growing points of the leaves and roots of the sprayed weeds. The selectivity of propaquizafop herbicide, commonly effects as germicides on acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase), is expressed at the level of the plastid-localized ACCase(1,3,4). This difference in susceptiblility at the target site is due to the presence of two different types of ACCases in the plastids of grasses and dicots. Oroian et al. (2008) tested three herbicide molecules (quizalofop, propaquizafop and fluazifop-P @ 2.00, 1.00, 1.00 kg a.i. ha-1, respectively) against weeds infesting onion field and reported that quizalofop exhibited the greatest control efficacy at 14 and 28 days after treatment and recorded the highest yield, followed by propaquizafop and fluazifop-P. They are also reported that propaquizafop did not eradicated the Echinochloa crusgalli var. Frumentacea, Convolvulus arvensis L., and Hibiscus trionum L. The herbicide Propaquizafop 10 EC did not cause phytotoxicity and safe to onion at all doses of application up to 125 g a.i. ha-1. Based on the several studies, it can be concluded that Propaquizafop 5% EC at 43.75g ha-1 as post emergence is for weed control in Onion crop. This rate of herbicide is effective against most of the weeds observed in Onion as compared to individual constituents. Thus, for effective control of weeds and higher yield of Onion Propaquizafop 5% + Oxyfluorfen 12% EC at 43.75+105 g a.i./ha as post. Cp-73 effeCt of shoot Pruning on fruiting And QuALity in meAdoW orChArd of guAvA Cv. PAnt PrABhAt shant Lal, hariom sah and Pratibha Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture, G. B. Pant Univ. of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145, U. S. Nagar, Uttarakhand Email: shantlal.hort@gmail.com Abstract 0The present investigation was carried out during the year 2010-11 and 2011-12 at Horticulture Research Centre, Patharchatta, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, to study the effect of shoot pruning on fruiting and quality in meadow orchard of guava cv. Pant Prabhat. The experimental material consisted of two year old uniformly grafted plants of guava planted in meadow orchard. The treatment consisted of seven different combinations of 429 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” time of half shoot pruning viz. pruning in April (T1); pruning in July (T2); pruning in October (T3); pruning in April and July (T4); pruning in April and October (T5); pruning in July and October (T6); pruning in April, July and October (T7) and one control (T8). Thus, there were eight treatments replicated four times in Randomized Block Design with two plants as a treatment unit. Half shoot pruning in April (T1) gave lesser rainy season yield. On the other hand, during winter season, it gave more number of flower buds/plants in winter season. The treatment T7 (PAJO) was found superior in terms of fruit size, fruit weight, TSS, ascorbic acid and sugars content. On the basis of results, it can be concluded that cropping pattern, fruit yield and quality of guava fruits can be influenced by time of half shoot pruning. For obtaining maximum winter season yield and profit from meadow orchard of guava, half shoot pruning should be done in the last week of April. Cp-74 effeCt of WeAthering And PiCKing on seed QuALity in Cotton Axay Bhuker, o.s. dahiya, r.s. sangwan and r.C. Punia Department of Seed Science & Technology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004 (Haryana) Email : bhuker.axay@gmail.com Abstract Cotton is the most important commercial fibre crop in India. Haryana shares significant role in cotton production. Seed plays an important role in agricultural production and quality seed is the basic and most critical input for sustainable agriculture. Viable and vigorous seed acts as a catalyst for realizing the potential of other inputs. With the advancement in crop improvement to achieve food security, seed has gained significant importance in the field of agriculture. Two varieties of cotton i.e. H-1117 and HD-123 were evaluated to study the effect of weather and picking on seed quality in the research area of Cotton Section and in seed quality testing laboratories of SST, CCS HAU, Hisar during kharif 2012. In first set, three pickings were done and it was observed that seed of second picking had better performance for almost all the seed quality parameters. In second set, two pickings were made in which seed of first picking showed superiority over the second whereas in third set, only one picking was made and results showed poor performance for all the seed quality parameters. It is concluded from this study that weather and picking had the significant effect on seed quality so seed of timely sown crop and second picking was found superior in respect of all the seed quality parameters. Key words: Picking, Weather, Quality and Seed Testing Sustainable agriculture through natural resource conservation (i) Improved technologies for efficient input use Cp-75 enhAnCement of seed germinAtion By PresoWing treAtments in guAr v.s. mor, o.s. dahiya, Axay Kumar and r.C. Punia Department of Seed Science & Technology, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125 004 (Haryana) Email : virendermor@gmail.com Abstract In India, agriculture is a way of life for nearly seventy per cent of the population. Whatever may be the technology utilized to improve the crop productivity be it, can be passed onto the farmer only through seed. So seed is not only the basic input for farming, it is also the vehicle to carry the technologies developed to the end users i.e. the farmers. Thus, the seed germination percentage and seedling vigour are the two aspects that needs to be addressed to ensure the success of the seed supply system. Viable and vigorous seed act as a catalyst for realizing the potential of other inputs. Seeds stored under adverse environmental conditions loose both viability and vigour at fairly rapid rate. To ensure rapid and uniform germination, presowing seed soaking treatments have been reported to be effective in various crops. The experimental material for the present investigation comprised of 15 seed-lots of three guar varieties (HG-2-20, HG-365 and HG-563) and the research was conducted in the Department of Seed Science & Technology, CCS HAU, Hisar. After 12 months of ambient storage, all the seed-lots of above varieties were subjected to various treatments viz., T0: Untreated (control), T1: (Hydration 430 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” (4 h) and drying at room temperature, T2: Hydration with 50 ppm GA3 (4 h) and surface drying at room temperature, T3: As in T1 followed by dressing with Thiram @ 0.25%, T4: 0.5% KNO3 hydration (4 h) and drying at room temperature. Results revealed that all the treatments enhanced the seed quality (standard germination, seedling length, vigour index and electrical conductivity). Four seed-lots which could not maintain the viability above Indian Minimum Seed Certification Standards up to 12 months were improved by seed priming treatments. However, maximum enhancement/improvement was recorded by treatment T2: Hydration with 50 ppm GA3 (4 h) and surface drying at room temperature. So, it was concluded from this study that significant improvement was observed in marginal seed-lots as compare to good quality seed-lot. Key words: Viability, Accelerated Ageing, Guar, Standard germination and Tetrazolium Cp-76 evALuAtion of CroPsyst modeL for yieLd And WAter ProduCtivity of isABgoL sita ram Jat, m.L. soni, vinay nangia*, n.d. yadava and i.J. gulati** Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Bikaner, Rajasthan – 334006, * IWLMP, Jordan, ** SKRAU, Bikaner Abstract India grows a large variety of medicinal plant. The most popular being of which are isabgol, guggul, aswagandha, sarpgandha, satavri and tulsi etc. The healthiest parts of isabgol are seeds which are used in medicine with or without its husk. The seeds of isabgol contain two substances Mucilage and Albumin. Isabgol can serve as purgative. It can monitor dysentery and cure diarrhea. It can even cure stomach problems caused by amoebas and also proved beneficial on urinary problems. Water productivity, a concept expressing the value or benefit derived from the use of water, includes various aspects of water management and is very relevant for arid and semi-arid regions. It can be expressed in terms of grain (or seed) yield per amount of water used in different processes such as transpiration, evapotranspiration and percolation, and provides a proper diagnosis of where and when water could be saved. Increasing water productivity is particularly appropriate where water is scarce compared with other resources involved in production. Keeping this view, the study “Evaluation of CropSyst model for yield and water productivity of isabgol” was conducted onfarmer’s field during rabi2012-13 at Bajju in Bikaner district of Rajasthan. The soils of the area are lomay sand in nature formed under arid climate. The soils of site having 84.2, 5.5 and 7.7 % of sand, clay and silt, respectively in 0-100 cm soil depth with pH 7.8 and low soil organic matter content. Results showed that simulated yield (439 kg/ha) and above ground biomass (1046 kg/ha) of isabgol matched well to the observed yield (462 kg/ha) and above ground biomass (1085 kg/ha). The total water applied in isagbol was 353 mm out of this 211.8 mm consumed in ET. Thus, ET constituted 60% of total water applied and deep drainage constituted 33% and rest 7% stored as residual soil moisture. Cp-77 fertigAtion in vegetABLe CroPs for higher ProduCtivity And resourCe use effiCienCy indu Arora*, dhirendra singh**and dr.J.P.singh *Senior Research Fellow, Deptt. of Veg. Science, G.B.P.U.A&T, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand **Professor, Deptt. of Veg. Science, G.B.P.U.A&T, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand ***Department of Horticulture, Gochar Mahavidhyalaya, Saharanpur, Uttar Pradesh Abstract Precise management of irrigation quantity along with the rate and timing of nutrient application are of critical importance to obtain desired results in terms of productivity and nutrient use efficiency (NUE). The fertigation allows application of right amount of plant nutrients uniformly to the wetted root volume zone where most of the active roots are concentrated and this helps enhance nutrient use efficiency. Fertigation has been found as one of most successful way of water and nutrient management particularly N, K and micronutrient application through drip system and yield advantages have 431 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” been reported across the wide range of crops under diverse agro-climatic situations as it improves the productivity and quality of crop produce along with improved resource use efficiency. Vegetables have been found particularly responsive to fertigation due to their wide spacing nature, continuous need of water and nutrients at optimal rate to give high yield with good quality, high capital turn over to investments. Fertigation is considered eco-friendly as it controls leaching of nutrients especially nitrogen (N)-NO3. A review is done on the use of fertigation covering various aspects of vegetable production along with its advantages and constraints in Indian scenario. Cp-78 imProving mAize germinAtion And groWth using LoW ConCentrAtions of sorghAB nazimah maqbool1, Abdul Wahid1, muhammad farooq2 and zahid Ata Cheema2 1 Department of Botany, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 2 Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan Abstract Sorghab is extract of sorghum leaves, prepared for controlling weeds in the field in full concentration due to its allelopathic properties. Studies were initiated to determine the effectiveness of Sorghab in modulating maize germination and growth when used in low concentrations. Preliminary results suggested that use of Sorghab at 0.5% concentration was the more effective in improving seed germination under normal conditions, as was evident from increased rate and percentage of germination, seedling shoot diameter and length and number of roots per seedling. Among different concentrations use as foliar spray, 5% solution applied at knee high stage was greatly effective both drought and high temperature tolerance of maize. These findings suggested the possibility of use of Sorghab in improving stress tolerance in maize. Cp-79 induCtion of heAt toLerAnCe in mAize (zeA mAys) using AQueous eXtrACts of foLiAr PArts of moringA (moringA oLeiferA) through soiL APPLiCAtion Asima Batool1, Abida Aziz1, Abdul Wahid1 and mohammad farooq2 1 Department of Botany, University of Agriculture Faisalabad 2 Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture Faisalabad E-mail : batool_asima@yahoo.com Abstract Changing climate and increase in temperature is damaging to agricultural activities. Moringa (Moringa oleifera L.) is rich in minerals, ascorbates and phenolics, in addition to hormones like zeatin and cytokinin can be used to mitigate the effect of heat stress in maize. In this experiment, influence of aqueous extracts of moringa fresh leaves (3.3%), dry leaves (10%) and flower extract (10%) was soil applied on the plants of maize hybrids ICI-984 and SB-11 under normal and heat stress. Heat stress was imposed after the uniformity of stand establishment. Application of these extracts improved over all plant growth in both high and ambient temperature as compared to control. Maximum root fresh and dry weight was recorded with dry leaf extract application. Osmoprotectants like total free amino acids, free proline, glycine betain and soluble sugars produced under stress conditions especially under heat stress. Free proline contents were higher in shoots under high temperature, while GB increased in both shoot and root with application of fresh leaves extract. However, total free amino acids and soluble sugars contents were improved in both shoot and root as a result of dry leaf extract. In conclusion, moringa extracts has potential to cope with abiotic stresses like heat stress and may be used as a potential growth promoter for crops. 432 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-80 infLuenCe of PLAnting dAtes on groWth And fLoWering of tuBerose Prince, g.s. rana*, s.K. sehrawat and neha Department of Horticulture, CCS HAU, Hisar-125004 Email: *prince.hau@gmail.com Abstract Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa) is an important flower from the aesthetic and commercial point of view. It belongs to the family Asparagaceae and is native of Mexico. Its importance among the commercially grown flowers is due to its potential for cut flower trade, long vase life and essential oil industry. It is among the cherished cut flower for its long flower spike and table decoration when arranged in bowls. Date of planting plays an important role in regulating growth and quality of tuberose. The present study entitled “Effect of planting time and spacing on growth and flowering of Tuberose” was carried out at experimental orchard of Horticulture Department to study the effect of planting time (4th week of March, 2nd week of April, 4th week of April, 2nd week of May) and spacing (20cm x 10cm, 20cm x 20cm, 20cm x 30cm). Vegetative growth and quality of tuberose is improved by early plantings. The highest number of spikes and good quality of flower per plant were obtained from April planting. It was noted that more number of days were taken for sprouting in early planting dates but number of days gradually less in late plantings. More number of leaves was observed in later planting. Maximum length of spike and higher plant height was observed in plants, which were sown on April. It was also observed that the length of spike was less in early and late plantings. April plantation gave the best results regarding number of spike, spikes length per plant, number of florets and quality of flower. Key words: tuberose, planting dates, flower, spike. Cp-81 isoLAtion And sCreening of fungi for CeLLuLoLytiC ACtivity madhu Choudhary*1, neelam garg1 and PC sharma2 Deparment of Microbiology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-136 119, Haryana 2 Division of Crop Improvement, CSSRI, Karnal -132 001, Haryana * Email: madhunehra@rediffmail.com 1 Abstract Isolation of soil fungi from different scenario of conservation agriculture and there screening for cellulase activity. In this study soil samples were taken from soils of an experiment at CSSRI, Karnal. In this experiment there are four scenarios as Business-as-usual (T1) (Rice–wheat, Rice-puddling, Wheat-conventional till); Integrated crop and resource management (T2) (Rice–wheat–mungbean, Rice-puddling, Wheat-zero till, Mungbean-zero till); Conservation agriculture (CA)-based systems (T3) (Rice–wheat–mungbean, Rice- zero till, Wheat-zero till, Mungbean-zero till), Futuristic and diversified systems based on principles of CA (T4) (Maize–wheat–mungbean, other practices are same as treatment three except rice is replaced by maize). Random soil samples were taken from 0-15 cm soil depths. Nine samples were taken from each plot and then composite samples were made. Isolation of fungi was performed by serial dilution plate method on three types of media PDA, RBA and CDA. Fungal cultures of all scenario are screened on CMC agar plates for their cellulose degrading capacity based on the zone of the clearing around the fungi on CMC agar plates. The appearance of the clear zone around the colony is observed by staining with Gram’s Iodine. Qualitatively screened isolates were than studied for different lignocellulolytic enzyme activity by 1, 3-dinitrosalicylic (DNS) method in submerged fermentation. Some fungus shows good clear zones in CMC plates. Different fungus shows different range of enzyme activities. The decay of lignocellulosic material catalysed by enzymes from cellulolytic fungi is of great significance in our ecosystem. We isolated a number of different fungi and screened them to determine their ability to secret enzymes. 433 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-82 miLLing QuALity of direCt seeded AromAtiC riCe As infLuenCed By foLiAr APPLiCAtion of miCronutrients Jagjot singh gill1 and sohan singh Walia2 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Pulses Section, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India Email : jagjotsinghgill@yahoo.co.in. 2 Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India Email : sohanwalia72@yahoo.co.in 1 Abstract Foliar Fertilization is the most efficient way to increase yield and plant health. So, to determine the effect of foliar application of micronutrients on milling quality of direct seeded aromatic rice, a field experiment was conducted at Student’s Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana during kharif season 2010 and 2011 in randomized block design with 13 treatments involving micronutrients spray viz; control (No spray), ZnSO4 0.5%, MnSO4 0.5% and FeSO4 1.0 % at 40, 50, 60 and 70 DAS. The soil was sandy loam with normal soil reaction (pH 8.10 and 8.00) and electrical conductivity (0.36 and 0.32 dSm-1), low in organic carbon (0.28 and 0.26 %) and available N (255.02 and 238.20 kg ha-1), medium in available P (19.10 and 17.20 kg ha-1) and K (155.00 and 140.00 kg ha-1). Results indicated that statistically similar hulled/brown rice recovery, milled rice recovery and head rice recovery were obtained with foliar application of ZnSO4 0.5%, MnSO4 0.5% and FeSO4 1.0% at 40, 50, 60 and 70 DAS during both the years of study. Key words: Direct seeded aromatic rice, Foliar application, Micronutrients, Milling quality Cp-83 ProteCted vegetABLe CuLtivAtion: sCoPe And imPortAnCe in different Agro-CLimAtiC regions naval Kishor Kamboj, navjot singh Brar and Pravin Kumar sharma Department of Vegetable Science, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125004 Email: kamboj.naval@gmail.com Abstract Protected cultivation is a technique where in the microclimate in the surrounding area of plant is controlled to protect the crop from adverse weather conditions. The type and design for construction of a greenhouse will depend on the region and the climatic conditions where it ought to be built. The greenhouse structure should be planned in such a way that it should have provision for future expansion, adaptability to the local region/type of crop and locally available materials must be taken into account. In the mild climatic areas of coastal and southern regions Naturally-ventilated polyhouses are used for round the year production of vegetables. In the central and North Indian plains of the country, the greenhouse with certain modifications especially Fan and Pad or evaporative cooling systems in the summers and rainy season and heating devices in the winters, can be constructed for cultivation of high value cash crops. Net or shade houses with the ability to cut 40-60% light intensity in the summers can be constructed to grow tomato, capsicum, beans and cucumbers in the Indian plains. In the central plains, poly tunnels or plastic low tunnels can be used for production of cucumber, muskmelon and watermelon. In the higher hills, the low cost polyhouses with open ventilation are very useful as climate is mild during summer and rainy season months and crops like tomato, capsicum, cucumber and beans give maximum productivity. The polyhouses with top and side vents for ventilation and with external or internal shade have been found very effective and useful in the mid hill conditions of the country. In the north-east parts of the country simple bamboo structures with open ventilation has been very useful with the farmers to raise the vegetables and other crops for their domestic consumption. Thus, the structure becomes location specific and the design depends on the type of construction materials, control systems provided and the purpose for which it is to be used. Hence, the greenhouse should be so designed that it not only with-stands the load of prevailing wind velocity, intensity of rain, occurrence of cold frost, covering material and the cropping activity but also should admit adequate quantity and quality of sun light for crop growth and production, at the same time the structure should be maintained at very low energy for desirable micro climate. 434 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-84 QuALity of musKmeLon (CuCumIs melO L.) As infLuenCed By PLAnt sPACing And LeveLs of Pruning under greenhouse sugani devi and L. r. varma Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, (SDAU), Sardarkrushinagar- 385506 (Gujarat). Email : balodashagun.horti@gmail.com Abstract The experiment was conducted during summer season of 2011 at Naturally ventilated greenhouse, Department of Horticulture, Chimanbhai Patel College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar. The soil was loamy sand with appropriate texture, having pH value of 7.8, low in available N (149 kg/ha), medium in P (26 kg/ha) and high in K (280 kg/ha). The experiment was laid out in a completely randomized block design with factorial concept with 12 treatment combinations replicated 3 times. The treatments were sown under three plant spacing at 25 cm, 50 cm and 75 cm with 100 cm row to row spacing and four pruning treatments (without pruning, single stem pruning, double stem pruning and four stem pruning).A study was carried out to determine the quality of muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.) as influenced by plant spacing and levels of pruning under greenhouse during 201 at Sardarkurshinagar, Gujarat. The results revealed that among three plant spacing the treatment S2 (100 cm X 50 cm) was found superior over other plant spacing with regards to quality parameters like maximum length of fruit (18.49 cm), thickness of pulp of fruit (2.31 cm), minimum diameter of seed cavity (6.14 cm), highest TSS content (10.17 ˚Brix), reducing sugar (3.14 per cent), non reducing sugar (2.77 per cent) and total sugar content of fruit (5.89 per cent). Regarding effect of severity of pruning the treatment P2 (double stem pruning) was found superior in terms of quality of fruits like length of fruit (18.28 cm), TSS content (10.22˚Brix), reducing sugar (3.04 per cent), non-reducing sugar (2.65 per cent) as well as total sugar content of fruit (5.69 per cent). Cp-85 QuALity PArAmeters of BrinJAL (sOlAnum melOnGenA l) As effeCted By different sheLterBeLts Amandeep Kaur* and som Pal singh School of Climate Change and Agricultural Meteolrology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004 Abstract Brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) is an important and indigenous vegetable crop of India and other parts of the world. It contributes 9 percent of the total vegetable production of the country. It is due to improvement in production technology, plant protection measures and the genetic improvement which has shown significant advancement in yield, quality, diseases and insect-pest resistance has been increased.The field experiment was carried out at the Research Farm of School of Climate Change and Agricultural Meteorology, PAU, Ludhiana during the Rabi season 2008-09. The treatments consisted of four types of different shelterbelts (White polythene, Black polythene, sarkanda and Control) replicated three times and subjected to analysis of variance in Split Plot Design. Three randomly selected plants samples from each treatment were separated into leaf, stem and fruits and oven dried at 70oC for 72 hrs and average weight was taken as dry matter. The anthocyanin was more (745.24) in the crop sheltered by white polythene followed by black polythene (744.8) and sarkanda (744.21). Among the different types of shelterbelts, the white polythene had higher mineral content (7.33ug/g) followed by black polythene (6.56ug/g) and by sarkanda (6.33ug/g) as compared to control (6.33ug/g). The quality parameters i.e. anthocyanin and mineral content were found in the higher proportion in the crop transplanted on11thNov. under white polythene shelter belts kept at 4m row width. Key Words: Brinjal, Shelterbelts, Quality parameters 435 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-86 resPonse of Weed mAnAgement PrACtiCes on yieLd of urdBeAn {VIGnA munGO L. hePPer}under AgroCLimAtiC zone iii A (semi-Arid eAstern PLAin zone) of rAJAsthAn. rakesh choudhary and Prahlad Jakhar* Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, CCS HAU, Hisar-125004 *Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner, Rajasthan 334006 E-mail : rakeshnitharwal9@gmail.com Abstract Experiments were conducted during kharif, 2011 in loamy sand soil, to study the effect of different weed management methods on yield and economically of urdbean (treatments comprising weedy check, weed free, one HW at 20 DAS, two HW at 20 and 40 DAS, trifluralin at 0.75 kg/ha, alachlor at 1.5 kg/ha, imazethapyr at 0.10 kg/ha, trifluralin at 0.75 kg/ha + HW at 30 DAS, alachlor at 1.5 kg/ha + HW at 30 DAS and imazethapyr at 0.10 kg/ha + HW at 30 DAS on urdbean) . Results showed that Weed control using imazethapyr at 0.10 kg/ha + HW at 30 DAS was noted to be the most effective treatment that was very closely accompanied by HW twice, application of alachlor and trifluralin at the specified rates, independently + HW at 30 DAS. The application pre emergence application of imazethapyr at 0.10 kg/ha + HW at 30 DAS was found the most effective treatment with regard of grain yield (1403 kg/ha), net returns (Rs 34815/ha) and B:C ratio (2.09). Two hand weedings done at 20 and 40 DAS also produced grain yield of 1392 kg/ha with net returns of Rs 33469 / ha and thus proved equally effective and remunerative weed management treatment in urdbean. Cp-87 seCondAry metABoLites ProfiLe of fieLd groWn LemongrAss (CymBOpOGOn CItrAtus) to seAsonAL ChAnges. A. Aziz*, A.Wahid and s.A.m.Basra *amberuaf2010@gmai.com Abstract A population of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) was investigated in this research for changes in metabolite profiles in the leaves of different ages i.e. penultimate (second fully expanded leaf from the top), middle (a leaf from the central position of a tiller) and bottom (a lowermost green leaf on a tiller) with changing seasons round the year for two consecutive years (2010-2011). Measurements were made for secondary metabolites. The secondary metabolites i.e. alkaloid, phenolic and flavonoid contents in lemongrass leaves were markedly increased with increasing temperature. Contrarily, the anthocyanins synthesis took place only in the winter season, severely declined in the summer months. Possible reasons for the changes in metabolites levels were paralleled with the meteorological conditions. Therefore, lemongrass should not be ignored when planted it with other crops due to its high profile of secondary metabolites. Key word: Alkaloid, flavonoiid, temperature, meteorological conditions. 436 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-88 stAndArdizAtion of groWing suBstrAtes And nPK doses for groWth And fLoWering of ALstroemeriA (AlstrOemerIA HyBrIDA L.) JuJhAr singh1, B.s. diLtA2 1Department of Agriculture Baba Farid group of Collages , Deon, Bathinda 1Department of Floriculture and Landscaping Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan- 173230, Himachal Pradesh E-mail : jujhar220@yahoo.com Abstract Investigations were carried out during 2010 to standardize growing substrates and NPK doses for growth and flowering of alstroemeria.in this experiment different growing substrates and NPK doses combinations were tested. A field experiment was laid under poly house conditions in split plot design, consisting of four growing substrates viz, sand: soil: FYM (1:1:1, v/v), rhododendron forest soil (Rhododendron arboreum L.), rai forest soil (Picea smithiana L.) and five NPK doses viz, basal dose of 30: 15: 30 g/m2 , once a week fertigation with 100: 50: 100 ppm, twice a week fertigation with 100: 50: 100ppm, once a week fertigation with 150: 100: 150 ppm, twice a week fertigation with 150: 100: 150 ppm. Growing substrate consisting of rhododendron forest soil was found to be best growing substrate for vegetative and flowering parameters like stem length, stem thickness, early flowering, number of flowers per cyme, vase life and cut stems per plant. Whereas twice a week fertigation with 150: 100: 150 ppm NPK found best dose for stem length, stem thickness, early flowering, number of flowers per stem, vase life and cut stems per plant. Cp-89 studies on vArying LeveLs of nitrogen, on fenugreeK [trIGOnellAFOenum-GrAeCum L.] under north guJArAt Conditions P.meena1, B.s Patel2, r.Anwala3, v.Bhunwal4, K. m. Choudhary5 and soma devi 5 Department of Agronomy, Chimanbhai Patel College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar - 385 506 Abstract A field experiment was conducted to study the effect of varying levels of on fenugreek (Trigonellafoenum-graecum L.) under North Gujarat conditions on loamy sand soil of Agronomy Instructional Farm, C.P. College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada, Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar during rabi, 2012-13. Eighteen treatment combinations consisting of two levels of nitrogen viz., 20 and 40 kg N ha-1, three levels of phosphorus viz., 0, 20 and 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 and three levels of sulphur viz., 0, 20 and 40 kg S ha-1 were tried in randomized block design with factorial concept in three replications. Application of nitrogen did not increase significantly the plant height at 30, 60, 90 and at maturity. Application of 20 kg N ha-1 significantly increase number of branches per plant, straw yield kg ha-1 and seed yield kg ha-1 over 40 kg N ha-1. In the present study, the application of phosphorus and sulphur increased significantly at all the growth parameter in fenugreek viz. number of branches per plant up to 40 kg P2O5 ha-1 and 40 kg S ha-1. Crop productivity estimates seed and straw yield kg ha-1 increased significantly with increased rate of 40 kg S ha- phosphorus and sulphur as compared to 0 kg ha-1. 437 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-90 study of dAte of soWing And Cutting intervALs on groWth AttriBute And yieLd of LuCerne [meDICAGO sAtIVA L.] under north guJArAt AgroCLimAtiC Conditions Amit Kumar A. g. Patel and K. m. Choudharuy Centre for Agroforestry, Forage Crops and Green Belt, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar-385 506 Abstract An experiment was carried out at the Agronomy Instructional Farm, C. P. College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar during rabi season of 2011-12 to find out the optimum date of sowing and cutting interval for lucerne crop under north Gujarat agroclimatic conditions. The results of growth parameters indicated that significantly higher plant height was recorded by 10th November sowing and 30 days cutting interval after common cut in the mean values of all cuts. Similarly, the mean number of leaves per plant and mean leaf area per plant was significantly higher by sowing the crop on 10th November and 30 days cutting interval after common cut and it was followed by 20th November sowing and 30 days cutting interval. Whereas, significantly higher mean leaf: stem ratio was noted by 11th October sowing and 15 days cutting interval in the mean values of all cuts. Livestock industry is the traditional and one of the important sources of livelihood of farmers in India. It improves income, employment and thereby acting as a potential tool in alleviating rural poverty especially in arid and semi arid regions of India where the crop farming has limited possibility. India possesses huge livestock population which is about 15 percent of world livestock and having a 17 percent of human population to be sustained on approximately two percent of total geographical areas of the world. The available land is being used for arable farming and food production. This has put themselves pressure on the availability of feed and fodder. In India, only 4.4 percent of the cultivated area is under fodder crops with annual total forage production of 846 million tonnes. Whereas, the annual green forage requirement is 1061 million tonnes and dry fodder are 589 million tonnes, which contributes 62.8 percent and 23.5 percent deficit of forage production, respectively. In Gujarat, the total area under forage crops is about 7.96 thousand hectare. Looking to the scenario from 1995 to 2010, forage production deficit increasing day by day, so that it is very important to improve the production potential of forage crops. Among the different forage crops, lucerne or alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is widely cultivated popular forage crop and known as the queen of fodder crops. Lucerne crop can be grown as annually or as a perennial crop. Many times it is grown for green forage yield only or green forage and seed yield. It contains five times as much more protein as sorghum fodder (Das and Khurana, 1964). Lucerne grows well in loamy sand to clayey textured soils. But, it is very sensitive to water logging and acidic soil reaction. Cp-91 study on Age of seedLings And dAtes of trAnsPLAnting on groWth, yieLd And QuALity of onion (AllIum CepA L.) in mid-rABI B. r. Kumbhkar, n. m. Patel, B.L. yadav, Jitendra singh, K.g. vyas, P.K. Bhatt, B. saini and B. Kumar Department of Horticulture, C.P. College of Agriculture, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar-385 506 (Gujarat) Abstract A field experiment was conducted at Horticulture Instructional Farm, Sardarkrushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar (Gujarat) during the year 2010-2011. The experiment was conducted on “Study on age of seedlings and dates of transplanting on growth, yield and quality of onion (Allium cepa L.) in mid-rabi”. Nine treatments comprising of three age of seedlings viz., 6 weeks, 7 weeks and 8 weeks and three dates of transplanting viz., 1st September, 15th September, & 30th September were tested in Factorial Randomized Block Design with four replications. The results 438 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” revealed that growth and yield attributes Viz., The plant height at 45, 75 and 90 DATP, number of leaves per plant at 45, 75 and 90 DATP, neck thickness at harvesting time, bolting percent, diameter of bulb, number of doubled bulb per plot, total yield per plot, marketable yield per plot and Total Soluble Solids were significantly higher with transplanting of 8 weeks seedling i.e. S3. The minimum days required for maturity was recorded with transplanting of 8 weeks seedling. The 8 weeks seedling recorded maximum net return Rs 172013.5 ha-1 and BCR 3.76. The plant height at 45, 75 and 90 DATP and number of leaves per plant at 45, 75 and 90 DATP were significantly higher with transplanting of seedling on 15th September i.e. (D2.) The neck thickness at harvesting time, bolting percent, diameter of bulb, number of doubled bulb per plot, total yield per plot and Total Soluble Solids were significantly higher with transplanting of seedling on 1st September i.e. (D1). The maximum marketable yield was significantly with transplanting of seedling on 30th September i.e. (D3). Significantly maximum weight of double bulb was recorded with treatment combination 6 weeks of seedling with transplanting of seedling on 30th September (D3). The transplanting date 30th September (D3) proved maximum net realization of ` 179978.5 ha-1 and highest BCR (3.93). The treatment combination of transplanting of 8 weeks seedling on 30th September i.e. (S3D3), resulted in the maximum net realization of ` 194821 and highest BCR (4.26). Cp-92 temPerAture dePendenCe of CArBon minerALizAtion from ACtive, sLoW And PAssive PooLs of soiL orgAniC mAtter Arpandeep Kaur Email: *boparai_arpan@yahoo.co.in Abstract The investigation was conducted to study the effect of temperature on C mineralization from active, slow and passive pools of soil organic matter (SOM) in comparison to bulk soil. Laboratory incubation experiments were conducted at 15, 25, 35 and 450C temperature and field capacity moisture to study C mineralization from three isolated SOM fractions viz. >250 µm, 53-250 µm and <53 µm that respectively represent active, slow and passive pools of SOM. During 54 days of incubation at different temperatures, the highest amount of C (1196-13104 mg C kg-1) was mineralized from >250 µm SOM fraction, followed by 53-250 µm fraction (305-1955 mg C kg-1) and the lowest from <53 µm fraction (258-1263 mg C kg-1). The amount of C mineralized from bulk soil ranged between 249 and 1047 mg C kg-1 at different temperatures. For a given SOM fraction and bulk soil C mineralization rate was highest at 450C and lowest at 150C. The C mineralization rates (mg C kg-1 d-1) at different temperatures ranged between 72 and 375 for >250 µm fraction, 26-149 for 53-250 µm fraction, 9-105 for <53 µm fraction and 7-91 for bulk soil. Of the total organic C, 66 percent of C was mineralized in >250 µm fraction, 60 percent of C in 53-250 µm fraction, 10 percent of C <53 µm fraction and 14 percent from bulk soil. First order single compartment kinetic model provided good fit to all the data sets and yielded high coefficient of determination (R2=0.864 to 0.999). Different SOM fractions differed significantly with respect to temperature sensitivity of decomposition. The Q10 values for decomposition of different SOM fractions ranged between 1.8 - 2.0 for >250 µm fraction, 1.6-1.8 for 53-250 µm fraction and 1.4-1.6 for <53 µm fraction. Bulk soil showed temperature sensitivity similar to <53 µm fraction with Q10 values ranging between 1.4 and 1.5 for different treatments. The higher Q10 values for SOM fraction >250 µm suggested that decomposition of labile fraction was affected to a greater extent by increase in temperature as compared to other stable fractions. Since the labile pool of SOM (>250 μm fraction) constituted only about 4-5 percent of the bulk soil organic matter, the results suggest that the effect of global warming on soil organic C content will probably be small. 439 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-93 the effeCt of groWth reguLAtors on vegetAtive ProPAgAtion of drACAenA rajvir Kaur and hP s garwal Department of Agriculture, Govt. Brijindra College, Faridkot Abstract In Dracaena experiments were conducted for (1) Multiple shoot production in Dracaena fragrans var. Lendeni, D. marginata ‘Tricolor’ and D. deremensis ‘Janet Craig’; and (2) for rooting of nodal cuttings in D. sanderiana virescens and D. deremensis ‘Janet Craig’ by using growth regulator treatments. Shingle spray of BA 250 ppm showed maximum mean emergence of shoot buds (15.00) and D. marginata ‘Tricolor’ showed the best response (15.37) for shoot bud emergance amongst in three Dracaena varieties. Double spray of BA 250 ppm esulted in highest mean length of shoot buds (8.42) and best response (6.74) was observed in D deremensis ‘Janet Craig’. Single spray of BA 250 ppm showed maximum mean increase in plant height (6.24 cm) 12 weeks after the spray. Treatment of nodal cuttings with IBA and NAA have been found useful for rooting of nodal cutting. IBA 250 ppm treatment took minimum mean number of days (51.33) for initiation of new shoots and showed maximum mean number of roots (3.580. NAA 250 ppm treatment showed maximum mean per cent appearance of shoots (53.65), shoot length (3.18), number of leaves (8.12), length of roots (7.80), per cent estalibhsment of plants (51.61) and minimum mean mortality percentage (38.33) averaged over duration of growth regulator treatments and varieties. Six hour duration treatment of nodal cuttings showed maximum mean percent appearance of shoots (42.17), shoot length (2.92 cm), number of leaves (5.58), number of roots (2.67), length of roots (6.60cm), percent establishment of plants (39.89) and minimum mean mortality percentage (50.22) averaged over growth regulator treatments and varieties. D. sanderiana virescens took minimum mean number of days (51.33) for initiation of new shoots. D. deremensis ‘Janet Craig’ showed maximum mean per cent appearance of shoot (38.67), number of leaves (4.84), number of roots (2.58), per cent establishment of plants (35.10) and minimum mean mortality percentage (50.20) averaged over growth regulator treatments and duration of growth regulator treatments. Cp-94 to study the seed germinAtion And groWth PerformAnCe of different CuLtivArs of LitChi (lItCHI CHInensIs). sukhjit Kaur* Punjab Agricultural University,Regional Research Station Gurdaspur(Punjab),India-143521 E-mail : sukhi.rose@gmail.com Abstract The present study was conducted on the seed germination and the growth performance of different cultivars of litchi was conducted at PAU, Regional Research Station, Gurdaspur during the years 2011-12.The freshly extacted seeds from the different cultivars of litchi viz. Dehradun, Calcuttia and Seedless late were sown under open field conditions by following normal cultural practices. It was observed that the maximum seed germination with greater plant vigour were observed in cultivar Calcuttia. 440 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-95 toLerAnCe of Cotton vArieties to sALine irrigAtion through driP And fLood system B.L. Kumawat, A.K. singh, n.s. yadava and i.J. gulati Agricultural Research Station, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner- 334006 India Email: blkskn54@gmail.com Abstract A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2010 to evaluate the effect of saline irrigation, salinization pattern and critical level of ECiw on yield of cotton in sandy soil of western Rajasthan. The treatments consisted of two methods of irrigation (Drip and Flood), three levels of ECiw (BAW i.e. best available water from canal having ECiw 0.25, 3 and 6 dSm-1 and four cotton varieties ( F-846, RST-9, RG-8 and Bt Cotton) were laid out in factorial randomized block design with three replication. Results indicated that highest plant height, number of bolls per plant, boll size and seed cotton yield was obtained under drip irrigation having ECiw upto 3 dSm-1 with a significant decrease in yield attributes and yield at ECiw 6 dSm-1 . Drip method of irrigation was found superior in producing 16 per cent higher yield over flood irrigation. Among different varieties Bt cotton produced maximum yield both under drip and flood irrigation methods. Interaction effect between methods of irrigation and saline irrigation on seed cotton yield was found significant. The minimum seed cotton yield was obtained at ECiw 6 dSm-1 in flood method of irrigation. Seed cotton yield decrease significantly at ECiw 6 dSm-1 in both the methods of irrigation. Interactive effect between methods of irrigation and different varieties showed that Bt cotton produced significantly higher yield in both the methods of irrigation. Cotton variety RST-9 gave significantly higher yield than RG-8 in drip method of irrigation while F-846 produced minimum seed cotton yield in flood method of irrigation. The resulting ECe of soil at harvest of cotton was affected by levels of saline irrigation in 0-45 cm depth of soil profile at 0, 15 and 30 cm lateral distances from the emitters under drip system. The maximum soil salinity was observed at 30 cm distance from emitters with ECiw 6 dSm-1 whereas the minimum just below the emitters under BAW i.e. canal water (0.25 dSm-1). Zone of minimum salt concentration existed below the emitter. The trend clearly indicates that the salt concentration in soil profile increased with an increase in lateral as well as vertical distances from the emitters. It can be inferred that the salts are leached away from the active root zone of the plant providing better growth conditions for development. Cp-96 imPACt of AntioXidAnts to mitigAte Adverse effeCts of sALine irrigAtion through sPrinKLer for mAXimizing WheAt yieLd s.m. Kumawat, B.L. Kumawat and A.K. singh Agricultural Research Station, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner- 334006 India Email: blkskn54@gmail.com Abstract The primary effect of excess salinity is to render water less available to plants through adverse osmotic effects on the soil solution. In addition, excessive salt concentration and absorption of individual ions may prove toxic effects to plants and/or may refund absorption of other essential plant nutrients. Besides, plants exhibit a variety of biochemical and physiological responses to acclimatize saline environment. Of these salts induced changes, accumulation of compatible solutes, certain free radical scavenging compounds and enzymes as well as specific proteins that control ion and water homeostasis. Keeping these facts a field experiment was conducted during rabi 2010-11 to evaluate the effect of saline irrigation with antioxidants to mitigate adverse effects of saline water and critical level of ECiw under sprinkler irrigation on yield of wheat in sandy soil of western Rajasthan. The treatments consisted of four levels of ECiw (BAW i.e. best available water from canal having ECiw 0.25, 4, 8 and 12 dSm-1 and five sprays of antioxidants (Control, KNO3 at 5000 ppm, Thio 441 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Urea at 500 ppm, Kinetin at 10 ppm and Ethaphon at 50 ppm concentration at 30 and 45 DAS) were laid out in factorial randomized block design with three replications. Results indicated that increasing levels of irrigation water salinity up to 8 dSm -1 could not influenced the grain yield of wheat significantly. Application of ECiw 12 dSm -1 resulted lowest grain yield significantly over BAW, 4 and 8 dSm -1, respectively. Straw yield of wheat was not affected significantly with levels of irrigation water salinity. Application of different antioxidant sprays increased the grain yield of wheat significantly over control. Maximum grain yield of wheat was obtained under application of KNO3 spray at 5000 ppm which was being at par with ethaphon spray at 50 ppm and significantly higher over control, thio urea spray at 500 ppm and kinetin spray at 10 ppm, respectively. Straw yield was not affected significantly due to application of different antioxidants. Application of irrigation water salinity and antioxidants could not influence significantly harvest index as well as test weight of wheat. It may be concluded that wheat yield in sandy soil can be substantially maximized by using ECiw 8 dSm-1 and application of KNO3 spray at 5000 ppm. Cp-97 uses of ornAmentALs in LAndsCAPe ArChiteCture B. s. dilta*, Jagreeti gupta, B. P. sharma and narender negi Department of Floriculture & Landscaping, Dr Y. S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan-173230 Email: *balbirsinghdilta@gmail.com Abstract Landscaping is the segment of ornamental horticulture that focuses on beautification of outdoor terrain and to some extent, interior setting. Landscaping involves: softcape and hardscape. Softscape include: planting of trees, shrubs, climbers, bulbous plants, pot plants, grasses, cacti and succulents, whereas hardscape include: patio, benches, steps, water feature, garden path and garden drive. Landscape architecture is the blend of science and art relating to the systematic planning of land areas, the design of outdoor places and spaces, the conservation of our natural resources and the creation of more useful, safe and pleasing living environment. Major design areas are: public area, outdoor living area, service area and private area. To make a successful design we have to follow certain principles like: unity, rhythm, balance, emphasis, scale, accent and harmony and elements like: line, form, texture, colour, light and space. Trees can be used for landscape purposes like: specimen plant, shade tree, flowering tree, ornamental fruit tree, avenue tree, screening, wind break and checking air pollution. Shrubs can also be used for landscape purposes like: specimen plant, shrubbery border, avenue planting, hedge, edge, rockeries, pots, moonlit gardening and ornamental fruits. Climbers can be used for screening walls, ground covers, pergolas, avenue planting and to cover patio. Annuals can be used for specimen plant, fragrant flowers, hanging baskets, screening, bedding, edging, rockery, herbaceous border, for shady areas and as dry flowers. Caladium 75-14, a spotted, fancy-leaved cultivar is better suited for sunny landscapes. Cp-98 Assessing irrigAtion system PerformAnCe in indirA gAndhi nAhAr PAriyoJAnA stAge-i Amit Kumawat, ramesh Kumar, r s yadav1, v s rathore and n d yadav CAZRI, Regional Research Station, Bikaner, Rajasthan-334001, 1 Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner Email : amit.skn@rediffmail.com, Abstract An experiment entitled “Assessing irrigation system performance in Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana Stage-I” was carried out at village Menawali, (74o 20’34”E to 074o 20’60” E longitude and 28o 37’62” N to 29o 21’39” N latitude), Hanumangarh, Rajasthan, India during kharif and rabi season of 2012-13 to assess productivity, economics, N–uptake, water use of different crops and calibrate the CropSyst model. An area of 187 ha comprising 25 farmers irrigated by common irrigation channels were selected to collect the information. The information required for calibrating the CropSyst model i.e. soil, 442 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” crop management, growth, phonological, yields, water balance, N – uptake and water use efficiency of each crops were collected from 15 farmers. Bt – cotton and clusterbean of kharif and wheat and Indian mustard in rabi were prominent crops; cotton – wheat, cotton – mustard, clusterbean –wheat and clusterbean – mustard were major cropping sequences of the study region. In kharif season, Bt-cotton gave higher economic yields than clusterbean and amongst rabi season crops, economic yields of wheat and mustard were 4255, 1778 kg /ha, respectively. The economic yield of cropping sequences varied from 3741–6514 kg/ha, and were higher for cotton wheat (6218 kg/ha), intermediate for clusterbean – wheat (5785 kg /ha) and lower for cotton–mustard (3741 kg/ha) and clusterbean–mustard (3308 kg/ha). The cotton-wheat (1181.2 mm) sequence had highest water use. Clusterbean-wheat cropping system recorded highest water productivity (16.5 kg/ha mm) followed by clusterbean-mustard (14.9 kg/ha mm). The clusterbean- mustard ( 456/ha mm) cropping sequence was most profitable and fetched highest net return followed by clusterbean-wheat ( 383/ha mm). The simulated GAI, economic yield, above ground biomass and N-uptake by calibrated CropSyst model were closer to the observed values of cotton and clusterbean during kharif season and in wheat, mustard, barley and chickpea during rabi season. The enhanced version of 4.15.24 of CropSyst crop model can be applied to predict the LAI, yield and water balance of cotton, clusterbean in kharif and wheat, mustard, barley and chickpea in the western plain zone of Rajasthan, India. Cp-99 CAuse, PAttern And ConseQuenCe of understorey herBACeous vegetAtion At A foothiLL forest in indiAn eAstern himALAyA 1 gopal shukla, 2navin Pradhan and 1sumit Chakravarty 1 Department of Forestry, Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari-736165 (Cooch Behar) West Bengal, India 2 Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005, Uttar Pradesh, India Email : pradhanavin@gmail.com) Abstract Herbaceous flora is dynamic layer in a forest stratum that protects the soil and water regimes and improves productivity and soil fertility. Thus a study was conducted at Chilapatta Reserve Forest, West Bengal India to document the status of herb diversity, biomass and carbon accumulation. Stratified random nested quadrate sampling was adopted for analyzing the qualitative and quantitative characters. Forty nine herb species were recorded, of which seven are yet to be identified. Identified species were of 21 families and 36 genera. The herb diversity index, concentration of dominance, Shannon and Wiener index and evenness index estimated was 0.62, 0.028, 4.46 and 2.27, respectively. Highest and lowest frequency recorded were 49.12 and 1.75 while relative frequency varied from 0.09 to 1.87. Herb density ranged from 2 to 11193 individuals ha-1 and relative density ranged from 0.05 to 1.76 %. Most of the species were widely distributed and its abundance ranged from 0.80 to 12.76 while relative abundance ranged from 0.16 to 1.73 %. IVI values ranged from 0.47 to 5.27. The above ground portion of herbs accumulated the major portion of biomass and carbon. 443 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-100 ComPArAtive PerformAnCe of horse grAm (mACrotyLomA unIFlOrum L.) genotyPes under orgAniC And ChemiCAL inPut Conditions neelam Bhardwaj, tanu saroch and J.P. saini department of Organic Agriculture, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya email : neenabhardwaj@gmail.com Abstract Organic farming is being recognised as a growing economic activity, and one that meets many of society’s current demands on agriculture. However, as this method of farming is expanding, plant breeding is becoming a major bottleneck. The different requirements for varietal characteristics clearly highlight the importance of breeding and selecting varieties suitable for organic farming. In several circumstances varieties that perform well in organic systems have different yield ranking than those that do well under conventional management. In the developing countries like India, where organic movement is at the initial stage of development, varieties that are specifically bred for organic and low-input systems are almost nil whereas in developed countries, it is estimated that more than 95% of organic agriculture is based on crop varieties that were bred for the conventional high-input sector with selection in conventional breeding programmes. It is found that such varieties lack important traits required under organic and low-input production condition. This is primarily due to selection in conventional breeding programmes being carried out in the background of high inorganic fertilizer and crop protection inputs. Hence, in the present study an effort has been made to compare performance of different genotypes of horsegram for yield and related traits under organic and high input non-organic conditions and to find out suitable organic input responsive genotype for organic agriculture The material for this study comprised seven genotypes of horesegram raised in Randomized Complete Block design under two environments i.e. organic input conditions and non-organic input conditions in the Department of Organic Agriculture, CSKHPKV, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh. Each genotype was raised in a four rowed plot of 3.0 m length with 30 cm spacing between rows. For the sowing of material under organic input conditions vermicompost was applied @5t/ha in a single dose at the time of sowing. For non-organic sowing N: P @15:45 Kg/ha at the time of sowing was used. Mean values for all the traits under study were low under non- organic sowing in comparison to the organic sowing. Among seven genotypes evaluated, VLG-1 exhibited highest yield in both the years followed by Himganga and HPKO-1 when sown under organic input conditions. On the other hand under non-organic input conditions, HPK-4 was the significantly highest yielder among all the genotypes in both the years followed by DHG-3 and DHG-2. Based upon the two years data it was found that ranking of varieties for most of the traits under study was different for organic in comparison to non-organic organic input conditions indicating towards a separate breeding programme for developing organic input responsive varieties. 444 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-101 imProving the ProduCtivity And grAin BiofortifiCAtion of riCe And WheAt By zinC And Boron APPLiCAtion through seed invigorAtion teChniQues Abdul rehman 1, * and muhammad farooq1, 2, 3 Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan 2 The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia 3 College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. E-mail: abdurehmanuaf@gmail.com 1 Abstract Micronutrient deficiency is major health issue in the developing world. Pakistani soils are highly deficient in zinc (Zn) and boron (B) and these are the major micronutrient disorder in wheat and rice resulting in severe losses in yield and nutritional quality. Moreover, there is need to screen wheat and rice genotypes for higher uptake of Zn and B and their portioning in grains which will help in reducing malnutrition. Due to uneven distribution, repeated spraying and amount of nutrient required soil and foliar application of nutrients is difficult to practice by resource poor farmers. Micronutrient delivery through seed treatment is an attractive alternative as very little amount is needed in seed treatment and also the nutrients are available in the vicinity of emerging seedlings. However, there is need to optimize concentration of these nutrients through seed priming and seed coating as very narrow margin between the deficiency and toxicity of these nutrients exist. To optimize Zn and B application through seed treatment and screening of wheat and rice genotypes for Zn and B uptake and their grain partitioning a series of experiments were conducted. Micronutrient application (Zn, B) through seed treatment i.e. seed priming and seed coating improved seedling establishment, crop yield, and helped in improving Zn and B contents in grains of rice and wheat. There was a great variation among Zn and B portioning in the grains of rice and wheat genotypes. Wheat and rice cultivars better able for Zn and B acquisition and their partitioning in grains may be used for future breeding programs. Zinc and B application through seed treatment is cost effective and efficient method for correcting Zn and B deficiency and fortification of these nutrients in the grains. Cp-102 soiL heALth, resourCe use effiCienCy And system ProduCtivity in ConventionAL And ConservAtion riCe-WheAt CroPPing systems Ahmad nawaz1, * and muhammad farooq1, 2, 3 Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan 2 The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia 3 College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. E-mail: ahmadnawaz2006@gmail.com 1 Abstract Looming water, labor, energy and environmental issues are threating the productivity of conventional rice wheat production systems. Conservation rice-wheat systems offer a pragmatic option to address all these issues. A series of experiments was conducted to compare the conventional and conservation rice-wheat cropping system for soil health, resource use efficiency and system productivity. The first experiment was conducted to evaluate the role of seed priming in improving the stand establishment and productivity of wheat in conservation and conventional rice based cropping systems. Seed priming not only improved the stand establishment but also the productivity of wheat in conventional and conservation wheat production systems. Wheat yields were higher after direct rice in primed seeds than transplanted rice. In second experiment, brown manuring and residue management were evaluated in conventional and conservation rice-wheat 445 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” cropping system. Soil health was better after conservation systems as indicated by low values of soil bulk density than the conventional rice systems. Yields of rice in conservation and conventional rice systems were same but resource use efficiency was higher in conservation rice systems. Brown manuring with sesbania not only helped to control weeds in direct seeded rice but it also improved post rice wheat yield, which was similar to the wheat yield when it was sown after transplanted rice through conventional tilled method. System productivity was higher in direct seeded rice + Sesbania manuring followed by zero tillage wheat. In third experiment, the direct seeded rice and transplanted rice were evaluated at farmer’s fields in two location viz. Nankana Sahib and Sheikhupura for resource use efficiency and system productivity. The yield of direct seeded rice and transplanted rice were the same at both sites but resource use efficiency was better in direct seeded rice. Thus resource conservation promotion technologies must be promoted in rice-wheat belt to save water, labor and fuel resources. Cp-103 effeCt of different estABLishment methods And nitrogen LeveLs on orgAniC CArBon AvAiLBiLty in soiL 1 Jagjot singh gill3 and sohan singh Walia4 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Pulses Section, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India E-mail jagjotsinghgill@yahoo.co.in. 2 Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004, India E-mail : sohanwalia72@yahoo.co.in Abstract Soil organic carbon is important for the function of ecosystems and agro-ecosystems having a major influence on the physical structure of the soil, the soil’s ability to store water (water holding capacity), and the soil’s ability to form complexes with metal ions and supply nutrients. To assess the effect of different establishment methods and nitrogen levels on organic cabon built up in soil, a field experiment was conducted at Student’s Research Farm, Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana during kharif season 2010 and 2011 with 6 establishment methods in horizontal plots viz; direct seeded aromatic rice, direct seeded aromatic rice with brown manuring, machine transplanting in zero-tillage (ZT) with brown manuring, machine transplanting in zero-tillage (ZT) without brown manuring, machine transplanting after puddling and conventional practice in horizontal plots and 4 nitrogen levels viz; control, 75% of recommended dose of nitrogen, 100% of recommended dose of nitrogen and 125% of recommended dose of nitrogen in vertical plots in strip plot design. The soil was sandy loam with normal soil reaction (pH 8.10 and 8.00) and electrical conductivity (0.36 and 0.32 dSm-1), low in organic carbon (0.28 and 0.26 %) and available N (255.02 and 238.20 kg ha-1), medium in available P (19.10 and 17.20 kg ha-1) and K (155.00 and 140.00 kg ha-1). Results indicated that maximum organic carbon build up in soil after harvesting of aromatic rice was obtained with treatments in which Sesbania grown as brown manuring crop. Direct seeded aromatic rice with brown manuring and machine transplanted rice in zero tilled plots with brown manuring recorded maximum organic carbon build up (0.35 and 0.36%) in soil. However, the effect of different establishment methods and nitrogen levels on organic carbon built up in soil was non significant. Key words: Aromatic rice, Establishment methods, Nitrogen levels, Organic carbon. 446 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-104 strAtegies for WAter-Wise riCe ProduCtion muhammad farooq Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan, The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia. E-mail: farooqcp@gmail.com Abstract Rice is lifeline for the peoples of Asia; for them, life without rice is unthinkable. However, food security in the world is challenged by increasing food demand and threatened by declining water availability owing to changing climate. Developing the strategies for producing rice in changing climate is imperative to ensure food security for the future generations. Aerobic rice culture is an attractive alternative in this regard, which can drastically cut down the unproductive water outflows and increase water-use efficiency. This shift will produce profound changes in water conservation, soil organic matter turnover, nutrient dynamics, carbon impounding, weed flora, and greenhouse gas emissions. Although some of these changes can be positive, for example, water conservation and decreased methane emission, others might be negative, for example, release of nitrous oxide from the soil and decline in soil organic matter. The challenge will be to develop effective integrated natural–resource–management interventions, which would allow profitable rice cultivation with increased soil aeration, while maintaining the productivity, environmental safety, and sustainability of rice-based ecosystems. In my talk, I shall discuss the integrated approaches like genetics, breeding, and resource management to increase rice yield and to reduce water demand for rice production. Cp-105 isoLAtion And ChArACterizAtion of Co2 And temPerAture toLerAnt BACteriA from WheAt rhizosPheriC soiL Jupinder Kaur*, s.K. gosal and Prabhjyot-Kaur1 Department of Microbiology and School of Climate Change and Agricultural Meteorology1, PAU, Ludhiana-141 004, India *E-mail: jupindercheema13@gmail.com Abstract Climate change factors such as rising atmospheric CO2 and warming interact to modify ecosystem properties and processes. However, the response of the microbial communities that regulate ecosystem processes is less predictable. Although effects of elevated CO2 and temperature on plant growth and primary productivity have been established but their impact on functions of soil microbial communities are poorly understood. In the present study, a total of 21 different nitrogen fixing bacteria were isolated. Out of 21 isolates, 8 isolates were able to grow upto 20% concentration of CO2 and 7 isolates showed growth upto 60°C temperature. Tolerance to high CO2 and high temperature was observed to be more in the bacteria isolated from wheat grown under temperature gradient tunnel. The bacterial isolates were characterized biochemically and the isolates were found to be belonging to the genera of Pseudomonas, Azotobacter and Bacillus. The isolates were characterized for IAA production, siderophore production, P-solubilization and ammonia excretion. The isolate WT5 had highest IAA production. Five and six isolates were found to show siderophore production and P-solubilization, respectively. The maximum amount of ammonia (3.70 µg/ml) was excreted by isolate WF3. The isolate WF6 was found to be the best isolate in terms of the functional characteristics and tolerance to high CO2 and temperature levels. Key words: Biochemical characterization, CO2 IAA production, Temperature gradient tunnel, Wheat 447 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-106 isoLAtion And ChArACterizAtion of CHlOrellA sP. for BiofueL ProduCtion Jyoti rai, 1 s. K. gosal1, and sucheta sharma 2 Department of Microbiology1 and Department of Biochemistry2, PAU, Ludhiana – 141004 *E-mail: jyotirai2oct@gmail.com Abstract Escalating fuel prices, quest for economic growth, and growing demand for petroleum products have spurred interest in the search of alternative sources of oil from algae. In the present study, algal strains were isolated from stagnant water samples. Based on morphological characteristics, these isolates were tentatively identified as belonging to the genera of Chlorella. The isolate JA6 had highest growth rate after 15 days of incubation. Increase in pH of the medium was recorded with the growth of algal isolates. The highest pH (10.3) was recorded in the isolate JA6 which was significantly higher than control (7.0). The supplementation of urea to growth medium did not result in much increase in pH. All the isolates, were screened for their lipid content and the highest lipid content (5.60 %) was recorded in the isolate JA3. The addition of glucose (10 g/l) to the growth medium resulted in increase in lipid content of the isolate JA3 from 5.60% to 7.52%. The isolate JA3 showed the highest saponification (169.69 mg/g of oil) and acid value (4.75mg/g of oil). The fatty acid composition of three algal isolates JA3, JA4 and JA7 was determined using gas liquid chromatography. The isolate JA3 contained highest proportion of stearic acid (41.60) followed by pentadecanoic acid (38.32) and oleic acid (19.01).Isolate JA4 and JA7 contained saturated fatty acids only. Hence, the isolate JA3 may be considered to be the best among the algal isolates. However, this lipid content is too low to use this isolate for biofuel production Key words : Algae, Acid value, Fatty Acid, Lipid content, Morphological characterization Cp-107 mAnAging PAddy soiLs to imProve zn BioAvAiLABiLity And AgronomiC PerformAnCe of fine grAin AromAtiC riCe hafeez ur rehman1*, faiz rasool1, shahzad m A Basra1 and Abdul Wakeel2 Crop physiology, Department of crop physiology, university of agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 2 Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,38040, Pakistan, Pakistan E-mail *hafeezcp@gmail.com 1 Abstract Growing rice under water saving cultivation have great implication for Zn bioavailability due to changes in soil moisture and physico-chemical properties. Zn application has large impact on its soil availability, plant uptake and grain loading (Rehman et al., 2012). Recent studies indicate that when paddy soils are provided with temporary drainage during critical growth stages of rice it may affect the plant Zn availability (Beebout et al., 2013, Rehman et al., 2012). Beebout et al. (2009) reported that moderately aerobic conditions due to increase in redox potential maintained througout rice growing period can result in increased Zn uptake and grain accumulation. We also hypothesized that Zn applied at transplanting may improve nursery seedling growth in different rice systems and result in high grain Zn if temporary drainage period is provided during later growth stages. Rice nursery seedlings (22 days old) of cv. Super Basmati were transplanted in continous puddle field with split plot arrangement in randomized complete block design. Zinc (Zn using 15 kg ha-1, ZnSO4 33%) was applied within each subplot and no Zn plots were taken as control. Rice systems studied were transplanting in system of rice intensification (SRI), aerobic condition (AR) and alternate wetting and drying (AWD) in comparison to continuous flooding (CF) as control. Soil was of silt loam with 0.85 mg kg-1 DTPA extrcatbale Zn, pH 6.99, ECe 2.64 dSm-1, 4.49 mmolc L-1 HCO31 . After soil analysis, 143 kg N, 88 kg P and 68 kg ha-1 of K were added. Measurements for nursery seedling growth, 448 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” soil and plant Zn at seedling and physiological maturity, agronomic and yield traits, spikelet sterility and grain Zn were determined. Plant, soil and grain Zn were analyzed through atomic absorption spectrophotometer using wet digestion method and DTPA extractable method. Among production systems, Zn application improved plant height with maximum seedling fresh and dry weights, number of leaf and roots, tillers per plant, chl “a” and “b” contents in conventional flooding followed by alternate we. This improved seedling performance was followed by system of rice intensification. Improved seedling performance was correlated with high soil Zn availability under flooded condition. Likely at physiological maturity, maximum panicle length, number of panicles, zinc contents in leaves, roots, stem and grain were attained in conventional system by zinc application. This was followed by alternate wetting and drying at this stage due to water deficit prevailed in system of rice intensification. Paddy harvesting showed that maximum biological, kernel and straw yield was obtained by Zn application in conventional flooding system, spikelet sterility was reduced by Zn application while days to maturity were decreased to some extent. This was followed by alternate wetting and drying. Performance of aerobic rice at all stages of investigation while of system of rice intensification at physiological maturity and harvesting was poor. Soil analysis at different stages revealed that at initial stages maximum DTPA-Extractable zinc was present in conventional flooding where Zn was applied while at physiological maturity AWD gave higher soil Zn contents followed by CF and at harvesting system of rice intensification was having more Zn in soil than all other systems with similar results. High soil Zn availability and plant uptake during grain filling stages might be contributed to increased soil redox potential under aerobic conditions after soil drainage period. Thus for high soil Zn availability, plant uptake for grain Zn and improved yield performance, soil management should be integrated with water management during critical growth stages. Keywords: water shortage, redox potential, soil fertility, flooded rice, Zn application Cp-108 mAnAging PAddy soiLs to imProve zn BioAvAiLABiLity And AgronomiC PerformAnCe of fine grAin AromAtiC riCe Hafeez Ur Rehman1*, Faiz Rasool1, Shahzad M A Basra1 and Abdul Wakeel2 1 Crop physiology, Department of crop physiology, university of agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan 2 Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,38040, Pakistan, Pakistan E-mail *hafeezcp@gmail.com Abstract Growing rice under water saving cultivation have great implication for Zn bioavailability due to changes in soil moisture and physico-chemical properties. Zn application has large impact on its soil availability, plant uptake and grain loading (Rehman et al., 2012). Recent studies indicate that when paddy soils are provided with temporary drainage during critical growth stages of rice it may affect the plant Zn availability (Beebout et al., 2013, Rehman et al., 2012). Beebout et al. (2009) reported that moderately aerobic conditions due to increase in redox potential maintained througout rice growing period can result in increased Zn uptake and grain accumulation. We also hypothesized that Zn applied at transplanting may improve nursery seedling growth in different rice systems and result in high grain Zn if temporary drainage period is provided during later growth stages. Rice nursery seedlings (22 days old) of cv. Super Basmati were transplanted in continous puddle field with split plot arrangement in randomized complete block design. Zinc (Zn using 15 kg ha-1, ZnSO4 33%) was applied within each subplot and no Zn plots were taken as control. Rice systems studied were transplanting in system of rice intensification (SRI), aerobic condition (AR) and alternate wetting and drying (AWD) in comparison to continuous flooding (CF) as control. Soil was of silt loam with 0.85 mg kg-1 DTPA extrcatbale Zn, pH 6.99, ECe 2.64 dSm-1, 4.49 mmolc L-1 HCO31 . After soil analysis, 143 kg N, 88 kg P and 68 kg ha-1 of K were added. Measurements for nursery seedling growth, soil and plant Zn at seedling and physiological maturity, agronomic and yield traits, spikelet sterility and grain Zn were determined. Plant, soil and grain Zn were analyzed through atomic absorption spectrophotometer using wet digestion method and DTPA extractable method. Among production systems, Zn application improved plant height with maximum seedling fresh and dry weights, number of leaf and roots, tillers per plant, chl “a” and “b” contents in conventional flooding followed by alternate we. This improved seedling performance was followed by system of rice intensification. Improved seedling performance was correlated with high soil Zn availability under flooded condition. Likely at physiological maturity, maximum panicle length, number of panicles, zinc contents in leaves, roots, stem and grain were attained in 449 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” conventional system by zinc application. This was followed by alternate wetting and drying at this stage due to water deficit prevailed in system of rice intensification. Paddy harvesting showed that maximum biological, kernel and straw yield was obtained by Zn application in conventional flooding system, spikelet sterility was reduced by Zn application while days to maturity were decreased to some extent. This was followed by alternate wetting and drying. Performance of aerobic rice at all stages of investigation while of system of rice intensification at physiological maturity and harvesting was poor. Soil analysis at different stages revealed that at initial stages maximum DTPA-Extractable zinc was present in conventional flooding where Zn was applied while at physiological maturity AWD gave higher soil Zn contents followed by CF and at harvesting system of rice intensification was having more Zn in soil than all other systems with similar results. High soil Zn availability and plant uptake during grain filling stages might be contributed to increased soil redox potential under aerobic conditions after soil drainage period. Thus for high soil Zn availability, plant uptake for grain Zn and improved yield performance, soil management should be integrated with water management during critical growth stages. Keywords: water shortage, redox potential, soil fertility, flooded rice, Zn application Cp-109 oPtimizing AgronomiC teChniQues for mAXimum eConomiC yieLd of sunfLoWer (HelIAntHus Annus L.) sukhpreet singh* and sK dhillon Oilseed Section, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana *E-mail: preetsukh44@pau.edu Abstract Sunflower (Helianthus annus L.) is an important oilseed crop cultivated for its premier oil and manifold uses of both industrial and pharmaceutical importance. Its wider adaptability, day neutral nature and responsiveness to better management practices have played a significant role in its cultivation across varied agro-climatic zones within a span of three decades of its introduction in the country. In Punjab, Sunflower is grown in the spring season. With the development of new short duration hybrids, there is a need for optimization of agronomic techniques for this crop. Keeping this in view, an experiment was conducted at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana in spring 2013 to evaluate response of Sunflower to application of organics, varying plant population and different level of fertilizers. The experiment was conducted in split plot design with three replications. Main plot treatments comprised two levels of organics (no organics and 5 t compost/ha) and subplot treatments were factorial combination of 3 plant population levels viz. recommended, 25% lower and 25% higher plant population and 3 fertilizer levels viz. recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF), 125% of RDF and 133% of RDF. The experiment was conducted on loamy sand soil with neutral pH, low in available N, high in available P and low in available K. The results revealed that application of compost resulted in significantly higher plant height over no compost but did not have any significant influence on stem girth, head diameter, leaf area index, hectolitre weight, number of seeds per head and 100-seed weight of sunflower Application of compost resulted in significantly higher seed yield of sunflower (2616 kg/ha) over no compost (2404 kg/ha). Oil content of sunflower seeds was not significantly influenced by application of compost. However, compost application recorded significantly higher oil yield (1005 kg/ha) over no compost (867 kg/ha). Maintaining recommended plant population resulted in significantly higher plant height, head diameter, 100-seed weight and yield per plant over lower and higher plant population. Recommended plant population gave significantly higher seed yield of sunflower (2749 kg/ha) over both lower plant population (2171 kg/ha) and higher plant population (2609 kg/ha). Though there was no significant influence of varying plant population on oil content yet oil yield was significantly higher in recommended plant population (1029 kg/ha) over lower and higher plant population. Among different fertilizer levels application of 133% RDF resulted in significantly higher plant height, stem girth, head diameter, seeds per head and yield per plant over RDF and 125% RDF. Seed yield of sunflower was significantly higher where 33% more NPK was applied (2665 kg/ha) over recommended NPK (2353 kg/ha) and 25% more NPK (2511). Varying fertilizer levels did not have any significant influence on oil content but oil yield was significantly higher where 133% NPK (1007 kg/ha) was applied over RDF (866 kg/ha) and 125% of RDF (935 kg/ha). Interaction effects of different main plot and sub-plot treatments were found to be non-significant for all the growth and yield parameters of sunflower. 450 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Cp-110 ProduCtivity And eConomiCs of turmeriC (CurCumA lOnGA L.) in resPonse to nitrogen APPLied through different sourCes integrAted With BiofertiLizer Consortium davinder singh, *rajender Kumar, Avtar singh, **s K gosal, s s Walia and roopinder singh Department of Agronomy, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana – 141004, Punjab Abstract A Field investigation was carried out to study the effects of nitrogen applied through organic (FYM) and inorganic and biofertilizer consortium (Azotobacter, phosphate solubilising bacteria and plant growth promoting rhziobacteria) on growth, yield attributes, yield and economics of turmeric during 2012-13 at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. The treatments were comprised of 75, 100 (25 t ha-1 FYM ~ 125 kg N ha-1) and 125 per cent of recommended N through organic and inorganic source of nitrogen alone and in combination with the biofertilizers and control. The treatments were evaluated in randomized complete block design with four replications on loamy sand soil with low in organic carbon, available nitrogen and medium in available phosphorus and potassium. Results revealed that application of organic manures (FYM) had beneficial effects on growth, yield attributes and yield of turmeric. Crop growth was better and yield of turmeric was significantly higher with application of organic manure (FYM). The maximum yield of 204.4 q ha-1 was obtained with application of 125 percent of recommended organic manure combined with the biofertilizers, which was statistically at par with 100 percent of recommended organic manure alone or in combination with the biofertilizers. The application of biofertilizers improved growth and yield of turmeric to some extent. The different levels of nitrogen applied through inorganic sources alone and along with biofertilizers did not show significant effect on growth and yield of turmeric. The cost benefit ratio was also higher under the treatments where organic manure alone or applied in combination with biofertilizers. Key words: Biofertilizers, FYM, inorganic nitrogen, turmeric, yield. Cp-111 resPonse of WheAt to different moisture regimes And moisture stress mAnAgement m. d. Patil, A. s. dhindwal and dheeraj. K. r. tiwari CCS Haryana Agricultural University Hisar Abstract Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the important food crop of world and is grown under different agro climatic conditions. In India it is the second most important food crop, cultivated extensively in North-Western and Central zones. A field experiment on “Response of wheat to different moisture regimes and moisture stress management” was conducted at Agronomy Research Farm, CCS Haryana Agricultural University Hisar during rabi seasons of 2010-11 and 2011-12. The experiment was laid out in split plot design with three replications. There were 24 treatment combinations consisting of four moisture regimes as main plots and six moisture stress management practices as subplots. Four moisture regimes are S1-CRI (irrigation at crown root initiation) + 100 mm CPE (cumulative pan evaporation), S2-CRI + 150 CPE, S3-CRI + 200 CPE. S4-CRI and six moisture stress management practices are M1: No moisture stress management practices, M2: Seed hardening (SH) by CaCl2, M3: SH + KCl spray at 90 DAS, M4: SH + Mycorrhizae application at sowing + KCl spray at 90 DAS, M5: SH + Mycorrhizae + KCl spray at 90 DAS + Kaolin spray at 115 DAS and M6: Pusa hydrogel (3 kg/ha) at sowing. The physiological parameters like relative water content, leaf water potential, chlorophyll content and canopy temperature depression, were found to be highest with irrigation at CRI + 100 mm CPE closely followed by CRI + 150 mm CPE, CRI + 200 CPE and lowest with irrigation at CRI only, during both the season. Similar trend was recorded in terms of grain, straw and biological yields and harvest index. Moisture stress management practices involving SH + mycorrhizae + KCl spray + kaolin spray had favorable and no management practices had unfavorable impact on the physiological 451 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” parameters like relative water content, leaf water potential, chlorophyll content and canopy temperature depression, and yield as well. Cp-112 stenOtrOpHOmOnAs mAltOpHIlIA: A PotentiAL PLAnt groWth Promoting nitrogen fiXing BACterium s. K. gosal, g. s. saroa1, yogesh vikal2 and Amita mehta* Department of Microbiology, Department of Soil Science1, and School of Agricultural Biotechnology2, PAU, Ludhiana-141004, India E mail: *amita_mehta27@yahoo.com ABstrACt Soil teems with diverse groups of microorganisms which are crucial to the functioning of terrestrial ecosystems. Bacterial diversity is the major driving force of fundamental metabolic processes in rhizosphere-dynamic environment; therefore a basic understanding of diversity of soil biota is required in order to preserve the integrity, function and long term sustainability of natural and managed terrestrial ecosystems. In the present study, a nitrogen fixing bacterium, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia was isolated from wheat based cropping system of Punjab, which is a gram negative, rod shaped bacterium. The physicochemical properties of the soil sample such as pH (7.9), EC (0.44 dSm-1), OC (0.13 %), ammonical (70 ppm) and nitrate nitrogen (120 ppm) were studied. The bacterial isolate was characterized culturally, morphologically and biochemically using standard techniques. The bacterium was screened for functional characteristics such as P-solubilization, IAA production, ammonia excretion and acetylene reduction assay. Molecular characterization of the bacterium was done using partial sequencing of 16S rDNA. Nitrogen fixing ability was determined using two primers as: Nif H1 and Nif H2. Plant growth promoting potential of the bacterium was assessed under glass house conditions using maize as host plant. Increased root - shoot biomass, root - shoot length, NPK and micronutrient content of the maize plants were observed with inoculation of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia as compared to uninoculated control plants. Key words: Functional characterisation, nif H, plant growth promotion, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, 16 rDNA 452 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-1 AgriCuLturAL eConomy of PunJAB: groWth to Crisis sukhpal singh, h s Kingra, sangeet and shruti Bhogal Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana Email: sukhpalpau@gmail.com, shrutibhogal@gmail.com Abstract The adoption of capital intensive technologies, following the green revolution model catapulted the state of Punjab to the status of ‘grain bowl of India’. The present study, based on secondary data, attempts to examine different aspects of agricultural sector with special emphasis on development and crisis related issues of the Punjab economy. Though the productivity of various crops has been increasing continuously overtime but due to various state policies more concentration is being laid on cultivation of a few crops, which is leading to change in the cropping pattern. The gross cropped area under maize, sugarcane, pulses and oilseeds is declining in favour of wheat and paddy which are remunerative and have assured marketing as facilitated by minimum support price by the government. The overall capital investment in the form of tubewells, tractors, use of fertilizers and chemicals, etc. has been rising to increase productivity. However, the agricultural sector of the state is witnessing a declining trend in share of employment and number of landholdings of small farmers. The number of small landholdings has declined from 3.96 lakh in 1980-81 to 2.68 lakh in 2005-06. Similarly, the percentage of cultivators and agricultural labourers to the total workforce has been declining since 1971, for capitalization and declining profitability. The current agricultural practices are posing a threat to the economic conditions of peasantry along with depletion of various natural resources especially water and soil. There is a need to develop alternative agricultural strategies for addressing the problems of Punjab agriculture. Dp-2 AgriCuLture deveLoPment in PunJAB: reCent PerformAnCes And ConCerns Kulwinder singh and naresh singla* *Assistant Professors, Centre for Economic Studies, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda Abstract Among Indian states, Punjab has been well known for its advanced agriculture and also called agricultural economy, contributing significantly in central foodgrain pool and thus having crucial role in national food security. In terms of per acre productivity it compares well even with advanced countries. Advanced agriculture without matching industrialisation is an imbalance in itself and has generated a number of problems and difficulties which are a reflection of a serious crisis. This sector is prone to multidimensional crisis in its various spheres not presently but also since the incidence of New Agricultural strategy led green revolution. In the point of view of emerging agrarian crises, this paper examines performance of Punjab’s agriculture sector and also explores some respective concerns. It is held that, in the context of structural change theory, declining share of agriculture sector in state income accompanied by raising prosperity among people is an important indicator of transforming a traditional economy into an advanced one. However this is quite evident in Punjab in terms of income and employment, but economic prosperity in the state in agriculture sector is witnessing an alarming situation. Inability to diversify the cropping pattern has created ecological imbalance and raised environmental concerns which further put question mark on the sustainability of agriculture. GSM based model of Second Green revolution if implemented in Punjab in near future without correcting prevailing imbalances/crises, will implicate Punjab economy by number of ways and would enhance the level of crises extensively and intensively. Keywords: Punjab Agriculture, Performances, Concerns. JEL Classification Code: Q10, Q18, Q56 453 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-3 groWth of AgriCuLture And environmentAL issues in PunJAB sukhjeet K. saran* and Arjinder Kaur** * Professor and **Associate Professor of Economics, Department of Economics and Sociology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Punjab- India141001 E-mail : saransukhjeet@gmail.com Abstract The sustainable growth has gained importance in the present context as many natural resources which were once regarded as free goods, have now become scarce on one hand and on the other, there is immediate need to prevent depletion/ degradation of these resources to make the sustainable growth feasible. Keeping in view the above mentioned facts, this secondary data based study was devised to highlight agricultural development and its adverse effect on resource sustainability and environment in the state. The population of Punjab has increased from 11.13 million in 1961 to about 28 million in 2010-11, resulting in growing pressure on land and environment. Punjab has achieved substantial increase in food grains production from 3.16 million tones in 1960-61 to 27.85 million tones in 2010-11. The gross cropped area has increased from 4.7 million hectares in 1960-61 to 7.9 million hectares in 2010-11. Increased cultivation involves increased use of implements, machinery, tractors, diesel engines, electric motors etc. The high productivity potential of rice and wheat crops have changed entire cropping pattern in Punjab. The state of Punjab with only 1.53 per cent of geographical area of the country became food bowl of the country. In 2010-11, the contribution of state has been 39 per cent in wheat and 26.7 per cent in rice to the central pool of the country. In the wake of new technologies adopted in state agriculture has put great stress on underground water reservoirs also. Due to high water intensity of prevailing crop rotation, along with decline in canal irrigation as well as rainfall trends has increased the area irrigated with tube wells. Huge investments have been undertaken by the farmers on irrigation structures to extract water from deeper layers of the soil. Excess and irrational use of water has caused water logging of 1.22 lakh hectares of land in Punjab. About 6.20 lakh hectares of land has been poor in fertility due to loss of nutrient with deep percolation and leaching. The rice-wheat system in Punjab, annually generate around 30 million tones of crop residues. 81 per cent of rice residue has been burnt in Punjab. Strong policy measures are required to turn the market forces in favour of other crops and taking some firm decisions to check the fragile ecological health of Punjab. Dp-4 nAtionAL food seCurity And sustAinABiLity of PunJAB AgriCuLture sangeet, Amarpreet Kaur and shruti Bhogal3 Deptt. of Economics & Sociology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana e mail : ranguwal@gmail.com Abstract Sustainable agriculture is crucial for ensuring food, nutrition and livelihood security of a nation. India has made rapid progress in food grain production during second half of the 20th century in which Punjab played a leading role. Punjab province occupies an important place in the agricultural economy of India. It accounts for about 19 per cent of wheat and 11 per cent of rice production. Punjab State is a major contributor towards the public distribution system by supplying about 25 per cent rice and about 34 per cent wheat to the central pool and hence is a significant player in the food security of the India. Secondary data was collected from a number of reference books, State Government publications especially Statistical Abstract of Punjab and published documents, Economic Survey of India and various statistical tools were used. The favourable policy interventions made the wheat-rice combination as the most profitable crop sequence with minimum yield and absolutely no price risk. As a result of substantial area shifts in favour of these two crops, the traditional diversity of cropping pattern was eroded. The three pillars of the agricultural revolution in Punjab - high-yield crop intensification, subsidised access to electricity for drawing water for irrigation and increased chemical fertiliser use - have culminated in 454 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” several negative ecological externalities. The increasing costs, declining profits, receding water availability, declining soil fertility etc. coupled with future uncertainties have brought about an economic, environmental and social distress. These need to be probed, measured and valued in order to ensure future agricultural sustainability and enable Punjab to maintain its position of being the food security provider to the nation. Dp-5 teChnoLogiCAL imPACts on AgriCuLture *Arundeep singh Brar, *sharanpreet singh Brar, *Amandeep singh Brar, *gurjiwan singh Brar (Dept. of Applied Management, Otago Polytechnic Auckland International Campus, New Zealand) 2, 3, 4(Dept. of Agriculture Sciences, Baba Farid Group of Institutions, Bathinda) E-mail : arunbrar733@gmail.com, sharanbrar82@ gmail.com, braramandeep92@gmail.com 1 Abstract The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Over one third of the world’s workers are employed in agriculture, second only to the services sector, although the percentages of agricultural workers in developed countries has decreased significantly over the past several centuries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts. Significant degradation of land and water resources, including the depletion of aquifers, has been observed in recent decades, and the effects of global warming on agriculture and of agriculture on global warming are still not fully understood. Technological improvements have sharply increased yields from cultivation, but at the same time have caused widespread ecological damage and negative human health effects. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Agricultural policy can also touch on food quality, ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population’s needs, and conservation. Key Words: Agriculture, Technological Improvements, Effects, Policies, etc. Dp-6 triggering AgriCuLturAL deveLoPment through hortiCuLture CroPs in PunJAB Parminder Kaur and Poonam Kataria Department of Economics & Sociology, PAU, Ludhiana E-mail : parminderkaur@pau.edu Abstract The issue of diversification is of a serious concern for Punjab, the state aptly named as ‘The Granary of India’. The mono cropping of rice and wheat has already taking its toll in terms of deteriorating soil health and depleting water resources. Horticulture is the emerging sector in agricultural diversification that has the potential to augment income of the farmers and generate employment opportunities in rural areas. The advantage of higher employment opportunities is expected to benefit small holders more as they possess more family labour. Apart from the employment generation at farm level in the cultivation of fruits and vegetables, substantial demand for labour is expected in non-farm agricultural sector, agri-business and agro-based industries since these crops warrant scientific pre and post –harvest handling. The area under fruits and vegetables as percent of gross cropped area (GCA) has picked up from 0.7 percent in 1980-81 to 3.3 percent in 201011, testifying that crop diversification towards horticultural crops is underway. The strength of fruits and vegetables as diversification option is accentuated by significantly high share enjoyed by these high value crops (HYCs) in the value of output originating in the agriculture sector. Since fruits and vegetables are perishable in nature, lack of efficient marketing system and appropriate infrastructure result in post harvest losses. Infrastructural facilities like storage and processing of fruits and vegetables will encourage the farmers to increase crop diversification towards high value- crops and will raise the farm income in the state. 455 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-7 ComPArAtive eConomiCs of PAddy CuLtivAtion By different methods of soWing gurpreet Kaur, Jasvinder singh, gurpreet singh and Amandeep Kaur, fAss, Patiala *Sodhigk@gmail.com Abstract The present study was undertaken with the objective to find out the most economical method of sowing in paddy. In Punjab paddy is the main crop and is grown on approximately 28 lakh hectare area. In the present study out of 22 districts of the state, 2 districts namely Patiala and Fatehgarh Sahib were selected randomly and by using probability proportion to size technique, a representative sample of 175 farmers were selected from both the district. The primary data pertaining to all the parameters of cost of cultivation was collected from the sample farmers by personal interview on specially designed questionnaire. Simple averages and percentages were used to draw some inferences from the study. The study revealed that in manual transplanting total variable cost comes out to be Rs. 21031 while it is Rs. 15767 in DSR and Rs. 19748 in mechanical transplanting. The gross return from the paddy crop is Rs. 40760 in manual transplanting, Rs. 40120 in DSR and Rs. 41400 in case of mechanical transplanting. DSR in turn provides a net return of Rs. 24353 where as manual transplanting yielded Rs. 19729 and Rs. 21652 in case of mechanical transplanting. The present study clearly indicate that DSR gave maximum return per acre over the other methods of sowing. Additionally there is 10-15% saving of irrigation water in DSR as compared to mechanical or manual transplanting. Dp-8 environmentAL sustAinABiLity AgriCuLturAL groWth And food seCurity. effeCt of PoLyAmines on seed QuALity PArAmeters of tWo seed Lots of rAdish (rApHAnus sAtIVus L.) Kirandeep Kaur and namarta gupta Department of Botany, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, Pb. Sunshine.kiran.shine@gmail.com, namjindal70@yahoo.co.in Abstract The present investigation was undertaken with the objectives to study the effect of polyamines (Spermidine and Spermine) on seed quality parameters of fresh and aged seeds of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) using 0.5 and 1.0 mM concentration of spermine and spermidine. The spermine and spermidine at 0.5 mM and 1.0 mM for 12 h and 24 h significantly increased the germination parameters in both fresh and aged seeds. Though all the seed treatments improved the germination percentage, but the effect was maximum with spermidine (1.0 mM). Among the biochemical parameters sugar and protein content was significantly increased in both seed lots with various seed treatments. Spermidine 1.0 mM (24 h) increased the sugar as well as protein content maximally as compared to other treatments. Similar increase in catalase and peroxidase enzyme activity was recorded in seeds treated with Spermidine 1.0 mM followed by Spermidine 0.5mM in fresh as well as aged seeds. 456 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-9 effeCt of steAming on PhysiCAL, PhytoChemiCAL And AntioXidAnt ProPerties of huLLed BArLey davinder Jeet Kaur*, hardeep singh gujral, Jessy mojha and hradesh rajput Department of Food Science & Technology, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar – 143005, Punjab E-mail: keshavtoor@yahoo.com Abstract The hulled barley variety BH-902 was analyzed for physical parameters i.e. moisture content, water absorption capacity (WAC), water solubility index (WSI), phytochemical properties i.e. total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), reducing power and antioxidant properties after giving the treatment of different steaming time (20 min & 60 min) with fix steeping period of 24 h. Moisture content of the control sample of barley flour was 9.82% which get decreased up to 6.19% with 20 min steaming. WAC of the control sample was 1.52 g/g of flour which get increased up to 3.2 g/g of flour with steaming of 60 min. WSI of the control sample was 7.03% which get decreased up to 5.11% with 60 min steaming. TPC of barley flour get increased with 60 min steaming up to 1971.79 µgm FAE ∕ gm of flour from control sample i.e. 1241.02 µgm FAE ∕ gm of flour. TFC of control sample was 106.24µgm CE ∕ gm of flour. Steaming of 60 min get increased the content to 93.9 µgm CE ∕ gm of flour. Reducing power of control sample was 61.83 µgm AAE/ gm of flour. Steaming of 20 min get increased the value to 64.97 µgm AAE ∕ gm of flour. Antioxidant activity for the control sample was 40.38%. Steaming of 60 min get increased the antioxidant activity up to 68.8%. Key Words: Barley, steaming, antioxidant, flavonoids, WAC Dp-10 stAndArdizAtion of sieve size for grAding WheAt (trItICum AestIVum) seeds s.s. Jakhar, Axay Bhuker and v.P. sangwan Department of Seed Science & Technology, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004 E-mail: satbirsinghjakhar@gmail.com Abstract Seeds may differ by size, weight and density due to production environment and cultivation practices. Generally, the seeds are being processed by cleaning and grading on the basis of sieve sizes. A considerable amount of quality seeds are being lost during cleaning and grading as undersize due to the use of unsuitable screens. The aim of seed grading is to get maximum seed recovery with better seed quality so that uniform seed size can be obtained which results in optimum plant population and higher yield. In order to minimize the loss and to meet the demand for good quality seeds for the farmers, the present study was carried out on four wheat varieties viz. PBW-343, WH-1025, HD-2967 and WH-283 were graded by using different sieves of 2.1 mm, 2.2 mm, 2.3 mm, 2.4 mm and 2.5 mm as a grading sieve while using 5.5 mm (r) as top sieve. The samples from seed retained over each sieve were collected separately and tested for seed quality parameters. The results revealed that sieve size of 2.2 mm was found effective and economical for grading wheat varieties viz. PBW343, WH-1025 and HD-2967 registered seed recovery 94.30, 92.43 and 90.80% respectively with germination (90,89 and 92%, respectively) and physical purity (98% each) above the IMSCS (Table 1.1). The sieve size of 2.4 mm was effective and economical for grading wheat variety WH-283 for better seed recovery (89.57%) with germination (95%) and physical purity (98%). Key words: Sieve size, grading, seed quality, wheat seed. 457 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-11 stAndArdizAtion of sieve size for grAding green grAm (VIGnA rADIAtA L.) seeds v.P. sangwan, Axay Bhuker and v.s. mor Department of Seed Science & Technology, CCS, Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004 Email: vpsangwan@hau.ernet.in Abstract Seeds may differ by size, weight and density due to production environment and cultivation practices. Generally, the seeds are being processed by cleaning and grading on the basis of sieve sizes. A considerable amount of quality seeds are being lost during cleaning and grading as undersize due to the use of unsuitable screens. The aim of seed grading is to get maximum seed recovery with better seed quality so that uniform seed size can be obtained which results in optimum plant population and higher yield. In order to minimise the loss and to meet the demand for good quality seeds for the farmers the present study was carried out on four green gram varieties viz. Basanti, Satya, SML-668 and MH-421 were graded by using different sieves of 2.4 mm, 2.5 mm, 2.75 mm, 3.00 mm and 3.25 mm as a grading sieve while using 5.5 mm(r) used as top sieve. The samples from seed retained over each sieve were collected separately and tested for seed quality parameters in the seed testing laboratory of the department. The results indicated that 2.4 mm sieve size was found effective and economical for grading Basanti, Satya and MH-421for maximum seed recovery (78.35, 79.34 and 80.18% respectively) with high seed quality i.e. germination (75, 75 and 76 % respectively) and physical purity (98% each) above the IMSCS (Table 1.2). The sieve size of 3.00 mm was found effective and economical for grading variety SML-668 with seed recovery (72.65%), germination (79%) and physical purity (98%). It is concluded from this investigation that sieve size must be standardized for individual variety for maximum seed recovery with best quality. Key words: Sieve size, grading, seed quality, mungbean Dp-12 studies on PhysiCoChemiCAL, PhytoChemiCAL PArAmeters And AntioXidAnt ACtivity of sPinACh JuiCe stored With ChemiCAL Additives gurpreet Kaur*, Poonam Aggarwal and Amarjeet Kaur Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University Email: gurpreet.pau.86@gmail.com Abstract Spinach is considered as a super food all over the world. It acts as a natural agent for purifying the blood and maintaining healthy cell activity, which may inhibit cancer. It plays an important role in neutralizing acids in the body, as its natural alkalinity lowers pH levels. It helps in prevention of diseases of the mouth like pyorrhea or gum inflammation and bleeding, and as a preventative measure against cavities. Spinach contains 13 different types of antioxidant compounds that prevent free radical damage of cells in the body. Therefore, this cool season and highly perishable vegetable can be made available for the consumers in off seasons also in the form of juice. The juice can be made shelf stable by using chemical additives and heat treatment. Hence, the aim of the experiment was to compare the effect of chemical additive namely Sodium benzoate, open vat sterilization and autoclaving on physicochemical and phytochemical parameters and antioxidant activity of Spinach juice. The storage was done for 6 months at room temperature and the analysis was conducted at the interval of one month. For the physicochemical parameters like TS, TSS and b values, very slight but non-significant change was observed. Color values (L & a), titratable acidity, Vitamin C, Total Phenols and Antioxidant activity changed significantly (p≤0.05). Considering all the parameters, samples treated with potassium metabisulfite (KMS) maintained the maximum nutrient stability. 458 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-13 fAtty ACid ProfiLe And sensory ChArACteristiCs of ChAPAttis As infLuenCed By fLAXseed yogita rana1, Alka sharma2 Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology, Longowal-148106, Punjab 2 Guru Jambeshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar -125001,Haryana 1 Abstract This study was carried to investigate the Fatty acid profile of chapattis as influenced by flaxseed. Microwave roasting reduced the cyanogenic glycosides content of flaxseed thus making it fit for human consumption. Microwave roasting achieved the highest level of HCN reduction in flaxseed. The partial defatting of flaxseed resulted in the improvement of chemical constituents of flaxseed meal. The flaxseed flours (partially defatted and full fat) supplemented wheat flour significantly improved the chemical composition (ash, crude fat, crude fiber and crude protein). The scores assigned to all the sensory parameters of chapattis affected significantly with the variation in levels of flaxseed supplementation in wheat flours. The scores for colour, overall acceptability, flavour and taste of chapattis decreased. The 15% defatted and 10% full fat flaxseed flours were found the maximum acceptable levels for replacement in chapattis. Dp-14 effeCt of honey on PAsting And thermAL ProPerties of BArLey stArCh gulzar Ahmad nayik1*, ishrat majid1, vikas nanda1 Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology, Longowal, Sangrur, Punjab, India 1 E-mailgulzarnaik@gmail.com 1 Abstract The effect of added honey (0 to 20%) was studied on pasting, thermal properties and extrusion cooking of barley starch. Barely starch showed increase in peak, final, breakdown and setback viscosity when levels of honey was increased from 0% to 10% while honey at concentration of 15% and 20% decreased all the pasting properties parameters. The difference in pasting properties behavior at different concentration of honey was attributed to honey amylase activity. Increasing the concentration of honey did not affect the gelatinization characteristics of starch. The indifference of starch gelatinization to varying honey concentration was attributed to the opposing effect of sugars and water on gelatinization. The increase in honey levels resulted in extrudate with increased bulk density, colour a* value and decreased lateral expansion, hardness colour L* value and b* value. Keywords: Extrusion cooking, barley, honey, gelatinization. Dp-15 effeCt of unstABiLized geL on the PhysiCoChemiCAL ProPerties of hot fiLLed And ChemiCALLy Preserved AlOe VerA JuiCe desh Bharti, Pushpinder singh ranote and Arashdeep singh* Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004 E-Mail : arash.pau@gmail.com Abstract Aloe vera is a succulent plant, mainly found in arid region. Due to its various medicinal properties with nutrient contents, it has been targeted to be used in various products ranging from cosmetic to nutrient supplement. Present investigation was 459 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” carried out to study the effect of unstabilized aloe vera gel on the physicochemical constituents of hot filled and chemically preserved aloe vera juice. Aloe gel prepared by traditional hand filleting method was kept unstabalized and processed into juice and was hot filled and chemically preserved and filled into pre sterilized bottles. Sodium benzoate and pottasium metabisulphite was added @ 100 ppm in Juice extracted from unstabalized Aloe vera gel prior to filling. Two different juices t1h (Unstabalized and hot filled), t1C (Unstabalized and chemically preserved), along with control were prepared and accessed for total solids, acidity, pH, TSS, total sugars, reducing sugars, crude proteins, phenols, ascorbic acid and sensory attributes. Hot filled juice was found to have high, TSS, moisture, reducing sugars, total sugars, crude proteins and low total solids, acidity, pH, ascorbic acid and phenols as compared to chemically preserved filled juice. Highest overall acceptability scores were awarded to t1C (unstabilized and chemically preserved) juice and liked most by the panellists as compared to other juice samples. Keywords: Aloe vera, unstabilized gel, hot filled and chemically preserved juice, physicochemical characteristics, sensory quality Dp-16 infLuenCe of suLfur And nitrogen AvAiLABiLity on storAge Protein ACCumuLAtion At different groWth stAges in mungBeAn [VIGnA rADIAtA (L.) WiLCzeK] Arvind Kumar, sucheta sharma, J s sital and sarvjeet singh* Department of Biochemistry, *Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004 E-mail: arvind_31d@pau.edu Abstract In the present investigation, accumulation of various protein fractions at different stages of development in mungbean seeds of varieties PAU 911 and ML 818 harvested from plants grown under different treatments of sulfur (gypsum, single super phosphate) and nitrogen (urea, ammonium nitrate) either alone or in combination (urea + single super phosphate and gypsum + ammonium nitrate) was studied. The contents of protein fractions viz. albumin, globulin, glutelin, prolamin and subfractions of globulin (legumin and vicilin) increased under the effect of various treatments from 4 to 24 days after flowering (DAF) with maximum accumulation at 20 DAF as compared to control (T1, without any sulfur and nitrogen source). Increased incorporation of radiolabelled leucine into albumin and globulin fractions of storage proteins in both the varieties was observed under the effect of different sources of sulfur and nitrogen. Maximum incorporation of C14 labelled leucine in storage protein was observed at 16 DAF (i.e. active stage of protein deposition in mungbean) and treatment with gypsum showed the highest incorporation of C14 labelled leucine in these protein fractions. Dp-17 infLuenCe of suLPhur on Protein QuALity of soyBeAn [GLYCINE MAX (L.) merriLL] seed under AgroCLimAtiC Conditions of PunJAB gurpreet Kaur, sucheta sharma and B s gill* Department of Biochemistry, *Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004 E-mail: gurpreet_pau25@yahoo.com Abstract Soybean protein is one of the important vegetable protein source for human and livestock, contributing to the nutritional value of foods and feeds. Accumulation pattern of various protein fractions in soybean seeds (cv. SL 525) harvested at different stages of development from plants grown under different treatments of sulphur i.e. gypsum and single super phosphate (SSP) @ 10, 20 and 30 kg S ha-1 were investigated. The contents of various protein fractions viz. albumin, globulin and glutelin increased under the effect of various treatments from 30 DAP to maturity with maximum accumulation 460 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” during mid-maturation stage i.e. 45 to 60 DAP. Sulphur fertilization significantly affected the accumulation of globulin subfractions viz glycinin and β-conglycinin. Both acidic and basic polypeptides of glycinins increased with sulphur treatments at all growth stages with maximum accumulation with gypsum @ 10 kg S ha-1as revealed by densitometric analysis of electrophoretic gels. Thus, sulphur nutrition specifically influenced the accumulation of sulphur rich proteins relative to sulphur poor proteins of soybean. The increase in 11S/7S ratio in mature seeds due to various levels of sulphur fertilization as compared to control indicated improvement of soybean seed quality. Dp-18 ProCessing And nutritionAL QuALity evALuAtion of sAnd PeAr (pyrus pyrIFOlIA) BAsed rts BeverAge shilpa sharma*, ranjana verma, rajni modgil and y.s. dhaliwal Department of Food Science, Nutrition and Technology CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur- 176 062 (HP) *Email: shilpa.410.sharma@gmail.com Abstract Sand pear is the important pome fruit, commonly called Patharnakh and belongs to family Rosaceae. The fruit of sand pear is firm, juicy and has high water content. It is highly nutritious and contains various nutrients. A major portion of this crop is utilized as raw and also in the production of juice, wine making, canning, drying and cooking in some countries. Hence, attempts were made to standardize the methodology for preparation of ready to serve (RTS) beverage from sand pear. RTS is a fruit beverage which contains at least 10 per cent total soluble solids besides about 0.3 per cent acid. The prepared product was stored for 6 months of storage at ambient conditions. With storage, various parameters such as acidity, reducing sugars and total sugars increased. The ascorbic acid content of freshly prepared RTS was recorded as 1.52 mg/100ml which declined to 0.75 mg/100ml after six months. With storage, there was a significant decreased in TSS, pH, brix/ acd ratio and non-reducing sugars content after six months. Formulation of sand pear as RTS will provide an alternate utilization of sand pear and add to the wide spectrum of processed products at household as well as commercial level. Key words: Sand pear, Nutritional quality, Value addition, Storage stability. Dp-19 oPtimizAtion of CmCAse ProduCtion from t. reeseI Pawanjot Kaur* and seema Ahuja Department of Agriculture, BFC, Deon(Bti.) Abstract The present study had been attempted to use agro industrial wastes as raw material (as various pure forms of cellulose such as Avicel, Solka floc and cotton are expensive and had been used for large scale production of cellulases) for production of endoglucanases by T. reesei. and observing activity. The experiment comprised of two different growing media of T. reesei viz. Medium no. 65 (Malt Extract Agar) and Mineral salt solution for SSF. The nature of solid substrate is the most important factor which affect enzyme production in SSF. Four different solid agro industrial wastes were used as substrates viz. Wheat Bran, Rice husk, Rice Bran and Bagasse. The maximum endoglucanase activity was observed when rice husk was used as the substrate. Rice husk was observed to be the best substrate for CMCase production. Effect of different incubation temperature and pH was also studied and endoglucanasec activity assayed. Effect of pretreatment of substrate was also studied to optimize CMcase activity. 461 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-20 gLuten free foods navjot Kaur*, Baljit singh and savita sharma Department of Food Science and Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. Abstract Foods are not only intended to satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients for humans but also to prevent nutrient related diseases and improve the physical and mental well-being of consumer. Due to increasing control over nutrition and health, consumers are becoming more proactive towards their health. Gluten is a protein complex found in Triticale family of grains has been reported to cause allergic reactions in people suffering from celiac disease. The celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder of small intestine. Gliadin fraction of protein, causes an inflammatory reaction leads to villous atrophy and interferes with the absorption of nutrients. The only treatment in celiac disease is a lifelong avoidance of wheat, barley and rye (WBR) in the daily nutrition. According to the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the Joint Food and Agricultural Organisation and the World Health Organisation of the United Nations, 100 ppm gliadin (10 mg gliadin/100 g dry weight) is the maximum allowed in food labelled as ‹gluten-free›. Gluten free foods are thus the foods that does not contains an ingredient from any species of wheat, barley, rye and crossbred of these grains (prohibited grains). The hydrolysis of gluten protein release longer peptides, which causes damage to hair like projections of small intestine and inte rferes with the ability to absorb basic nutrients caused by auto-immune response. Various gluten free products available in the market include gluten free breads, gluten free biscuits, gluten free atta, gluten free pasta, gluten free pan cakes and gluten free noodles. Keywords: Gluten, wheat, celiac disease and nutrition and health Dp-21 Poster eConomiCALLy viABLe APProAChes for AdvAnCement in AgriCuLture dehdrAtion of Beetroot in fLuidized Bed dryer 1 yashwant Kumar, 2m A Khan, 1soumitra tiwari, 1rewa Kumari and 1g d sharma Department of Food Processing and Technology, Bilaspur University, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India 2 Deptt. of PHET, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India E-mail : yashwant.patel2009@gmail.com 1 Abstract The experiments were conducted to study the fluidized bed drying system, during beetroots (Beta vulgaris L.) drying. All experiments were performed at the Department of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India. The setup was provisioned for air heating and air velocity control system. A drying chamber of circular cross section fabricated from Perspex pipe was prepared. A perforated Perspex plate, having an open area of about 50 % of the base plate, was fitted in the bottom of drying chamber. This was used to accommodate the food material to be dried. The air velocity and the temperature distributions across the container were found to be uniform. Inlet air temperatures selected were 60 °C, 67.50 °C & 75 °C and inlet air velocities were 9 m/s, 10.50 m/s & 12 m/s. Henderson & Pabis and Page’s model of dried beetroots were analyzed by using Sigma-plot. Page’s model showed a good fit to experimental data with high value of R² ranging from 0.9986 to 0.9998. Key-words: Fluidized bed drying, drying, beetroot, beta vulgaris and dehydration. 462 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-22 ComPArAtive study of PhysiCAL ProPerties of AmBient And Cryoground CoriAnder PoWder sakshi1, s. Balasubramanian2, B. s. Khatkar3 Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering & Technology, Longowal-148106, Punjab 2 Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering- Regional Centre, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu- 641 003, India 3 Guru Jambeshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar -125001,Haryana 1 Abstract The present study was carried out to measure the physical properties viz. bulk density, true density, porosity and color value of ambient and cryoground coriander powder. The effects of grinding temperature (ambient and cryoground) on the properties of both varieties RCR-41 and ACR-1 were studied individually. Bulk density and true density were found to be higher for cryoground coriander powder of both the varieties, however, porosity was found to be higher for coriander powder ground at ambient condition. Higher L, a, b color values were observed for cryoground coriander powder. Statistical analysis showed that physical properties viz. bulk density, true density, porosity and color value of ambient and cryoground coriander powder varied significantly at 1% level of significance. Dp-23 deveLoPment of the teChnoLogy for the ProduCtion of dried onion sLiCes With imProve QuALity Poonam Aggarwal, hradesh rajput*, Amarjeet Kaur and davinder jeet Kaur Dept of Food Science & Technology, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, Punjab Email : hrdesh802@gmail.com Abstract Punjab white variety was used for the production of dried onion slices. Onion slices were dried using different drying methods, Mechanical drying (at 50 ± 5oC for 6-8 hrs), Solar drying (at 40 – 45oC for 2 days), Fan drying (at room temperature for 5 days) and Freeze drying (at -30oC for 68- 72 hours).The dried onion slices were analyzed and compared for their quality attributes such as moisture content, titratable acidity, total and reducing sugars, color values, ascorbic acid, total phenols and antioxidant activity. Among the various drying techniques tested, freeze drying gave best quality of onion slices. Freeze drying was found to be the best as the moisture content was minimum (7.03%) after freeze drying along with highest retention of acidity (3.19%), total sugars (42.87%) and reducing sugars (24.56%). The freeze dried sample was the lightest, as evident by highest L value (85.99), among the samples dried by different techniques. The phytochemicals (ascorbic acid and total phenols 25.29 mg /100gm and 11.17%) and antioxidant activity (3820.32% activity /100 gm of sample) were also found to be highest in freeze dried samples. Key Words: Onion, slices, drying and phytochemicals. 463 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-24 A ComPArAtive AnALysis of ChiCKPeA And green PeA BAsed on ChemiCAL ComPosition, funCtionAL ProPerties And PAsting ProPerties sajad Ahmad Wani*, Amir gull, Pradyuman Kumar Sant Longowal Institute of Engineering and Technology, Longowal 148106 (India) *E-mail : sajadsliet@gmail.com Abstract The objective of this work was to investigate the proximate composition, pasting properties and some selected functional properties of flour from legumes such as chickpea and dried green pea. The proximate analysis showed that there is no significant difference in chickpea flour and dried green pea flour composition, except that of crude fat and fiber. The crude fat of chickpea flour shows a significant (p < 0.05) increase from that of dried green pea flour and crude fiber of dried green pea flour shows significant (p < 0.05) increase than chickpea. The result of functional properties showed a non significant difference of both the selected legumes. Pasting properties of both the flour of legumes were significantly different (P < 0.05). Chickpea flour had a lower pasting temperatures and the peak, final, and setback viscosities than dried green pea flour. These characteristics seem to be related to the increased fat content of chickpea flour than green pea flour. Key Words: chickpea, green pea, proximate, functional and pasting. Dp-25 fenugreeK LeAf PoWder: An APProACh to deveLoP nutrACeutiCAL riCh sheLf stABLe BiomAteriAL Ankita and K. Prasad* Department of Food Engineering and Technology, S. L. I. E. T., Longowal - 148106 * Email: dr_k_prasad@rediffmail.com Abstract Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum) is an important green leafy vegetable. Seeds as well as leaves of fenugreek are used as one of the major ingredients in Indian cousin due to is nutritional, therapeutic and pharmaceutical properties. The fenugreek leaves were made shelf stable using the process of dehydration in a cabinet drier maintained at different isothermal temperature in the range of 50 - 800C with an interval of 100C. Effect of pre treatment, dehydration temperature and fractionation of developed dehydrated leaf powder was assessed. The characteristics of dehydrated powder show that the developed powder could find its use in several foods preparations. Addition of fenugreek powder will not only enrich the characteristics of food but also help to incorporate the functionality aspects and the food becomes also suitable for the persons suffering from disorders like diabetes. Physico-chemical and optical parameters as affected by the pre treatments, dehydration temperature and powdered fractions were reported for Trigonella foenumgraecum powder. The dehydration process was found temperature dependent and increase in air temperature reduced the drying time for the fenugreek leaves up till 700C without affecting the major quality characteristics of final powder to be used as functional ingredient in various aspects in the food. The approach may help the farmers to adopt the process in order to prevent the post harvest wastage and improve their economic status through the production and marketing of this valuable shelf stable biomaterial. Keywords: Fenugreek, Trigonella, dehydration, medicinal uses, functional properties 464 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-26 fortifiCAtion And fermentAtion of grAPe JuiCe With ProBiotiC lACtOBACIllI gurleen Kaur1*, dr. ravinder nagpal2, ms. seema Ahuja Shaheed Udham Singh College of Research & Technology, Tangori 140 306, Mohali, Punjab, India. Abstract Probiotics are live microbial feed supplements that have beneficial effects on the host by improving its intestinal microbial balance. In present study, an attempt was made to prospect the fortification and fermentation of grape juice with probiotic Lactobacilli. All the three cultures i.e. L. acidophilus, L. plantarum and L. casei survived at pH 5.5 as well at pH 4.5 for upto 3 hr, while L. plantarum and L. casei survived for 2 hr only. Only L. acidophilus was able to tolerate pH 2.5 for upto 1 hr. The initial sugar content of grape juice was 197.2mg/dl, which was reduced to 175, 179 and 184mg/dl by L. acidophilus, L. plantarum and L. casei, respectively, after 72 hr incubation. It was observed that after 72 hr incubation, the original pH 4.7 was reduced upto 3.5, 3.9 and 4.1 by L. acidophilus, L. plantarum and L. casei. Isolates L. acidophilus, L. plantarum and L. casei, were able to increase acidity from 0.38% at 0 hr to 0.58%, 0.53% and 0.45%, respectively, after 72 hr incubation. The initial cell count in juice sample was 2.40×107, 2.41×107 and 2.47×107 cfu/ ml and after 72 hr of incubation, it was increased upto 2.89×107, 2.84×107 and 2.80×107 cfu/ml for L. acidophilus, L. plantarum and L. casei respectively. During refrigerated storage of upto 30 days, the viable counts of L. acidophilus decreased from 2.89×107 to 2×107 cfu/ml , L. plantarum counts decreased from 2.84×107 to 1×107 cfu/ml and L. casei counts decreased from 2.8×107 to 0.9×107 cfu/ml. Supplementation of juice with inulin decreased the generation time from 53 min. to 50 min. in case of L. acidophilus, 54 min. to 50 min. for L. plantarum and for L. casei it was found to be decreased from 55 min. to 50 min. In present study, it can be advocated that fruit juices could be exploited as a carrier for the fermentation of probiotic lactic acid bacteria, and is beneficial for human health. Dp-27 imPACt of dAiry industry LeveL CorruPtion on the food seCurity of househoLds in indiA subrat Kumar dash*1, Piyusha Bhainsare2 Ph.D. Scholar (Veterinary Biochemistry),Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, College of Veterinary Science,Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University (GADVASU), Ludhiana- 141 004 (Punjab), India. 2 M.V.Sc. Scholar(Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine), Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Science,Chhattisgarh KamdhenuVishwaVidyalaya (CGKV), Durg (Chhattisgarh), India *Presenting author: e. mail: dsubrat@ymail.com Co-author: e. mail: drpiyusha2012@gmail.com 1 Abstract Effect of corruption at dairy farm level on the food security of households in India was investigated in the present study. A survey was conducted to collect the data from 256 dairy farmers and 32 dairy industries in selected states of India. Econometric results suggested that calorie consumption of households was adversely affected by the corruption level. Impact of corruption was higher for low expenditure households relative to high expenditure households. High expenditure households exhibit more flexibility in terms of adjusting their budgets thus, able to cover the cost of corruption without compensating their dairy food consumption. However, due to limited flexibility among low expenditure households, they are forced to compromise on their dairy food budget. Our study suggests that better education of dairy farmers, proper management of dairy industries, product development and human resources positively contribute to the nation’s food security and thus affects the consumption rate of households. 465 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-28 deteCtion of heAvy metALs in vegetABLes on AtomiC ABsorPtion sPeCtroPhotometer (AAs) rubaljot Kooner* and W s dhillon Punjab Horticultural Postharvest Technology Centre, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141 004 *Email: rubalkooner05@gmail.com Abstract Food safety is a major concern worldwide. Accumulation of heavy metals is a potential risk to living systems due to their uptake by plants and subsequent introduction into the food chain. We should have some standardized method to calculate the concentrations of these heavy metals in our food stuffs. Vegetables are an integral part of our diet. There are several reports revealing contamination of vegetables with heavy metals. The present study was planned to standardize methodology for estimation of heavy metals like Hg, Cd, Cr, Ar, Pb in locally available vegetables by atomic absorption spectrometry. The sample was prepared in microwave digestion system (MDS 3000). For this, the vegetables collected from different sites of Ludhiana city, Punjab, were blended and then digested with nitric acid in MDS. The digestion process renders the sample colourless and carbon free. The concentration of heavy metals in the digested samples was estimated by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS-800). The AAS consist of a light source, a sample compartment and a detector. Light from a source is directed through the sample to a detector. The source of light is a lamp whose cathode is composed of the element being measured. Each element requires a different lamp. The quantitative analysis can be achieved by measuring the absorbance of a series of solutions of known concentration. A calibration curve and the equation for the line can be used to determine unknown concentration based on its absorbance. This study helps to generate data on heavy metal pollution in and around Ludhiana city, Punjab and the associated risk assessment for consumer’s exposure to heavy metals. Key words: Vegetables, Pollution, Digestion, Heavy metals, Atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Dp-29 eConomiC And remediAL uses of mediCinAL PLAnts harpal singh, Bhupender dutt* Wineet Chawla and Jagsir singh Department of Agriculture, BFGI, Deon, Bathinda- Punjab *Department of Forest Products, Dr YS Parmar UHF, Nauni Solan (HP) E-mail : hari85@ymail.com Abstract Medicinal plants constitute a very important bioresource in India because it has one of the richest plant based ethnomedical traditions in the world. The global market for medicinal plants and herbal medicines is estimated to be worth US $80 billion a year. Use of botanicals especially medicinal plants as therapeutic agents has a very old history and according to World Health Organization, about 80% of the human populations use these. International export trade in medicinal plants from India is 32600 tonns a year. The demand for medicinal plants has increased globally due to the resurgence of interest in herbal medicine standardized plant extract, culinary herbs natural therapeutic essential oil and phytopharmaceuticals. Most of the demand is being met through collection of large quantities of these plant species and their parts from wild populations. The pharmaceutical industries procure raw materials of valuable species from its natural habitats and as a result existing their populations are diminishing day by day. To bridge the gap the National Medicinal Plant Board, Government of India, New Delhi, has enlisted 32 medicinal species prioritized for commercial cultivation in the country. Although extraction of valuable non - timber forest produce from forest is done without any prior authentication and permission but these methods of extraction employed are almost crude and unscientific. As a consequence, the rates of exploitation may exceed those of local natural regeneration. There is thus an urgent need to develop and implement regeneration/conservation strategies for over exploited medicinal plant species. Keywords: Medicinal plants, Herbs, Market, Demand 466 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” Dp-30 PerformAnCe of indiAn AgriCuLture And food seCurity in indiA *munish Kumar & **satinder singh Research Scholar (Ph.D), Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi E-mail: munishkashyap.dbn@gmail.com. Research Scholar (Mphil), Central University of Punajb, Bathinda E-mail : satinderbhangu88@gmail.com. Abstract Since independence agriculture is a critical sector of the Indian economy which more than 50% to the overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 1950 and more than 60% of population directly dependent on agriculture. But, now these days its share in total GDP declined to 30% in 1990-91 to less than 13% 2012-13, a trend that is expected in the development process of any economy, agriculture yet forms the backbone of development. Agriculture Production is a source of livelihood and food security for a vast majority of low income, poor and vulnerable sections of society. Thus, the good performance of this sector has greater significance in providing food to the vulnerable section. India is still having the largest number of poor and malnourished people in the world, a higher priority to agriculture will achieve the goals of reducing poverty and malnutrition as well as of inclusive growth. The overall growth of the GDP revealed that the growth rate is not pro poor growth rate and it is evident from the rate of poverty reduction was less during the post as compared to pre reform period. The Indian economy from last five year plan grow at average 8% and the target of agriculture growth rate is 4% this sector grow at very low rate 1.2%. Therefore, there is much scope for agriculture and allied activities to grow at significant rate which provide food security to the total population of the country. The declining share of agriculture to GDP and the continuing high pressure of population on agriculture is a major challenge to food security in India. To ensure food security there will be more focus on the storage capacity and also ensure the farmers security because large numbers of farmers committed suicide and quit the agriculture in many states of India. Although government of india and states has started lot of programme (Financial Inclusion, Subsidy on Agriculture Inputs and Pesticides) which secure the farmers from insecurity in agriculture. The more secure a farmer, the more is the agriculture production which ultimately ensures food security for all.1 The study will be based on the secondary data and data will be collected from various government and semi government agencies such as (Ministry of Agriculture, RBI, Indiastat.com, NSSO Etc.). The study will be also analysis the relationship between the agriculture growth rate and poverty and food inflation because food inflation seriously hit the food security of poor people. Dp-31 sAffron CuLtivAtion in KAshmir vALLey - myth And reALities Aabid m. rather, irshad A. nawchoo and Aijaz h ganie Economic Botany and Reproductive biology Research Laboratory University of Kashmir, Srinagar, India-190006 E-mail : abid.bot@gmail.com; irshadnawchoo@yahoo.co.in Abstract The state of Jammu and Kashmir is the place where Saffron (Crocus sativusL.) is predominately cultivated in India. In fact Kashmir is considered to be one of the three (Iran, Spain and India) largest cultivating places of Saffron all over the world. Now apart from Pampore, Saffron is cultivated in most parts of Budgam, some parts of the district Srinagar and Anantnag as well. The present study also revealed that Saffron can be cultivated in Apple (Malus domestica Borkh), Pear (Pyrus communis L.)and Almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch.) orchids as mixed crop and also under Populus (Populus alba L. ) and Walnut (Juglans regia L.) trees, Walnut is considered to be one of the strong allelopathic plant species which does not allow the other plant species to grow nearby but Saffron grows successfully under walnut trees. One of the interesting observations of present study was the highly asynchronous and temporally isolated vegetative and flowering/fruiting phases between Saffron and other fruit trees (Apple, Almond, Walnut etc.) which help the farmers to attend both these crops without 467 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” any problem and also both the plant species utilize the resources available without any competition because when Saffron attains its vegetative phase the other fruit trees are in dormant phase, and at the time of fruiting phases of Apples, Walnuts and Almonds, Saffron remains in quiescent phase. The prized plant species (Saffron) has been cultivated in plain, undulated lands, slopes and where not. The present investigation revealed that type of soil and intensity of light is not important for successful growth of this plant species. It has been observed during the present study that under shade the plants of Saffron flowers early and also yield is more as compared to open fields; the only problem is that age of corm is less under shade as compared open sunny conditions. After critical examination we found that quantitatively there is no difference in the yield of Saffron in Pampore and other parts of the valley. The saffron is also being cultivated in stony at Khrew area of Kashmir valley. Our study has shown that there is no special habitat for Saffron cultivation in Kashmir valley and in our opinion it would have been better if some areas of Baramulla e.g. Kreer Wuder from Sheikhpora to Kharpora , Poto-shahi area of Bandipora, Mutand karevas of Anantnag from Krangsoo to Kanganhal-Achabal and some areas of Marwaha- Kishtiwar has also been brought under Saffron cultivation. Saffron is characterized by cool and cold winters and grows well in the areas where there are winter chilling and warm dry summers. Therefore, keeping in view the present field experience we are of the opinion that Saffron cultivation might be possible in some parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand as well. Key words: Habitat specification; Mixed crop; shade; production Dp-32 QuinoA: A CLimAte resiLient grAin CroP for ChAnging CLimAte shahzad m.A. Basra, irfan Afzal, shahid iqbal and muhammd sohail saddiq Department of Crop physiology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad E-mail : sahu.shehdi@yahoo.com Abstract Humanity is facing one of the most important global environmental challenges in the form of “climate change” which drastically effected natural ecosystems food production, fresh water supply, heath etc. The harmful outcomes of climate change are extremes weather events like flood, drought, storms, frost, cyclones and soil salinization. Possible remedies for climate-proof cropping systems are to improve existing cropping by developing new technologies and use of new genetic material. Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), a pseudo cereal, is a new introduction in Pakistan. Crop is abiotic stress tolerant and low input requiring with grains of superior nutritional profile as compared to common cereals. Quinoa is originated from area of harsh climatic and poor soils of South America; the plant had adapted accordingly to cope with frequent frost, drought, hail and wind. Quinoa is facultative halophytic crop plant which can tolerate salinity level of sea (50 dS m-2). It is imperative to evaluate production potential of halophytic plants under changing climate to be cultivated in arid and semi-arid areas, where most of the crop plant unable to grow as soil salinization is increasing and fresh water resources are diminishing. Quinoa has been acclimatized under central and south Punjab conditions successfully and need to be tested under diverse agro-ecological zones of the country. Dp-33 moringA LeAf eXtrACt: A very effeCtive nAturAL CroP groWth enhAnCer shahzad maqsood Ahmed Basra, irfan Afzal and hafeez-ur-rehman Department of Crop Physiology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad E-mail: shehzadbasra@gmail.com Abstract Crop plants have to face more than one abiotic stress in their life cycle due to climate change. Development of tolerant varieties is a way to cope abiotic stresses. The performance of crop plants under such stresses can be enhanced by the exogenous application of growth promoting substances. Moringa oleifera L. is a rich natural source zeatin (a cytokinin), 468 International Conference on “Crop Productivity and Sustainability - Shaping the Future” ascorbate, phenolics and minerals like Ca, K, Fe etc. Its leaf extract makes it an excellent growth enhancer. This paper focuses the role of moringa leaf extract (MLE) as natural plant growth enhancer when applied exogenously as seed priming or foliar agent in cereals i.e. wheat, rice and maize and horticultural crops i.e. pea under normal and stressful environments. Dp-34 ProXimAte ComPosition And nutritionAL QuALity of different PArts of WiLdLy groWn CAppArIs spInOsA tehseen gull*, Bushra sultana, ijaz Ahmed, Amir Jamil Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan E-mail : chemistuaf@gmail.com Abstract The present research study was conducted to investigate the proximate analysis and mineral contents in different parts of Capparis spinosa i.e., stem bark, shoot, fruit, root and flower. The samples were collected from the Cholistan desert of Pakistan in different seasons i.e., April and September. It was observed that maximum crude protein, true protein and non-nitrogenous protein were present in fruits of C. spinosa in September followed by April. Moreover, the least neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber were also found in its fruits. Additionally, the flowers exhibited maximum ash contents in the present investigation in April. The fruits were also found rich in Ca, K, Na, Zn, Cu, Mn and Fe contents. Heavy metals like Ni, Cd and Co were found in trace amounts in all parts of C. spinosa especially in its edible parts i.e., fruits. The results of this investigation support the selection and harvesting of this species at an appropriate season to avail maximum nutritional benefits both human beings and livestock. 469